INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AS PREDICTORS OF INACCESS TO

EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR PERSONS WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT IN OGUN

STATE, NIGERIA
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

The society has always been a major influence to the growth and
development of an individual. The environment which is a subset of the
society has a great deal of influence to the achievement and sustainability
of both the regular persons and persons with disabilities. The International
Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) places importance
on the environment in explaining participation in different life domains,
including for work. This project explores the certain environmental factors
that hinders employment opportunities for persons with hearing
impairment.

Individuals with hearing impairment refers to persons who are not able to
hear as well as those with normal hearing(hearing thresholds of 20 dB or
better in both ears). Hearing loss may be mild, moderate, severe or
profound. It can affect one ear or both ears and leads to difficulty in
hearing conversational speech or loud sounds.

Those who are Hard of hearing refer to persons with hearing loss ranging
from mild to severe. People who are hard of hearing usually communicate
through spoken language and can benefit from hearing aids, cochlear
implants, and other assistive devices as well as captioning. Persons with
deafness mostly have profound hearing loss, which implies very little or no
hearing. They often use sign language for communication.
There are different kinds of deafness levels or degrees of hearing loss:

(i) Mild hearing loss is between 26-40decibels(Db)

(ii) Moderate hearing loss is between 41-55Db

(iii) Moderate to severe hearing loss is between 56-70Db

(iv) Severe to profound hearing loss is from 71Db and above.

Deafness is also categorised into congenital and sensorineural hearing

loss which can also be classified into prelingual and congenital deafness.

Employment on the other hand refers to a paid mutual work arrangement

between a recruiter and an employee. This term applies to an individual
who is hired for a salary or compensation to initiate work or tasks for an
organization. Opportunity on the other hand is a situation or condition
favorable for attainment of a goal.

When both terms are merged, Employment Opportunities refer to the

chances available for individuals to secure jobs in a specific field or
industry, considering factors such as job market conditions, required skills,
and career growth prospects. This research work however looks to discuss
the chances available for individuals with hearing impairment in securing
specific jobs all in their preferred preferred and also do an expositoty of
the environmental factors that hinders these opportunity for individuals
with hearing impairment.

The rate of unemployment among persons with disabilities are almost

double that of the general population, owing to attitudinal, mobility-related,
technological, and physical barriers (lack of accessible workplaces).
Assistive devices are expensive and not easily available, which limits the
mobility and access to technology for persons with disabilities. In addition,
many will experience frequent denial of job opportunities, employers’
negatives attitudes, inappropriate job placement, lower expectations at
work, and a lack of reasonable accommodation. Specifically, hearing loss
can limit earning potential and career advancement and have a notable
financial impact, statistically resulting in lower-income households.
Additionally, deaf people and those with hearing loss are overrepresented
in lower status, lower-paid occupations. These factors can lead to financial
stress for the affected individuals.

Some of the environmental factors with the highest impact on individuals

with hearing impairment and employment opportunities are the physical
environment, social environment/attitudinal factors, economic factors,
Legislative environment, and access to information.

Communication of persons with hearing impairment remains the greatest

barrier. When persons that are hard of hearing and deafness apply for job
placements or employment in a particular company, a pertinent problem is
the inability to communicate and be communicated to effectively. The
import of this communication problem is rarely duly appreciated by
prospective employer or interviewer. Thiis invariably jeopardize the
likelihood or the chances of those that are hard of hearing or deaf to secure
a job placement.

Many persons with hearing impairment don’t have jobs, many are stuck in
jobs that are unfulfilling and do not offer advancement possibilities or
lacked challenges and interest. They are stucked because they think it is
extremely unlikely that they will get hired for another job, regardless
of their qualification and experience. Those that are employed need
communication accommodation to function most effectively. It is
against this background that this study intends to investigate the likely
variables that are employed need communication accommodation to
function most effectively. It is against this that this study intends to
investigate and profer possible solutions to these effect.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The number of individuals with hearing impairment acquiring pertinent

skills and education are rising, but there are no corresponding
employment opportunities. Individuals with hearing impairments face
significant barriers in the workforce, which limit their employment
opportunities and career advancement. Despite advances in technology
and increased awareness of disability rights, people with hearing
impairments often encounter challenges such as inadequate workplace
accommodations, communication barriers with colleagues and supervisors,
and negative stereotypes or discrimination.

These obstacles not only impact their ability to secure and maintain
employment but also contribute to lower job satisfaction and reduced
professional growth. Addressing these barriers is crucial to fostering an
inclusive work environment and ensuring equal employment opportunities
for individuals with hearing impairments. The interest of this study is to
discuss some environmental factors that serve as a barrier to employment
opportunities of individuals with hearing impairment in Ogun State, Nigeria.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this study are as follows:

1. To investigate the environmental barriers that individuals with hearing

impairment face in the workforce.

2. To evaluate the impact of these environmental barriers on employment

opportunities and career development of persons with hearing impairment.

3. To examine employer perception in hindering or supporting the inclusion

of employees with hearing impairment.

4. Explore solutions and provide recommendations for improving

workplace accessibility for employees with hearing impairment.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the environmental factors that affects the employment

opportunities of persons with hearing impairment?

2. Do ladies with hearing impairment have access to more employment

opportunities than the men?
3. What solutions can be proferred to reduce unemployment of individuals
with hearing impairment?

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The global prevalence of disabling hearing loss is estimated to have

increased from 360 million to 466 million and in Nigeria from 7.3 million to
8.5 million in about a decade. The scope of this study is limited to the
barriers of employment to individuals with hearing loss and will take place
in Ogun State, Nigeria.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this research work is to identify specific environmental

barriers that can lead to actionable recommendations for making
workplaces more accessible, to provide valuable data to policymakers,
employers and also practices that promote equal employment
opportunities. This study also aims at raising awareness among employers
and the general public about the need for changes in workplace
environments and attitudes.

Furthermore, understanding these barriers helps in designing targeted

interventions, such as better communication tools, training programs, and
support services, which can improve job prospects and career
advancement for individuals with hearing impairments. It offers insights
into how environmental factors impact job opportunities and helps to guide
future research in this area.
1.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Environmental Factors: Specific conditions or elements in the

workplace or surrounding environment that could impact
employment opportunities, such as accessibility of physical spaces,
availability of assistive technologies, or presence of supportive
workplace policies and organizational practice.

 Predictors: Variables or conditions that are used to forecast or

explain the likelihood of a particular outcome. In this context,
predictors are the environmental factors that can be statistically be
analyzed to determine their relationship with employment
accessibility.

 Inaccess to Employment Opportunities: The degree to which

individuals with hearing impairments are unable to obtain or fully
engage in job opportunities due to barriers.

 Persons with Hearing Impairment: Individuals diagnosed with a

hearing loss significant enough to affect their ability to hear and
communicate, as determined through audiometric evaluations or self-
reports of hearing difficulties.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 PREAMBLE

Employment is a vital aspect of economic independence and social

integration for individuals, including those with disabilities. However,
individuals with hearing impairment often face unique challenges in
securing and maintaining employment due to environmental factors, which
can either hinder or promote equal employment opportunities. This
literature review examines how various environmental factors, such as
workplace accessibility, social attitudes, policy frameworks, and
technological advancements, influence employment opportunities for
individuals with hearing impairment.

1. Workplace Accessibility

The accessibility of the physical and communication environment in

workplaces significantly impacts the employment opportunities of
individuals with hearing impairments. Studies show that hearing-impaired
individuals are often excluded from employment due to the lack of inclusive
workplace infrastructure, including inadequate communication tools like
captioning, hearing aids, and sign language interpreters (Houtenville &
Kalargyrou, 2015).

Organizations that provide accessible work environments, including visual

alarms, flexible work arrangements, and assistive technologies, tend to
have higher employment rates for individuals with hearing impairments
(Schur et al., 2013). Thus, the provision of a more inclusive workspace
directly correlates with better job outcomes for this population.

2. Social Attitudes and Discrimination

Negative societal attitudes and discrimination are common barriers to

employment for individuals with hearing impairments. Employers often
harbor misconceptions about the capabilities of hearing-impaired workers,
believing they may require too many accommodations or be less
productive (Punch et al., 2007). These prejudices can result in fewer job
opportunities and higher rates of unemployment for the hearing-impaired
population.

3. Policy Frameworks and Legislation

Government policies and legal frameworks play a crucial role in promoting

or hindering the employment of individuals with hearing impairments. In
many countries, disability rights laws such as the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) in the United States or the Equality Act in the UK
mandate equal employment opportunities and reasonable
accommodations for individuals with disabilities (Harpur, 2012).

Despite these laws, the enforcement of such policies often falls short, and
employers may not always comply, particularly in small businesses or
developing countries (Waterhouse et al., 2010). Moreover, the lack of
awareness about such policies among both employers and employees can
further limit the impact of these legal protections.
4. Technological Advancements

Technology has significantly influenced the employment landscape for

individuals with hearing impairments. The rise of assistive technologies,
such as advanced hearing aids, cochlear implants, and communication
devices like speech-to-text software, has empowered hearing-impaired
individuals to perform more effectively in the workplace (Kushalnagar et al.,
2014).

2.1 Conceptual Review of Literature

A person who is not able to hear as well as someone with normal hearing –
hearing thresholds of 20 dB or better in both ears – is said to have hearing
loss. Hearing loss may be mild, moderate, severe or profound. It can affect
one ear or both ears and leads to difficulty in hearing conversational
speech or loud sounds.

Hard of hearing refers to people with hearing loss ranging from mild to
severe. People who are hard of hearing usually communicate through
spoken language and can benefit from hearing aids, cochlear implants, and
other assistive devices as well as captioning. Deaf people mostly have
profound hearing loss, which implies very little or no hearing. They often
use sign language for communication.

Employment opportunities for individuals with hearing impairments refers

to the availability of jobs and career paths that are accessible and suitable
for people who are deaf or hard of hearing. These opportunities often take
into account the specific needs and challenges faced by individuals with
hearing impairments and include roles where hearing is not a primary
requirement or where accommodations can be provided.

These opportunities may also include roles in environments that are more
accommodating to hearing impairments, such as workplaces that offer
assistive technology, use visual communication, or promote an inclusive
work culture. The focus is on providing equal access to employment for
individuals with hearing impairments, helping them to succeed
professionally despite communication barriers.

Environmental Factors on the other hand includes physical, social,

economic, and technological elements that can either enable or hinder
employment opportunities. Some examples are:

 Physical Accessibility: Availability of accommodations such as

hearing aids, sign language interpreters, or visual cues in workplaces.

 Social Attitudes and Perceptions: Society’s perception of individuals

with hearing impairment, which can lead to stigma, discrimination, or
marginalization.

 Economic Policies: Laws, regulations, and incentives that support

inclusive employment practices.

 Technological Advancements: Assistive technologies like captioning,

video relay services, or specialized software that facilitate
communication and job performance for those with hearing
 impairments.

"Environmental factors as a hindrance to employment opportunities for

individuals with hearing impairments" refers to external conditions or
aspects of the workplace that create barriers or difficulties for individuals
with hearing disabilities in obtaining, retaining, or thriving in a job. These
factors can limit their access to opportunities, affect their performance, or
hinder effective communication.

Common environmental factors include:

1. Lack of Accessible Communication: Workplaces may not provide

necessary accommodations such as sign language interpreters, captioning
services, or visual aids, making it difficult for individuals to understand
instructions, participate in meetings, or interact with colleagues.

2. Workplace Noise: Excessive background noise or reliance on auditory

cues can create challenges in certain jobs, particularly in environments that
lack visual alternatives for communication (e.g., alarm systems without
visual signals).

3. Inadequate Assistive Technology: The absence of devices or software

that assist with hearing, such as text telephones (TTY), video relay services,
or amplified phones, can hinder productivity and inclusion.

4. Stereotypes and Misconceptions: Employers or colleagues may assume

that individuals with hearing impairments are less capable, which can result
in discrimination, fewer job offers, or limited advancement opportunities.
5. Physical Layout of the Workplace: Open offices or spaces where
communication is predominantly verbal can make it challenging for
individuals with hearing impairments to participate fully in conversations or
collaborative tasks.

These environmental factors can act as obstacles, limiting the full inclusion
of individuals with hearing impairments in the workforce unless appropriate
accommodations or modifications are made.

2.2 Theoretical Review of Literature

 Theory of Environmental Psychology

1. BEHAVIOUR CONSTRAINT THEORY - Behaviour constraint theory

examines the ways in which we may feel powerless when in environments
that are undesirable to us. It suggests that our human behaviour in these
situations is learned – that if we find we cannot control stimuli within our
environment, we adopt a level of helplessness and accept what we cannot
change – or perhaps we just leave the environment entirely. Behaviour
constraint theories focus on the real, or perceived, limitations imposed on
the organism by the environment. According to these theories, the
environment can prevent, interfere with, or limit the behaviours of its
inhabitants (Rodin & Baum, 1978; Stokols, 1978).

2. ENVIRONMENT STRESS THEORY - Environment stress theory tells us

that stressors in our environment – for example, pollution and climate
change – affect our physiological and mental health as well as our
emotions and behaviours. Environmental stress theory encompasses the
concept of stress as a response to environmental demands. Stress is
defined as a dynamic relationship between environmental demands,
individual resources, and the individual's appraisal of the situation. It
involves disruptions in behavior and functioning caused by stressors, which
can be cataclysmic events, life events, daily hassles, or ambient stressors.
The theory has evolved to link environmental stress to medical outcomes
and performance measures, emphasizing the impact of stress on
motivation and skills. Additionally, environmental unpredictability can
increase participation in intergroup conflict and aggression, affecting both
individual and group behavior.

 Theory of Employment/Unemployment

There are two basic theories of employment—the neoclassical and the Keynesian
(developed by John Maynard Keynes). The neoclassical theory applies standard
demand-and-supply analysis to labor markets and treats unemployment as voluntary.

1. The Neoclassical Theory

According to the basic neoclassical model, the determination of the level of

employment and the unit price of labour is dealt with as belonging to a perfectly
competitive market, comparable to that of a consumer good. The only difference is that
the roles of the agents are reversed. The neoclassical approach identifies the
importance of physiological and social aspects of workers as an individual and their
relationships within and among the group of the organization.

There are mainly three elements of neoclassical theory of management They are
Hawthorne Experiment, Human Relation Movement, and Organizational Behavior. These
principles were called, respectively, unity of action, unity of place, and unity of time.
Aristotelian rules” for dramatic structure.

2. The Simple Keynesian Model emphasizes that a decrease in aggregate demand can
lead to a stable equilibrium with substantial unemployment. It is also known as the
Keynesian Cross. The Keynesian Theory of Employment, developed by John Maynard
Keynes, explains employment fluctuations through aggregate demand. Key points:

1. Aggregate Demand: Total spending in the economy (consumption, investment,

government purchases and net exports).

2. Effective Demand : Aggregate demand that actually leads to production and

employment.

3. Deficient Demand : Insufficient aggregate demand leading to unemployment.

 Theory of employment opportunities for individuals with Disabilities.

1. Social Model of Disability: This model suggests that barriers to employment for
individuals with disabilities are created by societal structures and attitudes rather than
the impairment itself. The theory highlights the role of environmental, attitudinal, and
institutional barriers that limit opportunities for individuals with hearing impairments.

2. Human Capital Theory: This theory posits that education, training, and skills are
crucial for employment. In relation to hearing impairments, it would review how access
to education and skills development might differ for individuals with hearing disabilities
and how that impacts their job prospects.

3. Labor Market Discrimination Theories: These examine how individuals with

disabilities, including hearing impairments, face discrimination in hiring, promotion, and
wages due to biases, misconceptions, or stereotypes about their abilities.

4. Theory of Workplace Accommodation: This framework explores how reasonable

accommodations can enable individuals with disabilities to participate fully in the
workforce, emphasizing the need for supportive environments and technology to bridge
communication gaps for people with hearing impairments.

5. Universal Design Theory: This theory advocates for designing workplaces, tools, and
communication methods in a way that they are accessible to all people, including those
with disabilities, without the need for special accommodations.

These theories reveal that employment challenges faced by individuals with hearing
impairments are rooted not solely in their disability but in a combination of social,
environmental, and institutional factors. The Social Model of Disability underscores that
barriers in the workplace are often created by societal attitudes, inaccessible
communication methods, and physical environments. This model suggests that
focusing on changing the work environment, rather than the individual, is key to
fostering inclusion. This review highlights the need for a multi-faceted approach to
address employment barriers for individuals with hearing impairments. Solutions must
focus not only on empowering individuals through education and training but also on
transforming workplaces through inclusive design, policies, and attitudes.

2.3 Empirical Review of Literature

It is the common assumption that among all Persons with disabilities,

persons with hearing impairment (PWHIs) are less productive as compared
to their normal peers, mainly due to their lesser communication ability.
They are not beingaccommodated at the job place according to their
requirements; it is commonly assumed that PWHIs are poorlyproductive
although they are not facilitated by providing basic rights, e.g. strong
legislative support, qualityeducation, skilled training, appropriate
adaptations according to the individual needs in job market etc. The
prejudice instinct of society and depending on the individuals with the
impairment condition itself, thecommunication barrier might occur. In the
job market, employers are the most afraid of the communication
barriersince communication is a must in achieving organizational
objectives. Employers have a perception that PWHI isdisappointing and
problematic(Noor, Manaf, & Isa, 2018).Nearly two-thirds of PWHIs and
communication incapability indicates that they faced career restrictions,
mostfrequently in terms of the job type they could do and job-changing
difficulties. Many HI persons who work in ahearing group may face regular
problems. The most commonly found problems were related to
communicationand lack of employers’ knowledge of deafness; other
barriers include sexism, the level of education necessary forspecific jobs,
and unjustified employer expectations (Perkins-Dock Ph D, Battle MS,
Edgerton MS, & McNeill MS,2015).Employers express concerns about the
amount and quality of work undertaken by PWHIs and worry that thereis
low flexibility and high levels of absenteeism (Link & Phelan, 2001).
Similarly, in the case of HI individuals,employers also worried that PWHIs
are insufficiently motivated to function or unable to tolerate frustration
andobey and understand the instructions (Gergen, McNamee, & Barrett,
2001). Employers often attach importance todisability awareness and facts
and good and stable communication with disability employment services or
an expertto be consulted in the event of workplace problems(Kaye, Jans, &
Jones, 2011). The hypothesis that employers’attitude towards hiring PWDs
or hearing impairment depends on the size of their organization.
Particularly,employers of smaller businesses viewed workers with HI in a
study conducted by Fraser et al. (2011) as less skilledand less able in
performing tasks efficiently relative to employers of larger businesses,
where employees with HIwere more welcomed (Fraser et al., 2011). These
findings were confirmed in a study conducted by Jasper andWaldhart
(2012), where it also seemed that a general trend of openness to hiring
persons with HI increased withthe size of the company, employers’
awareness of impairment and all its consequences, such as the
workerproductivity (Jasper & Waldhart, 2012).Employers are responsible
for maintaining a trustworthy working atmosphere that encourages the
participationof the deaf. The attitude and openness of the employer, their
prior interaction and experiences in hiring PWHIs, arethe key factors
determining whether the effect of inclusion in the workplace is positive or
negative. However, inthe realistic process of bringing prospective workers
with HI into work, even when employers are able to recruitand accept
people with HI, other difficulties and obstacles can also occur. Employers
may not have support forhelping persons with HI in work because of their
being concerned with benefits and efficiency (Shankar et al.,2014).Owners,
as well as HR staff assigned with hiring new workers, naturally want to find
the most qualifiedapplicant for each role. One way to deal with this is to
recruit widely, identifying possible candidates in labourpools that rivals
have missed or ignored. Employees with HI make up one of the most
underutilized labour pools.Managers regularly complain that attracting
eligible candidates with HI is difficult. The recruiting process does
notremove barriers to ascertain that eligible people with HI are included in
the candidate group. (Kulkarni, Atkins, &Baldridge, 2020; L. A. Schur, Ameri,
& Kruse, 2020). In fact, the application process often discourages
participation.(PDF) Employment Barriers for Persons with Hearing
Impairment in the Job Market: Employers' Perspectives.