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Notes Atd RKB

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Srikanth Karankoti

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Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust’s

PIMPRI CHINCHWAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

RESEARCH
Laxminagar, Ravet, Pune – 412101

TUTORIAL NOTES

Applied
Thermodynamics
(Subject Code 202050)
SE Mechanical Engineering 2015 Pattern (Semester – IV)

Prepared by : Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane

Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
PIMPRI CHINCHWAD EDUCATION TRUST’S
PIMPRI CHINCHWAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
RESEARCH,
RAVET, PUNE 412101

VISION AND MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE:

VISION:
To be a Premier Institute of Technical Education and Research to serve the need of
society and all the stakeholders.
MISSION:
To establish state-of-the-art facilities to create an environment resulting in
individuals who are technically sound having professionalism, research and
innovative aptitude with high moral and ethical values.

VISION AND MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING:
VISION:
To be a Premier Department of Mechanical Engineering and research to serve the
need of the society and all the stakeholders.
MISSION:
 To provide state of art facilities to impart quality education.
 To undertake various value added and add on courses to make students
technically sound and thorough professionals.
 To collaborate with the industries and academia and strive to transform the
research and innovative aptitude in the students and faculties.
 To inculcate high moral, ethical values and national pride in students and
faculties.
202050: Applied Thermodynamics

Prerequisites: - 1. Engineering Thermodynamics.

2. Engineering Mathematics

Course Objectives:
 To get familiar with fundamentals of I. C. Engines, Construction and
working Principle of an Engine and Compare Actual, Fuel-Air and Air
standard cycle Performance.
 To study Combustion in SI and CI engines and its controlling factor in
order to extract maximum power.
 To study emission from IC Engines and its controlling method, Various
emission norms.
 Perform Testing of I. C. Engines and methods to estimate Indicated,
Brake and Frictional Power and efficiencies
 To understand theory and performance Calculation of Positive
displacement compressor.

Course Outcomes:
On completion of the course, learner will be able to–
CO-1 : Classify various types of Engines, Compare Air standard, Fuel Air
and Actual cycles and make out various losses in real cycles.
CO-2 : Understand Theory of Carburetion, Modern Carburetor, Stages of
Combustion in S. I. Engines and Theory of Detonation, Pre-ignition and
factors affecting detonation.
CO-3 : Understand Fuel Supply system, Types of Injectors and Injection
Pumps, Stages of Combustion in CI Engines, Theory of Detonation in CI
Engines and Comparison of SI and CI Combustion and Knocking and
Factors affecting, Criteria for good combustion chamber and types.
CO-4 : Carry out Testing of I. C. Engines and analyze its performance.
CO-5 : Describe construction and working of various I. C. Engine systems
(Cooling, Lubrication, Ignition, Governing, and Starting) also various
harmful gases emitted from exhaust and different devices to control
pollution and emission norms for pollution control.
CO-6 : Describe construction, working of various types of reciprocating and
rotary compressors with performance calculations of positive displacement
compressors.

Unit I
Basics of IC Engines (5 Hrs)
Heat Engine, IC and EC engines, I.C. Engine construction - components and
materials, Engine nomenclature, Valve timing diagram, Intake and exhaust
system, Engine classification, Applications.
Fuel Air Cycle and Actual Cycle (5 Hrs)
Fuel air cycle, Assumptions, Comparison with air standard cycle, Effect of
variables on performance, Actual cycle and various losses, Comparison of Air
standard Vs Fuel Vs Actual cycle.

Unit II
SI Engines (5 Hrs)
Theory of Carburetion, Types of carburetors, Electronic fuel injection system,
Combustion in spark Ignition engines, stages of combustion, flame
propagation, rate of pressure rise, abnormal combustion, Phenomenon of
Detonation in SI engines, effect of engine variables on Detonation. Combustion
chambers, Rating of fuels in SI engines, Additives.

Unit III
CI Engines (5 Hrs)
Fuel supply system, types of fuel pump, injector and distribution system,
Combustion in compression ignition engines, stages of combustion, factors
affecting combustion, Phenomenon of knocking in CI engine. Effect of
knocking, Methods of knock control, Types of combustion chambers, rating of
fuels in CI engines. Dopes & Additives, Comparison of knocking in SI & CI
engines.
Unit IV
Testing of IC Engines (6 Hrs)
Objective of testing, Various performance parameters for I.C. Engine - Indicated
power, brake power, friction power, SFC, AF ratio etc. Methods to determine
various performance parameters, characteristic curves, heat balance sheet.
Supercharging (2 Hrs)
Supercharging and turbo-charging methods and their limitations.

Unit V
I.C. Engine Systems (6 Hrs)
Cooling System, Lubrication System, Ignition System, Governing system,
Starting System.
I.C. Engine Emissions and Control (4 Hrs)
Air pollution due to IC engine and its effect, Emissions from petrol/gas and
diesel engines, Sources of emissions, Euro norms, Bharat stage norms,
Emission control methods for SI and CI engines.

Unit VI
Positive Displacement Compressors (Reciprocating and Rotary) (10 Hrs)
Reciprocating Compressor - Single stage compressor – computation of work
done, isothermal efficiency, effect of clearance volume, volumetric efficiency,
Free air delivery, Theoretical and actual
indicator diagram, Multistaging of compressor, Computation of work done,
Volumetric efficiency, Condition for maximum efficiency, Inter-cooling and after
cooling, Capacity control of compressors
Rotary Compressor – Introduction, vane compressors, roots blower, screw
compressor. (Numerical treatment on Reciprocating compressor single stage
and multistage only)
Text:
1. V. Ganesan: Internal Combustion Engines, Tata McGraw-Hill
2. M.L. Mathur and R.P. Sharma: A course in Internal combustion engines,
Dhanpat Rai
3. H.N. Gupta, Fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd.

Reference:
1. Heywood: Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, Tata McGraw-Hill
2. Domkundwar & Domkundwar: Internal Combustion Engine, Dhanpat
Rai
3. R. Yadav: Internal Combustion Engine, Central Book Depot, Ahmedabad.
4. S. Domkundwar, C. P. Kothandaraman, A. Domkundwar, Thermal
Engineering, Dhanpat Rai & Co.

List of Practical’s:
1. Study of Carburetor
2. Study of Fuel pump and injector
3. Study of Ignition System
4. Demonstration & study of commercial exhaust gas analyzers.
5. Morse Test on Multi cylinder Petrol/ Diesel engine for determination of
Friction power.
6. Variable load test on diesel engine to determine various efficiencies, SFC
and Heat balance sheet.
7. Test on variable compression ratio engine.
8. Visit to Automobile service station
9. Test on Positive Displacement Air Compressor
10. Assignment on any one advanced technology related to I.C. Engine such
as VVT, VGT, HCCI
11. Assignment on alternative fuels used in I.C. Engines.
Notes:
1. Minimum 8 experiments should be performed.
2. Perform any 3 from 1 to 4.
3. Perform any 2 from 5, 6, and 7.
4. Experiment 8 and 9 are compulsory.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
UNIT – I : BASIC OF IC ENGINE

Basic of IC Engines : Heat Engine, IC and EC engines, I.C. Engine construction -

components and materials, Engine nomenclature, Valve timing diagram, Intake and
exhaust system, Engine classification, Applications.
Fuel Air Cycle and Actual Cycle : Fuel air cycle, Assumptions, Comparison with air
standard cycle, Effect of variables on performance, Actual cycle and various losses,
Comparison of Air Standard – Vs – Fuel – Vs – Actual Cycle.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Heat Engine : SPPU : May-17, 6-Marks

An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another useful
form of energy , during this transformation some energy is wasted, thus an engine never
have 100% efficiency.

Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal
energy and utilizes this thermal energy to perform some useful work, ie mechanical
energy.
The conversion of all thermal energy into mechanical energy is not practically
possible, hence heat engine always have efficiency less than one.

2. Classification of Heat Engines :

2.1. IC (Internal Combustion) Engines :

The Internal Combustion Engine (IC Engine) is a heat engine that converts
chemical energy in a fuel into mechanical energy, usually in the form of a rotating
output shaft.

Chemical energy of the fuel is first converted to thermal energy by means of

combustion or oxidation with air inside the engine. This thermal energy raises the
temperature and pressure of the gases within the engine, and the high-pressure gas
then expands against the mechanical mechanisms of the engine. This expansion is

Most internal combustion engines are reciprocating engines having pistons that
reciprocate back and forth in cylinders internally within the engine.

2.2. EC (External Combustion) Engines :

The External Combustion Engines (EC Engine) is a heat engine that converts
chemical energy in a fuel into Thermal energy which in turn utilized to raises the
temperature and pressure of working fluid outside the engine system. The energy of the
working fluid then converted into mechanical energy inside the engine system, usually in
the form of a rotating output shaft.

Chemical energy of the fuel is first converted to thermal energy by means of

combustion or oxidation with air outside the engine system. This thermal energy raises
the temperature and pressure of the gases of the working fluid (ie gases or steam), and
the high-pressure working fluid then expands against the mechanical mechanisms of
the engine. This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of the engine to a
rotating crankshaft, which is the output of the engine.

2.3. Comparison of IC and EC Engines : SPPU : May-17, 6-Marks

IC Engine EC Engine
1. Combustion of fuel take place inside the 1. Combustion of fuel take place
engine cylinder. outside the engine cylinder.
2. Working fluid is itself the product of 2. Working fluid is other fluid than the
combustion of fuel. product of combustion of fuel.
3. Power to Weight ratio is less as
3. Power to Weight ratio is more as overall
overall weight of engine is more due
weight of engine is less due to absence
to presence of boiler and condenser
of boiler and condenser units.
units.
4. Compact in size as compared to EC 4. Non compact in size as compared to
engines. IC engines.
5. Higher Thermal efficiency (35 to 40%), 5. Lower thermal efficiency (20%), due
due to less heat loss. more heat loss.
6. Required high starting torque. 6. Do not required starting torque.
7. It can use solid, liquid or gaseous
7. It required high grade fuels only.
fuels.
8. These engines are not self starting. 8. These engines are self starting.

3.1. IC Engine Components and its materials : SPPU : Dec.-14, 6-Marks

3.1.1. Cylinder and Cylinder Block :

Cylinder is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston moves. The change in
volume during piston movement filled with working fluid and subjected to different
thermodynamic processes of engine cycle.

The cylinder is supported in the cylinder block, which is provided with water
cooling jackets in case of water cooled engine.

Cylinder block supported the cylinder heat at top and crank case at the bottom
with the help of gasket and bolting.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 4
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Material required for the cylinder and cylinder bock must possess good casting
properties, good thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance and creep resistance. These
are usually made up of Grey Cast Iron and Aluminium Alloys.

3.1.2. Piston and Piston Rings :

It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary
of the combustion system. It fits perfectly into cylinder providing a gas tight space with
the piston rings and layer of lubricating oil.

Pistons rings are of two types, compression rings mounted on top side slots on
piston which provide a tight seal between the piston and the cylinder to prevent any
pressure leakage to bottom side of piston. And other oil scrapper ring mounted on
bottom side slot on piston which provide to remove excess lubricating oil from cylinder
wall.

Material required for the piston must possess Good wearing quality, light weight,
high thermal conductivity, high creep resistance. It is usually made up of Aluminium
Alloys containing silicon.

Material required for the piston rings must possess good wear quality, high
thermal conductivity and corrosive resistant. It is usually made up of fine grained alloy
cast iron containing manganese and silicon.

3.1.3. Inlet and Exhaust Manifold :

The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and
through which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet
manifold.

The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine
and through which the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the
exhaust manifold.

Inlet manifold is usually made up of alluminium alloys, where are exhaust

manifold is usually made up on cast iron.

3.1.4. Inlet and Exhaust Valves :

Inlet and Exhaust valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are
provided either on the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the
charge coming into the cylinder (inlet valve) and for discharging the products of
combustion (exhaust valve) from the cylinder.

Material required for the valves must possess good wear quality, high thermal
conductivity and corrosive resistant. It is usually made up of fine grained alloy steel.

3.1.5. Spark Plug :

It having two electrode with gap when high tension voltage passing through it during the
jump through gap it produces spark which causes ignition of charge.

It is usually mounted on the cylinder head and covered with mica / porcelain material.

3.1.6. Connecting Rod :

It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the gas forces from the
piston to the crankshaft. The two ends of the connecting rod are called as small end and
the big end.

The small end is connected to the piston by gudgeon pin and the big end is
connected to the crankshaft by crankpin.

Material required for the connecting rod must possess high strength, light weight,
high fatigue strength etc. It is usually made up of steel, duralumin, malleable cast iron.

3.1.7. Crank Shaft :

It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the output
shaft. In the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there are a pair of crank arms and
balance weights. The balance weights are provided for static and dynamic balancing of
the rotating system.

Crankshaft enclosed in crankcase. The material required for it must possess high
strength, toughness, hardness and fatigue strength, and it is normally made up of
chromium-vanadium steel or Cr-Mo steel.

3.1.8. Camshaft and Cams :

Cam shaft and its parts like push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets
etc. control the opening and closing of the two valves. This shaft also provide the drive to
the ignition system. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears.

Cams are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are so designed to open the
valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary duration.

3.1.9. Flywheel :

The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation
of the engine fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order to
achieve a uniform torque an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is attached to the output
shaft and this wheel is called the flywheel.

It is made up steel or cast iron disc.

Four Stroke Spark Ignition (SI) engine working on the principle of Otto Cycle, as
shown, during the operation it is assumed that inlet and exhaust valves are open and
closed instantaneously which is not the actual case.

5.1.1. Suction / Intake Stroke :

Suction / Intake stroke shown by

process 0→1 on PV diagram, is started when
piston is at the TDC and moves down to BDC,
during this piston moves through one stroke
and crank moves through 180° rotation or
half revolution.

In suction stroke, inlet valve open and

exhaust valve remain closed, thus when
piston moves down, it create negative
pressure causes air-fuel mixture to drawn into
the cylinder. This is continue till piston reach
the BDC, where inlet valve get closed and
complete cylinder filled with entrapped air-
fuel mixture.

Compression stroke shown by

process 1→2 on PV diagram, is started
when piston is at the BDC at the end of
suction stroke. Piston moves up to TDC,
during this piston moves through one
stroke and crank moves through 180°
rotation more.

In compression stroke, both, inlet

valve and exhaust valve remain closed,
thus when piston moves up, it compresses
the entrapped air-fuel mixture. This is
continue till piston reach the TDC, where
entire cylinder volume air-fuel mixture is
compressed into the clearance volume,
thus it attend high pressure and
temperature.

At the end of the compression stroke

the mixtures ignited with the help of a spark plug. The burning process converted
chemical energy of the fuel into heat energy, thus it can be approximated as heat
additional at constant volume, shown by process 2→3 on PV diagram.

5.1.3. Expansion / Power Stroke :

Expansion / Power stroke shown by

process 3→4 on PV diagram, is started when
pressure at the end of the combustion process
is considerably increased due to the heat
released from fuel. The high pressure of the
burnt gases forces the piston to move from
TDC to BDC. During this piston moves
through one stroke and crank moves through
180° rotation more, upto this crank complete
one and half revolution.

In expansion stroke, both, inlet valve

and exhaust valve remain closed, thus high
pressure gases expands it forces piston to
move down to BDC, thus actual power is
obtained in this stroke hence some time it is
called as power stroke. This is continue till

5.1.4. Exhaust Stroke :

Exhaust stroke shown by process 5→0

on PV diagram. At the end of the expansion
stroke high pressure of the burnt gases filled
cylinder volume, at this exhaust valve is open,
thus high pressure gases escape from the
valve and the pressure falls to atmospheric
level at the constant volume, this is shown by
the process 4→5, on PV diagram.

The piston start to move from BDC to

TDC. During this piston moves through one
stroke and crank moves through 180° rotation
more.

In exhaust stroke, inlet valve remain

closed but exhaust valve get opened, thus
piston upward motion pushes out the burnt
gases from the cylinder. This is continue till
piston reach the TDC, where exhaust valve get
closed and new cycle suction stroke will start as piston moves from TDC again.

Thus Four Stroke SI engine completes one cycle through 720° rotation or two
revolution of crank or in four stroke of piston.

5.2. Valve Timing Diagram of 4-Stroke SI Engine : SPPU : May-18, Dec.-15, May-14,
6-Marks
Valve timing is the regulation of the points
in the cycle at which the valves are set to open
and close.

In ideal cycle inlet and exhaust valves

open and closed at dead centre, and each
operation suction, compression, expansion and
exhaust exhibits in one stroke of piston i.e. the
180º each. The spark is ignite at TDC and there
is instantaneous combustion and expansion
starts from TDC only.

But in actual cycle they open and closed

before or after dead centre. Four Stroke SI
engine working on the principle of Otto Cycle, and during the operation its inlet and
exhaust valves, open and closed and spark plug actuate to ignite compressed air-fuel
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 9
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
mixture, in a sequence and at a particular crank angle, this shown by the valve timing
diagram as follow,

Low Speed Engine SI Engine -

Inlet Valve Open (IVO) 10° before Top Dead Centre (bTDC) and as piston moves
down air-fuel mixture suck inside the cylinder, this continue till Inlet Valve Closed (IVC)
at 10° after Bottom Dead Centre (aBDC). Thus Inlet Valve Opens for total 200° of crank
rotation, during this suction take place.

After Inlet Valve Closed (IVC) entrapped

fresh Air-Fuel mixture get compressed due to
piston upward motion toward TDC, as both
valves are closed.

Near TDC Spark Plug actuated and spark

is generated (Spark) at 15° before TDC. The
period from IVC to Spark is a compression and
from Spark to TDC air-fuel mixture start
burning with the compression till the piston
reach to the TDC.

From the point TDC to Exhaust Valve

Open (EVO) at 25° before BDC, the time period
is called a expansion and as EVO the burnt gases start to escape through the opening of
exhaust valve.

Exhaust Valve Closes at 5° after TDC, thus from BDC to EVC the piston movement
push out the exhaust gases from the cylinder.

As Valve timing diagram shows, EVC at 5° after TDC but the next cycle IVO 10°
before TDC, thus Inlet and Exhaust Valve, both remain open at common crank angle
interval for the 15° this is called valve overlap.

6.1. Working Principle of 4-Stroke CI Engine :

Four Stroke Compression Ignition (CI) engine

working on the principle of Diesel Cycle, as shown,
during the operation it is assumed that inlet and
exhaust valves are open and closed instantaneously
which is not the actual case.

Suction / Intake stroke shown by process

0→1 on PV diagram, is started when piston is at
the TDC and moves down to BDC, during this
piston moves through one stroke and crank moves
through 180° rotation or half revolution.

In suction stroke, inlet valve open and

exhaust valve remain closed, thus when piston
moves down, it create negative pressure causes air
to drawn into the cylinder. This is continue till
piston reach the BDC, where inlet valve get closed
and complete cylinder filled with entrapped air.

6.1.2. Compression Stroke :

Compression stroke shown by

In compression stroke, both, inlet

valve and exhaust valve remain closed,
thus when piston moves up, it compresses
the entrapped air. This is continue till
piston reach the TDC, where entire cylinder
volume air is compressed into the
clearance volume, thus it attend high
pressure and temperature.

At the end of the compression stroke

the fuel is injected with the help of fuel
pump and fuel injector.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 11
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.1.3. Expansion / Power Stroke :

Fuel injection starts at the end of

compression stroke, but the rate of injection of
fuel is such that the combustion maintains the
pressure constant. Thus heat is added at the
constant pressure, which is shown by process
2→3 on PV diagram.

Expansion / Power stroke shown by

process 3→4 on PV diagram, is started when
fuel injection stops. Pressure of the product of
combustion is considerably increased due to
the heat released from fuel. The high pressure
of the burnt gases forces the piston to move
from TDC to BDC. During this piston moves
through one stroke and crank moves through
180° rotation more, upto this crank complete
one and half revolution.

In expansion stroke, both, inlet valve

and exhaust valve remain closed, thus high
pressure gases expands it forces piston to
move down to BDC, thus actual power is obtained in this stroke hence some time it is
called as power stroke. This is continue till piston reach the BDC, where entire cylinder
volume is filled with burnt gases.

6.1.4. Exhaust Stroke :

Exhaust stroke shown by process
5→0 on PV diagram. At the end of the
expansion stroke high pressure of the
burnt gases filled cylinder volume, at this,
exhaust valve is open, thus high pressure
gases escape from the valve and the
pressure falls to atmospheric level at the
constant volume, this is shown by the
process 4→5, on PV diagram.

The piston start to move from BDC

to TDC. During this piston moves through
one stroke and crank moves through 180°
rotation more and crank complete two
revolutions.

Thus Four Stroke SI engine completes one cycle through 720° rotation or two
revolution of crank or in four stroke of piston.

6.2. Valve Timing Diagram of 4-Stroke CI Engine : SPPU : Dec.-17, 6-Marks

Valve timing is the regulation of the points in the cycle at which the valves are set
to open and close.

In ideal cycle inlet and exhaust valves open and closed at dead centre, but in
actual cycle they open and closed before or after dead centre.

Four Stroke Compression Ignition (CI) engine working on the principle of Diesel
Cycle, and during the operation it is inlet and exhaust valves, open and closed and fuel
injection start and stop in a sequence and at a particular crank angle, this shown by the
valve timing diagram.

Low Speed CI Engine -

Inlet Valve Open (IVO) 25°

before Top Dead Centre (bTDC)
and as piston moves down air
suck inside the cylinder, this
continue till Inlet Valve Closed
(IVC) at 35° after Bottom Dead
Centre (aBDC). Thus Inlet Valve
Opens for total 240° of crank
rotation, during this suction take
place.

After Inlet Valve Closed

(IVC) entrapped fresh Air get
compressed due to piston upward
motion toward TDC, as both
valves are closed.

Near TDC Fuel Injector

Open (FIO) and start injecting fuel
at 10° before TDC and Fuel
Injector Closed (FIC) at 25° after
TDC. The period from IVC to TDC is a compression and from FIO to FIC it is a fuel
injection period, during this, fuel mixes with compressed air and start burning at
constant pressure.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 13
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
From the point FIC to Exhaust Valve Open (EVO) at 35° before BDC, the time
period is called a expansion and as EVO the burnt gases start to escape through the
opening of exhaust valve.

Exhaust Valve Closes at 20° after TDC, thus from BDC to EVC the piston
movement push out the exhaust gases from the cylinder.

As Valve timing diagram shows, EVC at 20° after TDC but the next cycle IVO 25°
before TDC, thus Inlet and Exhaust Valve, both remain open at common time interval for
the 45° this is called valve overlap.

7.1. Working Principle of 2-Stroke SI Engine :

In two stroke engines one working cycle is completed into one revolution of a
crank. Thus two piston stroke are required to generate a power in engine cycle. The two
stroke of SI engine are explained as below.

7.1.1. Up Stroke :

In Two Stroke Engine Valves are

replaced with ports, Inlet Port, Exhaust Port
and Transfer Port. The piston have dome
shape at its top. Its crank case is air tight
and working as a suction unit. Initially the
piston is at BDC.

The arrangement of the ports is such

that the piston performs two operations
simultaneously. When the piston starts
rising from BDC it closes the transfer port
and the upward movement of piston causes
vacuum at crankcase, on further upward
movement of piston opens Inlet Port and
fresh charge get sucked inside the crankcase
due to negative pressure inside the cylinder. As piston moves further it closes exhaust
port and the already existing charge at top side of piston is get compressed.

Thus in Up Stroke at bottom side of Piston suction in completed and at top side of
piston compression is completed. At the end of this First / Up Stroke piston reaches to
TDC, hence piston moves from BDC to TDC and crank rotates through 180° or Half
Revolution.

7.1.2. Down Stroke :

In this stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC. Before the completion of compression
stroke, the compressed charge is ignited using Spark Plug in Spark Ignition Engine (

This pressure, forces the piston in downward direction which produces useful work.
The downward movement of piston closes the inlet port and compresses the charge
already sucked in the crankcase. When
piston moves from TDC to BDC it first
opens exhaust port and pressurized
exhaust gases start to escape from it.

On further downward movement of

piston Transfer Port is open the fresh
charge from crankcase is entered into
combustion chamber such that it forces
residual exhaust gases to escape through
exhaust port. And fill the combustion area
with fresh charge. Thus during down
stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC and
Expansion / Power and Exhaust are
performed. Crank rotates 360° or one
complete rotation.

7.2. Port Timing Diagram of 2-Stroke SI Engine : SPPU : Dec.-17, Dec.-14, 6-Marks

Port timing is the regulation of the points in

the cycle at which the port are set to open and
close, this is done by movement of piston.

Two Stroke Spark Ignition (SI) engine

working on the principle of Otto Cycle, and during
the operation its inlet and exhaust port, open and
closed and spark plug actuate and to ignite
compressed air-fuel mixture, in a sequence and at
a particular crank angle, this shown by the port
timing diagram.

In Up stroke, piston moves from BDC to

TDC, during its movement, piston closes first
Transfer Port (TPC) at 35°after BDC, and on further upward movement, piston closes
Exhaust Port (EPC), now the entrapped air-fuel mixture on top of the piston get
compressed. This is continue till piston reach TDC.

Before the end of compression, Spark is actuated at 20° before TDC and
compressed air-fuel mixture ignited.
Thus from EPC to TDC the compression of charge take place.

EPO at 43° before BDC and exhaust gases escape from the port. On further
downward movement of piston, Transfer Port (TPO) get opened at 35° before BDC and
fresh air-fuel mixture rushes inside the cylinder, which scavenges burnt gases from the
cylinder, this continue till Transfer port closed (TPC).

8.1. Comparison of 4-stroke and 2-Stroke Engine :

4-Stroke Engine 2-Stroke Engine

1. The thermodynamic cycle is completed 1. The thermodynamic cycle is

in four strokes of the piston or 720° of completed in two strokes of the piston
rotation or two revolution of or 360° of rotation or one revolution
crankshaft. of crankshaft.

2. Power obtained after two strokes, as

2. Power obtained after four strokes, as, Up stroke – contained Suction and
Suction, Compression, Expansion and Compression operations, and Down
Exhaust. Stroke – contained Expansion and
Exhaust operation.

3. As one power stroke obtained after 3. As one power stroke obtained after
each two revolution of crankshaft, each revolution of crankshaft, hence
hence as compared to 2-stroke power as compared to 4-stroke power
produced for the same size of engine is produced for the same size of engine
less. is more.

4. As one power stroke obtained after

4. As one power stroke obtained after
each revolution of crankshaft, hence
each two revolution of crankshaft,
as compared to 4-stroke engine
hence as compared to 2-stroke engine
greater cooling and lubrication
lesser cooling and lubrication required.
required.

5. It contains valves and valve actuating 5. It have no valves, but only ports, and
mechanisms to open and close the opening and closing of the port
valves. controlled by piston movement.

6. For the same power engine is heavier 6. For the same power engine is lighter
and bulkier, and complicated valve and more compact, simple port
mechanism, causes initial cost of the mechanism, causes initial cost of the
engine more. engine is less.

7. Volumetric Efficiency is higher as 7. Volumetric Efficiency is lower as

compared to 2-stroke engine, due to compared to 4-stroke engine, due to
more time for induction. less time for induction.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 16
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8. Thermal Efficiency is higher as 8. Thermal Efficiency is lower as

compared to 2-storke engine. compared to 4-storke engine.

9. Heavier flywheel is needed, as turning 9. Lighter flywheel is needed, as turning

moment is not so uniform due to one moment is uniform due to one power
power obtained after two revolution. obtained after each revolution.

10. Application – It is used where 10. Application – It is used where low

efficiency is important, like in cars , cost, light weight and compactness is
buses, trucks, tractors, industrial important, like in mopeds, scooters,
engines etc. motorcycles, hand sprayers etc.

8.2. Comparison of SI and CI Engine :

Spark Ignition (SI) Engine Compression Ignition (CI) Engine

1. It work on Otto Cycle or constant 1. It work on Diesel Cycle or constant

volume heat addition cycle. pressure heat addition cycle.

2. It uses gasoline, which is highly

2. It uses diesel, which is non-volatile
volatile fuel, whose self ignition
fuel, whose self ignition temperature
temperature is high as compared to
is low as compared to gasoline.
diesel.

3. A mixture of air-fuel is supplied to 3. Only air is supplied to engine during

engine during suction stroke. suction stroke.

4. Fuel pump controls the quantity of

4. Throttle valve controls the quantity of fuel injected into compressed air,
air-fuel mixture introduced to cylinder. inducted air quantity is not
controlled.

5. These are quantity governed engines. 5. These are quality governed engines.

6. It is self-ignition due to which ignition

6. It requires ignition system with spark
system and spark plug are not
plug.
required.

7. It have compression ratio, 6 to 10, 7. It have compression ratio, 16 to 20,

upper limit is limited by knocking upper limit is limited by weight
increases of the engine. increases of the engine.

8. It have heterogeneous combustion, as

8. It have homogeneous combustion, as
only air supplied to cylinder and fuel
air-fuel homogeneous mixture is
is injected and mixes to for
supplied to cylinder.
combustible mixture.

9. For the same power, it is heavy

9. For the same power, it is light weight,
weight, hence these are low speed
hence these are high speed engine.
engine.

10. Low thermal efficiency, because of 10. Higher thermal efficiency, because
lower compression ratio. of higher compression ratio.

9.1. Intake System (Intake Manifold) :

The intake system / manifold is a

casting or assembly of passages which
carries the mixture of fuel and air in
carbureted SI engine from the carburetor
to the intake valve ports of the engine
cylinder.

The carburetor is mounted on the

inlet of the intake manifold. The outlet of
intake manifold is mounted on the
cylinder block at the entry of air-fuel
mixture to cylinder.

The components of intake manifold system for four cylinder engine is as shown.

The function of the intake manifold are as follows,

1. It provide a branched path from single carburetor to intake of many cylinder

of multi-cylinder engine.
2. It sized and shaped and orientation to cause maximum charge inducted into
the engine cylinder to improve the volumetric efficiency, power and thermal
efficiency.
3. It minimizes condensation of fuel and assist vaporization of the gasoline in the
mixture, by accommodating heating arrangement, uses exhaust gases or
cooling water from engine or by providing hot spots in the manifolds.
4. It supply almost equal amount of homogeneous air-fuel mixture to all
cylinder.
The design requirement for intake manifold are as follows,

1. The friction in the manifolds increases the pressure losses in the pipe. Thus
reduced pressure at intake to cylinders increases pumping losses. Therefore
design should minimizes the pressure losses.

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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 18
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2. Mixture when passing through intake manifold at corner and direction change
fuel particles get condensed. Therefore design of shape and size of manifold
should prohibit the formation of fuel droplets without restricting the air flow.
3. Mixture having some heavy particles of fuel, which condensed and separate
out at manifold surface, thus usually rich mixture is available at nearer
cylinder and richness reduced toward farthest cylinder. Therefore design
should distribute the air-fuel mixture uniformly to each cylinder over wide
range of speeds and loads.
4. Mixture having some heavy liquid fuel particles thus mixture become
heterogeneous. Therefore design should assist vaporization of fuel droplets by
heating arrangement using exhaust gas or cooling water.
The material used for intake manifold are as follows,

1. Old engines were using cast iron material for intake manifold.
2. Modern engines use die-cast aluminium material for intake manifold.

9.2. Exhaust System (Exhaust Manifold) :

The exhaust system / manifold is a casting or assembly of passages which carries

the burnt exhaust gases, during exhaust stroke, from the cylinders of engine and
transfer to silence and then exhaust to atmosphere via tail pipe.

The exhaust manifold is mounted on the exhaust passage at exhaust valve. The
outlet of exhaust manifold is connected to silencer by exhaust pipe. The components of
intake manifold system for four cylinder engine is as shown below,

The function of the exhaust manifold are as follows,

1. It collect exhaust gases from all cylinder and exhausted to atmosphere.

2. It withstand the high temperature of exhaust gases, and transfer minimum
heat to the vehicle body.

1. It should discharge burnt gases quickly from engine cylinder to the

atmosphere without creating any back pressure.
2. It should avoid overlapping of exhaust strokes by dividing the manifolds into
branches.
3. It should avoid restriction of flow, by using large radius bends with large
cross-sectional area of pipe.
4. It should connected to the cylinder head by flexible connections to permit
free expansion and contraction.
5. It should take care of the variation of exhaust gas temperature and speed of
flow at different load and speed of engine.
The material used for exhaust manifold is a Cast Iron to withstand high
temperature of exhaust gases and used as vibration and noise damping.

10. Engine Classification :

Internal combustion engines are classified under the various head as given below,

10.1. According to Fuel used –

a) Volatile Liquid Fuel Engine – Engine uses highly volatile liquid fuel like
gasoline, alcohol, kerosene, benzene etc.
b) Non-volatile Liquid Fuel Engine – Engine uses low or non-volatile liquid fuel
at normal atmospheric temperature, like diesel fuel.
c) Gaseous Fuel Engine – Engine uses gaseous fuel like, compressed natural gas
(CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), blast furnace gas and biogas etc.
d) Duel Fuel Engine – These engines are used two fuel, homogeneous mixture of
primary fuel with air is supplied to engine and near the end of compression
pilot fuel is injected and carried out compression ignition.
10.2. According to Mechanical Cycle used –

a) Two Stroke Cycle Engine – One cycle completed in two stroke (Up stroke and
Down stroke) of the piston, or one revolution of crankshaft or 360° rotation of
crank.
b) Four Stroke Cycle Engine - One cycle completed in four stroke (Suction,
Compression, Expansion and Exhaust stroke) of the piston, or two revolution of
crankshaft or 720° rotation of crank.
10.3. According to Thermodynamic Cycle used –
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 20
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a) Otto Cycle Engine – It work on constant volume heat addition thermodynamic
cycle, and used in spark ignition engines.

b) Diesel Cycle Engine – It work on constant pressure heat addition

thermodynamic cycle, and used in compression ignition engines.

c) Duel Cycle Engine – It work on partially constant volume heat addition and
partially constant pressure heat addition thermodynamic cycle.

10.4. According to Method of Ignition used –

a) Spark Ignition Engine (SI engine) – These uses highly volatile fuel, the
mixture of air-fuel is ignited near the end of compression with the help of
spark generated by spark plug.
b) Compression Ignition Engine (CI engine) – These uses low volatile fuel, fuel
is injected near the end of compression of air, the mixture thus form reaches
the self ignition temperature and ignited.

a) Air Cooled Engine – Heat of engine is dissipated from the engine with the help
of air blow due to vehicle motion.
b) Water Cooled Engine – Heat of engine is dissipated from the engine with the
help of water, using water jacket and radiator arrangement.
c) Liquid (Coolant) Cooled Engine – Heat of engine is dissipated from the engine
with the help of coolant whose coefficient of heat convection is higher than
water, using cooling jackets and radiator arrangement.

10.6. According to Movement of Piston used –

a) Reciprocating Piston Engine – This engine have a cylinder and piston

arrangement, piston reciprocates inside the cylinder, and completing required
operations (suction, compression, expansion and exhaust) for a cycle. Example
of it is petrol, diesel and gas internal combustion engines etc.
b) Rotary Piston Engine – This engine have a casing and rotor arrangement, rotor
rotates in a casing and complete the required operations for a cycle. Example
of it is open cycle gas turbine engines etc.

10.7. According to Numbers of Cylinders used –

a) Single Cylinder Engine – These engines have only one cylinder, thus
producing less power, hence used in two wheeler vehicles like motor cycle,
scooter etc.
b) Multi Cylinder Engine – These engines have more than one cylinder, thus
producing high power, hence used in all four wheeler vehicles like cars, buses,
truck etc.

10.8. According to Cylinder Arrangement used –

a) Inline Cylinder Engine – In this type of multi-cylinder engine all cylinders are
arranged in a single row, thus number of cylinders are limited by the engine
length size.

b) V-Type Engine – In this type of multi-cylinder engines all cylinders are

arranged in two row in the form of V, thus for the same length of engine
number of cylinder and in turn power produced is more than inline cylinder
engine.

c) W-Type Engine - In this type of multi-cylinder engines all cylinders are

arranged in three row in the form of W, thus for the same length of engine
number of cylinder and in turn power produced is more than inline cylinder
engine and V type engine.

d) Opposed Piston Engine – In this type of engines, single cylinder houses two
pistons, each of which driving a separate crankshaft.

e) Opposed Cylinder Engine - In this type of engines, two cylinder located in the
same plane on opposite sides of the single crankshaft.

g) Horizontal Engine - In this type of engines, have a cylinder and piston

arrangement horizontally, piston reciprocates inside the cylinder from inner
most (IDC - Inner Dead Centre) to outer most position (ODC – Outer Dead
Centre).

h) Vertical Engine - In this type of engines, have a cylinder and piston

arrangement vertically, piston reciprocates inside the cylinder from bottom
most (BDC - Bottom Dead Centre) to top most position (TDC – Top Dead
Centre).

10.9. According to Method of Governing used –

a) Quantity Governing Engine – These engines control the output of engine with
the help of controlling quantity of homogeneous mixture supplied to engine.
Usually used in SI engines.
b) Quality Governing Engine - These engines control the output of engine with
the help of controlling quality of the air-fuel mixture formed, by controlling the
fuel injected inside the cylinder. Usually used in CI engines.
c) Hit and Miss Governing Engine – These engines control the output of the
engine with the help of short circuiting spark plug. When spark plug short
circuited, then it can not provide spark to ignite mixture of the cylinder thus,
overall power produced is reduced, in turn engine output reduced. Thus by
hitting and missing the spark of cylinders engine output is control.

11. Air-Standard Cycle :

An internal combustion engine follows the sequence of processes, suction, compression,

expansion and exhaust. It does not operate on thermodynamic closed cycle, as it suck
fresh charge and exhausted burnt gases, thus it is open system.

The accurate analysis of IC engine is very complicated, due to working fluid entering and
exit conditions are different and not follow the closed cycle.

In order to analyze the performance of an ideal closed cycle that closely approximate the
real cycle, the approach used is air-standard cycle, in which air is assumed to be a
working fluid, which have same state at entry and exit.

11.1. Assumptions made for air-standard cycle -

1. The working medium is assumed to be a perfect gas (air) and follows the
relation, PV = mRT.
2. There is no change in the mass of the working medium at entry and exit.
3. All the processes of cycle are reversible.
4. Heat is supplied from heat reservoir (high temperature source) and not from
chemical reactions during the cycle.
5. Some heat is assumed to be rejected to heat sink (low temperature sink).
6. It is assumed that there is no heat loss from system to the surroundings.
7. The working fluid (air) has constant specific heats throughout the cycle.
8. Working fluid constant, Cp, Cv, γ, M are assumed as of air at standard
atmospheric conditions, Cp = 1.005 Kj/Kg K, Cv = 0.717 Kj/Kg K, γ = 1.4 and
M = 29 Kg/Kmol.

11.2. Limitations of Air-Standard Cycle -

1. Due to all above assumptions, the analysis becomes over simplified and thus
the result do not match with those of the actual cycle.
2. Work output, peak pressure, peak temperature and thermal efficiency based on
air-standard cycles will be the maximum that can be attained and will differ
considerably from those of the actual cycle.
3. Its result are only the approximate to the complicated processes in internal
combustion actual cycle engine.
4. Its working fluid is air and not a mixture of air-fuel, hence the effect of
variation air-fuel ratio can not be approximated.

11.3. Analysis of Air-Standard Otto Cycle :

Spark Ignition (SI) engines operates on Otto cycle, which represented on P-V and
T-S diagram as follow,

Process 1-2 : Reversible adiabatic compression or isentropic compression during which

air is compressed from state-1 to state-2, thus volume is reducing and corresponding
pressure and temperature increases but entropy remain constant.

Process 2-3 : Heat addition process to air from a heat reservoir from stat-2 to state-3,
during this pressure, temperature and entropy increases but volume remain constant.

Process 3-4 : Reversible adiabatic expansion or isentropic expansion during which air is
expanded from state-3 to state-4, thus volume increases and corresponding pressure
and temperature decreases but entropy remain constant.

Process 4-1 : Heat rejection process from air to a heat sink from state-4 to state-1, thus
system return to its original state, during this pressure, temperature and entropy
reduces but volume remain constant.

1. Heat supplied = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × ∆𝑇

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

2. Heat rejected = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × ∆𝑇

𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )

3. Net Work done, 𝑊 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 − 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝑊 = 𝑄𝑠 − 𝑄𝑅

𝑊 = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑉1
4. Compression ratio, 𝑟 = 𝑉2

For adiabatic compression 1-2,

For adiabatic expansion 3-4,

𝑇4 𝑉3 𝛾−1
= ( ) … … 𝑎𝑠, 𝑉3 = 𝑉2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉4 = 𝑉1
𝑇3 𝑉4

𝑇4 𝑉2 𝛾−1
= ( )
𝑇3 𝑉1

𝑇3 𝑉1 𝛾−1 𝑉1
= ( ) … . . 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟 =
𝑇4 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑇3 𝑉1
= (𝑟)𝛾−1 … . . 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟 =
𝑇4 𝑉2
𝑇3
𝑇4 =
(𝑟)𝛾−1

6. 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦,

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝑊
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 =
𝑄𝑠
𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇3−𝑇2 )−𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇4−𝑇1)
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇3−𝑇2 )

𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇4−𝑇1)
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1 − 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇3−𝑇2)

(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1 −
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑇 𝑇2
( ( )3𝛾−1 − ( )𝛾−1 )
𝑟 𝑟
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1−
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1 −
(𝑟)𝛾−1 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

11.4. Analysis of Air-Standard Diesel Cycle :

Compression Ignition (CI) engines operates on Diesel cycle, which represented on

P-V and T-S diagram as follow,

Process 1-2 : Reversible adiabatic compression or isentropic compression during which

air is compressed from state-1 to state-2, thus volume is reducing and corresponding
pressure and temperature increases but entropy remain constant.

Process 2-3 : Heat addition process to air from a heat reservoir from stat-2 to state-3,
during this volume , temperature and entropy increases but pressure remain constant.

1. Heat supplied = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑝 × ∆𝑇

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

2. Heat rejected = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × ∆𝑇

𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )

3. Net Work done, 𝑊 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 − 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝑊 = 𝑄𝑠 − 𝑄𝑅

𝑊 = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑝 × (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑉1
4. Compression ratio, 𝑟 = 𝑉2
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 28
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For Isentropic compression,

𝑇2 𝑉1 𝛾−1 𝑉1
= ( ) … . . 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟 =
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑇2
= (𝑟)𝛾−1
𝑇1

𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑟)𝛾−1
𝑉3
5. Cut-off ratio, 𝑟𝑐 = 𝑉2

For constant pressure heat addition,

𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃3 𝑉3
=
𝑇2 𝑇3
𝑃3 𝑉3
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 … … 𝑎𝑠, 𝑃2 = 𝑃3
𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑉3
𝑇3 = 𝑇2
𝑉2

𝑇3 = 𝑇2 ( 𝑟𝑐 ) … … . . 𝑃𝑢𝑡, 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑟)𝛾−1

𝑇3 = 𝑇1 (𝑟)𝛾−1 ( 𝑟𝑐 )
𝑉4
6. Expansion ratio, 𝑟𝑒 = 𝑉3

Multiply and Divided RHS by V2

𝑉4 𝑉2
𝑟𝑒 = ×
𝑉3 𝑉2
𝑉4 1
𝑟𝑒 = ( ) × … … 𝑉4 = 𝑉1
𝑉2 𝑉
(𝑉3 )
2

𝑉1 1
𝑟𝑒 = ( ) ×
𝑉2 𝑉
(𝑉3 )
2

𝑟
𝑟𝑒 =
𝑟𝑐

𝑇3 𝑉4 𝛾−1 𝑉4
= ( ) … … 𝑐𝑢𝑡 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟𝑒 =
𝑇4 𝑉3 𝑉3
𝑇4 1
=
𝑇3 (𝑟𝑒 )𝛾−1

(𝑟𝑐 )𝛾−1
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 … . 𝑃𝑢𝑡, 𝑇3 = 𝑇1 (𝑟)𝛾−1 ( 𝑟𝑐 )
(𝑟)𝛾−1
(𝑟𝑐 )𝛾−1
𝑇4 = 𝑇1 (𝑟)𝛾−1 ( 𝑟𝑐 ) ×
(𝑟)𝛾−1

𝑇4 = 𝑇1 ( 𝑟𝑐 ) × (𝑟𝑐 )𝛾−1

𝑇4 = 𝑇1 (𝑟𝑐 )1+𝛾−1

𝑇4 = 𝑇1 (𝑟𝑐 )𝛾
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
7. 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

𝑊
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 =
𝑄𝑠
𝑚 × 𝐶𝑝 × (𝑇3−𝑇2 )−𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇4−𝑇1 )
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑝 × (𝑇3 −𝑇2 )

𝑚 × 𝐶𝑣 × (𝑇4−𝑇1 )
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1 − 𝑚 × 𝐶𝑝 × (𝑇3−𝑇2)

𝐶𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1 −
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

1 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1 −
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
(𝐶 ) 3
𝑣

1 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1 −
𝛾 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
1 [𝑇1 (𝑟𝑐 )𝛾 − 𝑇1 ]
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1 −
𝛾 [𝑇1 (𝑟)𝛾−1 ( 𝑟𝑐 )] − (𝑇1 (𝑟)𝛾−1 )
1 ( 𝑟𝑐 𝛾 − 1)
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1 −
𝛾 (𝑟)𝛾−1 (𝑟𝑐 − 1)
1 𝑟𝑐 𝛾 − 1
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑑 = 1 − [ ]
(𝑟)𝛾−1 𝛾 (𝑟𝑐 − 1)
𝟏 𝒓𝒄 𝜸 − 𝟏
𝜼𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒅 = 𝜼𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍 = 𝟏 − [ ]
(𝒓)𝜸−𝟏 𝜸 (𝒓𝒄 − 𝟏)

Theoretical and Actual P-V diagrams for SI engine working on Otto Cycle.

12.1. Theoretical Otto Cycle :

a) The suction stroke (0-1) and

exhaust stroke (4-0) are at
atmospheric pressure.
b) Each stroke, suction (0-1),
compression (1-2), expansion (2-
3) and exhaust (4-0) are take
place during 180° of crank
rotation.
c) Compression and expansion
processes are reversible
adiabatic.
d) Heat addition process (2-3) and
heat rejection process (4-1) are both at constant volume and takes place
instantly. There is no unintended heat loss.
e) The air behave as a perfect gas.
f) It is assumed that there is no effect of friction and viscosity.
g) Work developed in theoretical cycle is equal to the area (a ), There is no
pumping losses.
12.2. Actual Otto Cycle :

a) During the suction stroke (0-1) the

mixture of fuel and air is admitted
instead of only air. And the process
is carried below atmospheric
pressure.
b) Bunt gases escape to the
atmosphere, the exhaust stroke (4-0)
is above atmospheric pressure.
c) The compression process (1-2) and
expansion process (3-4) are
polytrophic due to heat transfer
between the system and
surrounding.
d) The combustion process (2-3) is carried out by providing a spark to compressed
mixture few degree before TDC. Pressure rise take place through some crank
rotation.
e) Exhaust at point 4 is not instantaneous since there is a time interval in
opening the exhaust valve.
f) Work developed in actual cycle is equal to the area (a1 – a2), where ‘a2’ is the
pumping losses. And processes are not ideal.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 31
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13. Theoretical and Actual P-V diagrams for 4-Stroke CI Engine :

Theoretical and Actual P-V diagrams for CI engine working on Diesel Cycle.

13.1. Theoretical Diesel Cycle :

a) The suction and exhaust strokes are at

atmospheric pressure. During suction
stroke (0-1) only air is sucked.
b) Each of the stroke, suction (0-1),
compression (1-2), expansion (2-3) and
exhaust (4-0) are take place during
180° of crank rotation.
c) Compression (1-2) and expansion (3-4)
are reversible adiabatic.
d) Heat addition process (2-3) at constant
pressure from heat reservoir and heat
rejection process (4-1) at constant
volume to heat sink. There is no other intended heat loss.
e) Air behave like a perfect gas.
f) It is assumed that there is no effect of friction and viscosity.
g) Work developed in theoretical cycle is equal to the area (a), There is no pumping
losses.

13.2. Actual Diesel Cycle :

a) During the suction stroke (0-1), air is

admitted at a pressure below
atmospheric pressure.
b) The exhaust stroke (4-0) is only
possible above atmospheric pressure,
since the burnt gases escape to
atmosphere.
c) The compression process (1-2) and
expansion process (3-4) are
polytropic due to heat exchanged
between system and surrounding.
d) Combustion process (2-3) is due to
self ignition of high temperature of mixture fuel-air mixture formed caused by
high compression ratio.
e) The fuel is injected few degree before TDC and continue upto the point of cut-
off, after TDC. Hence combustion process is not at constant pressure due to
continuous fuel injection.
f) Exhaust point 4 is not instantaneous due to time interval in opening the
exhaust valve.

14. Fuel-Air Cycle :

Air-standard cycle analysis can not bring out the effect of air-fuel ratio on the
thermal efficiency because the working medium was assumed to be air only, but in
actual cycle, fuel in the cylinder is taken into account and accordingly the working
medium will be a mixture of air-fuel.

By fuel-air cycle analysis it will be possible to bring out the effect of fuel-air ratio
(air-fuel ratio) on thermal efficiency and also study how the peak pressures and
temperatures during the cycle vary with respect to fuel-air ratio.

The fuel-air cycle analysis takes into account the followings,

1. The actual composition of the cylinder gases : the cylinder gases contains
fuel, air, water vapour and residual gas. The fuel-air ratio changes during
the operation of the engine which changes the relative amounts of CO2,
water vapour etc.
2. The variation in the specific heat with temperature : Specific heats increase
with temperature except for mono-atomic gases. Therefore the value of ′𝛾′
also changes with temperature.
3. The effect of dissociation : The fuel and air do not completely combine
chemically at high temperatures and this lead to the presence of CO, H 2, H
and O2 at equilibrium conditions.
4. The variations in the number of molecules : The number of molecules
present after combustion depends upon fuel-air ratio and upon the
pressure and temperature after the combustion.

14.1. Assumptions made for fuel-air cycle -

1. There is no chemical changes in either fuel or air prior to combustion.

2. Subsequent to combustion, the change is always in chemical equilibrium.
3. There is no heat exchange between the gases and the cylinder walls in any
process (adiabatic process).
4. There is frictionless compression and expansion processes.
5. Fluid motion inside the cylinder is ignored.
6. It is assumed that fuel is completely vaporized and perfectly mixed with air.
7. It is also assumed that, the burning takes place instantaneously at TDC (at
constant volume).

Air-Standard Cycle Fuel-Air Cycle

1. Working fluid is assumed to be a 1. Working fluid is a mixture of fuel and

pure air. air.

2. Heat is added due to combustion of

2. Heat is added by heat reservoir.
fuel-air mixture.

3. Variation of specific heat with

3. Specific heats of gases assumed to temperature is considered. Also
be not changes with temperature. dissociation effect at high temperature
is considered.

4. There is no change in chemical 4. There is change in chemical

composition of working fluid at inlet composition of working fluid at inlet
and exit. and exit.

5. Compression and expansion are 5. Compression and expansion are not

assumed to be adiabatic. adiabatic.

6. Suction and exhaust process are

6. Suction and exhaust process are
assumed to be carried out at
eliminated.
atmospheric pressure.

15. Effect of Operating Variables on Fuel-Air Cycle :

15.1. Variation of Compression Ratio -

The fuel-air cycle efficiency increases

with the compression ratio in the same
manner as the air-standard cycle efficiency,
because of increases in compression ratio,
increases more scope of expansion work.

15.2. Variation of Air-Fuel Mixture Strength -

The equivalence ratio is defined as, the

ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to chemically correct
(stoichiometric) fuel-air ratio on the mass basis.

As the mixture is made lean the

temperature rise due to combustion will be
lowered as a result of reduced energy input per
unit mass of mixture. This will result in lower
specific heat. It will lower the losses due to
dissociation and variation in specific heat.

The efficiency is therefore, higher and

approaches the air-cycle efficiency as the fuel-air
ratio is reduced

15.3. Variation of Specific Heat - SPPU : Dec.-17, May-16, Dec.-15, 6-Marks

All gases (except mono-atomic gases),

shows an increase in specific heat with
temperature.

Over the temperature range 300K to

2000K, generally the specific heat curve is
nearly a straight line.

𝐶𝑝 = 𝑎1 + 𝑘1 𝑇

𝐶𝑣 = 𝑏1 + 𝑘1 𝑇
𝐶𝑝
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑎1 − 𝑏1 Also 𝛾 = ⁄𝐶
𝑣
Where, 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑘1 are constants, and R is
characteristic gas constant.

Figure shows of Otto Cycle, where cycle 1-2-3-4 represents the ideal Otto cycle.
During the compression process the value of ′𝛾′ decreases with the increase in
temperature due to which the actual temperature of gas after compression will be lower
than the ideal compression temperature.

Process 1-2’ represents the actual compression process. For the same amount of
heat supplied, the maximum pressure and temperature achieved is also lower and it
corresponds to state-3’ due to increase in specific heat at constant volume.

Process 3’-4’ represents the actual expansion process, the value of ′γ′ increases
with the decrease in temperature.

Thus the actual cycle is represented by 1-2’-3’-4’ with variation in specific heat.
The work developed in actual cycle is less than the ideal cycle. The difference of ideal
work and the actual work is called the loss of work due to variation in specific heat.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 35
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15.4. Variation of Number of Moles -

In an ideal cycle it is assumed that the number of moles of the working substance
before and after combustion remains constant, since the heat transfer to and from the
working substance were assumed with the help of heat reservoirs.

However, the number of moles present before and after the combustion would be
different in case of fuel-air cycle.

Considering following combustion equations,

𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 → 1𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

2 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐻2 𝑂
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 → 2𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

The total number of moles before and after combustion of fuel are different, the
variation in number of moles is commonly known as molecular contraction or
expansion.

𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅° 𝑇 … … 𝑅° = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

The pressure of the gas is proportional to number of moles at a given temperature

and volume. Therefore, the actual pressure in the combustion chamber will be different
compared to theoretical cycles due to variation in number of moles caused by the
combustion of fuel.

15.5. Variation of Dissociation - SPPU : May-16, 6-Marks

Dissociation process can be considered

as the disintegration of combustion products
at high temperature. Dissociation can also be
looked as the reverse process to combustion.
During dissociation the heat is absorbed
whereas during combustion heat is liberated.

Dissociation of CO2 start around

1000°C, and the reaction is as follows,

𝐶𝑂2 ⇌ 2𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2

And H2O start around 1300°C, and the

reaction is as follows,

𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 2𝐻2 + 𝑂2

Figure shows the reduction in the

temperature of the exhaust gas mixtures due
to dissociation with respect to air-fuel ratio.
With no dissociation maximum temperature is attained at stoichiometric air-fuel ratio.
With dissociation maximum temperature is obtained when mixture is slightly rich.

When mixture become more richer then the temperature of gases lowered due to
incomplete combustion and this cause reduction in dissociation and thus power loss.

The effect of dissociation in case of

Otto cycle engine is shown on the P-V
diagram below. The cycle 1-2-3-4
represents the normal Otto cycle when
there is no dissociation. When there is a
dissociation then the temperature of gases
falls and reach to the level 𝑇3 ′ which is lower
than the 𝑇3 . And when the dissociated
gases are not re-associated then expansion
follow the isentropic process 3′ − 4′ and if
dissociated gases are re-associated then
expansion follow the actual process 3′ − 4′′ .
Where temperature 𝑇4 ′ < 𝑇4 ′′ , this is
because of heat released during the re-
association. The energy is carried away in
the exhaust gases at point 4′′ without
utilizing during the expansion of gases.

16. Actual Cycle : SPPU : May-17, 6-Marks

1. The working substance is not pure air but it is a mixture of air-fuel vapors
in case of petrol engine and air-atomized fuel injected in case of diesel
engine.

2. Heat addition is not by heat reservoir but it is due to combustion of fuel

which changes the composition of working substance of the cycle.

3. Variation of specific heat with temperature and dissociation of products of

combustion divert cycle from ideal cycle.

4. Burnt gases at outlet and fresh mixture at inlet have different composition,
pressure and temperature.

5. Compression and expansion processes are not adiabatic since there is heat
loss from the system to surrounding.

6. The valves do not open and close instantaneously, due to early opening of
exhaust valve before BDC, there is loss of expansion work.

7. Suction and exhaust processes are carried out at below and above
atmospheric pressure and not at atmospheric pressure.

8. There are always frictional and leakage power losses.

16.1. Actual Cycle losses : SPPU : May-18, May-17, Dec.-15, 6-Marks

16.1.1. Time Losses -

In ideal cycles the heat addition process was assumed at constant volume whereas
in actual cycle the burning of fuel does not take place instantaneously and the entire
combustion process take a definite time interval.

During the combustion time period, the gases experience a change in volume, the
increasing volume due to motion of piston result in lowering maximum pressure and
less work on the piston, the power loss is known as ‘Time Losses’.

16.1.2. Heat Losses -

The ideal compression and expansion processes were assumed to be adiabatic,

where in actual processes there is heat transfer from the working substance to the
cylinder walls.

Thus there is considerable amount of heat loss particularly during the

combustion and expansion processes due to which there is loss of work and efficiency,
this is known as ‘Heat Losses”.

16.1.3. Exhaust Blow Down Losses -

In ideal cycle exhaust valve is assumed to open at BDC, but in actual engines it is
opened at about 45° bBDC. Thus, using expansion of gases completely for torque, high

Due to this escape of exhaust gases, lot of heat energy is carried away by it
resulting into the loss of work, this is known as ‘Exhaust Blow Down Losses’.

16.1.4. Pumping Losses -

In ideal cycle the suction and exhaust processes are assumed to be at atmospheric
pressure, where in actual, suction take place at below atmospheric pressure and
exhaust take place at above atmospheric pressure, as some pressure differential is
required to carry out the suction and exhaust processes.

Therefore some work is done on the inducted charge during suction and on burnt
gases during exhaust. This work is called as ‘Pumping Losses’.

16.1.5. Friction Losses -

The loss of power to overcome the friction between the piston and cylinder wall,
various bearings and other auxiliary equipments such as pumps and fans etc. is known
as ‘friction losses’.

Friction losses increases with speed rapidly which may be reduced by providing
proper lubrication to moving parts.

17. Comparison of Air-Standard Cycle – Vs – Fuel-Air Cycle – Vs – Actual Cycle :

Air-Standard Cycle Fuel-Air Cycle Actual Cycle

Definition – the closed Definition – the closed cycle Definition – the cycle
cycles with air as working which take into account the working on fuel-air
substance with closely variations of specific heat, mixture and which take
resembles with actual open molecular structure and the into account the various
cycle is called an air- mixtures of fuel and air looses occurring in the
standard cycle. approximating to actual actual engine operation,
engine working substance, is called as actual cycle.
are called as fuel-air cycle.
In air-standard cycle, the In fuel-air cycle, actual In actual cycle, the
working medium is composition of the cylinder working fluid is a
assumed to be a perfect gas (fuel + air = water vapor mixture of fuel-air and
gas, i.e. air and follows the in air + residual gases etc.) is the residual product of
relation 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 considered as working fluid. combustion of previous
cycle in the cylinder.
There is no change is the There is a change in working There is also a change in
working fluid during the fluid, at inlet it is fuel-air composition of working
cycle. mixture and at outlet the fluid, at due to burning
exhaust gases due to of fuel-air which is not at
burning which is assumed at constant volume and it is
constant volume and progressive combustion.
combustion is instantly.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 39
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Air-Standard Cycle Fuel-Air Cycle Actual Cycle

All processes in air- All processes in fuel-air cycle All processes are not
standard cycle are are irreversible and not adiabatic and heat losses
reversible adiabatic, and adiabatic, and no heat are considered.
heat losses are zero. losses.

Heat is assumed to be There is no heat exchange There is a heat exchange

supplied from a constant between the gases and the between the gases and
high temperature source cylinder wall in any process. the cylinder wall as well
and not from chemical The heat is supplied from the as there are losses due to
reactions during the cycle, burning of fuel-air mixture incomplete combustion of
and heat is to be rejected to by chemical reactions during fuel and exhaled to
a constant low temperature cycle and heat is rejected to atmosphere.
sink. the atmosphere through
exhaust gases.
It is assumed that there is There is losses of heat to There is losses of heat to
no loss of heat from the surrounding, as exhaust surrounding, as exhaust
system to the gases are exhaled to gases are exhaled to
surroundings. atmosphere. But heat loss to atmosphere. But the heat
cylinder wall is zero loss to cylinder wall is
also considered.

The working medium has The working medium fuel- The working medium
constant specific heat air, has variation in the fuel-air mixture has
throughout the cycle. And specific heat with variation in the specific
there is not burning temperature during the cycle heat with temperature
process take place. due to chemical reaction during the cycle, but
takes place. But complete complete combustion of
combustion of fuel is fuel is not considered.
considered
Air-standard cycle analysis Fuel-air cycle analysis shows Actual cycle analysis
shows the general effect of the effect of variation of fuel- shows the effect of
only compression ratio on air ratio, inlet pressure and variation of fuel-air ratio,
engine efficiency. temperature in addition to inlet pressure and
compression ratio. temperature,
compression ratio,
various heat losses
occurring in the actual
operation.
In air-standard cycle, In fuel-air cycle, suction and In actual cycle, suction is
suction and exhaust exhaust is at atmospheric at below the atmospheric
strokes are eliminated. pressure, thus there is no pressure and exhaust is
pumping losses. at above atmospheric
pressure, thus it causes
pumping losses.

Prob. 1 : In a diesel cycle, air at the beginning of compression is 1 bar and 50°C. The
A/F ratio is 25 : 1 and compression ratio is 15. Assuming 𝐶𝑣 = 0.71 + 0.00021𝑇 and law
of compression is 𝑝 𝑉 1.35 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. Calculate the percentage stroke at which the
combustion is completed. Take Calorific Value of Fuel = 44000Kj/Kg, Characteristic
Gas Constant = 287 J/Kg K. SPPU : Dec-07, 8-Marks

Ans. : Diesel Cycle, P1 = 1bar, T1 = 50°C = 50+273 = 323 K, A/F = 25, CR =15, 𝐶𝑣 =
0.71 + 0.00021𝑇, 𝑝 𝑉 1.35 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, CV = 44000Kj/Kg, R = 287 J/Kg K.
𝑉3 −𝑉2
Calculate % stroke = 𝑥 100 = ?
𝑉1 −𝑉2

We know, Compression Ratio (CR) is,

𝑽𝟏
𝑪𝑹 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓

And for heat addition process, 2-3,

𝑉2 𝑉3
=
𝑇2 𝑇3
𝑽𝟑 𝑻𝟑
= … … … 𝒆𝒒. 𝟏
𝑽𝟐 𝑻𝟐
For compression process 1-2,

𝑝1 𝑉1 1.35 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 1.35

𝑉1 1.35 𝑝2
1.35 =
𝑉2 𝑝1

𝑉1 1.35 𝑝2
( ) = … … . . . (𝑎)
𝑉2 𝑝1
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 41
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𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑝2
= ⇒ ( )= … … 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞. (𝑎)
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑝1 𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑝1

𝑉1 1.35 𝑇2 𝑉1
( ) = ( )
𝑉2 𝑇1 𝑉2
𝑇2 𝑉1 1.35 𝑉1 −1
= ( ) ( )
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑇2 𝑉1 0.35
= ( )
𝑇1 𝑉2
𝑇2
= (15)0.35
323
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟖𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟔 𝑲
We know,

𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅
𝐶𝑝 = (0.71 + 0.00021𝑇) + 𝑅

𝐶𝑝 = (0.71 + 0.00021𝑇) + 0.287

𝐶𝑝 = 0.997 + 0.00021𝑇
For mass of charge, m = 1 Kg,

𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑎 = 1 𝐾𝑔

𝑚𝑓 + 25 𝑚𝑓 = 1

26 𝑚𝑓 = 1

𝑚𝑓 = (1/26 ) 𝐾𝑔

We know, heat addition at constant pressure process, 2-3 :

𝑇3
𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑉 = ∫ 𝑚 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
𝑇2

𝑇3
1
( ) 𝑥 44000 = ∫ 1 𝑥 (0.997 + 0.00021𝑇) 𝑑𝑇
26 𝑇2
𝑇3
1692.31 = ∫ 1 𝑥 (0.997 + 0.00021𝑇) 𝑑𝑇
𝑇2

𝑇3
𝑇2
1692.31 = 0.997 [𝑇]𝑇3
𝑇2 + 0.00021 [ ]
2 𝑇2

0.00021
1692.31 = 0.997 (𝑇3 − 833.36) + (𝑇32 − 833.362 )
2
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 42
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1692.31 = 0.997 𝑇3 − 830.86 + 0.000105 𝑇32 − 72.92

0.000105 𝑇32 + 0.997 𝑇3 = 2596.09

𝑻𝟑 = 𝟐𝟏𝟐𝟕. 𝟑 𝑲

From eq. 1,
𝑉3 2127.3
=
𝑉2 833.36
𝑽𝟑
= 𝟐. 𝟓𝟓
𝑽𝟐
The percentage of stroke at which combustion is completed is,
𝑉3 − 𝑉2
= 𝑥 100
𝑉1 − 𝑉2
(𝑉3/𝑉2) − 1
= 𝑥 100
(𝑉1/𝑉2) − 1
2.55 − 1
= 𝑥 100
15 − 1
= 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟕 % … … . 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

Prob. 2 : Determine the effect of percentage change in efficiency of Otto cycle having a
compression ratio 8 if the specific heat at constant volume increases by 2%. SPPU :
Dec.-06, 8-Marks

Ans. : Compression Ratio, r = 8, Increase in Cv = 2%

We know, Efficiency of Otto Cycle is,

1
𝜂 =1− … … . 𝐸𝑞. 1.
𝑟 (𝛾−1)
𝐶𝑝
𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 ……. 𝐶𝑣
= 𝛾, 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝐶𝑝 = 𝛾 𝐶𝑣

𝛾 𝐶𝑣 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
(𝛾 − 1)𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
𝑅
(𝛾 − 1) = … … . 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑞. 1
𝐶𝑣
𝟏
𝜼=𝟏− 𝑹⁄ ) … … . . 𝑬𝒒. 𝑨
𝒓( 𝑪𝒗

Case 1 : No increase in Cv –
𝑅
= (𝛾 − 1) … … … 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝛾 = 1.4
𝐶𝑣
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 43
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𝑅
= (1.4 − 1)
𝐶𝑣
𝑹
= 𝟎. 𝟒
𝑪𝒗
From Eq. A, Efficiency when no increase in Cv is,
1
𝜂1 = 1 − 𝑅
𝑟 ( ⁄𝐶𝑣)

1
𝜂1 = 1 −
8(0.4)
𝜼𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟒𝟕
Case 2 : Increase in Cv by 2% -
𝑅
= (𝛾 − 1)
𝐶𝑣
Dividing both side by 1.02 as Cv increase to value 1.02 Cv
𝑅 (𝛾 − 1)
=
1.02 𝐶𝑣 1.02
𝑅 (1.4 − 1)
=
1.02 𝐶𝑣 1.02
𝑹
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟏
𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝑪𝒗
From Eq. A Efficiency when increase in Cv by 2% is,
1
𝜂2 = 1 − 𝑅⁄
𝑟( 1.02𝐶𝑣 )

1
𝜂2 = 1 −
8(0.3922)
𝜼𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟕𝟓
Change in efficiency is,
𝜂2 − 𝜂1
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥 100
𝜂1
0.5575 − 0.5647
= 𝑥 100
0.5647
= −𝟏. 𝟐𝟖 % … … 𝑵𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 … 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

Thus, there is decrease in efficiency by 1.28% if the specific heat at constant volume is
increased by 2%.

1. Define the Engine and Heat Engine.

2. Give the classification of Engine.

3. Compared the EC and IC engines.

4. Explain in brief the various components of IC engine.

5. Define the following terms used in IC engine,

a. Bore

b. Stroke

c. Cubic Capacity / Breathing Capacity of Engine

d. Clearance Volume and Swept Volume

e. Compression Ratio and Expansion Ratio.

6. With neat sketch explain the working of 4-stroke SI engine.

7. Classify the IC engine on the basis of,

a. Cylinder arrangement

b. Types of ignition

c. Types of cooling

d. Types of fuel used

e. Cycle of operation

8. Differentiate between four stroke CI engine and SI engine.

9. Differentiate between two stroke engine and four stroke engine.

10. List the various application of IC engines.

11. Compare SI engine and CI engine on the basis of following,

a. Introduction of fuel

b. Efficiency

c. Basic cycle of operation

d. Compression ratio

e. Fuel used

f. Ignition

g. Speed

12. What is meant by mean piston speed.

13. List out the various assumption made in air-standard cycle analysis.

14. Draw the Otto cycle on P-V and T-S diagram and shows the various process on it.

15. Draw the Diesel cycle on P-V and T-S diagram and shows the various process on
it.

16. Prove that the efficiency of Diesel cycle is lower than that of Otto cycle for the
same compression ratio.

17. List out the various assumption made in fuel-air cycle analysis.

18. Differentiate between air-standard cycle and fuel-air cycle.

19. Explain with neat sketch the loss due to variation of specific heat.

20. Explain with neat sketch the effect of dissociation.

21. Briefly explain the followings,

a. Time losses

b. Heat losses

c. Exhaust blow down losses

d. Pumping losses

22. Compare the actual and fuel-air cycle.

23. An engine working on Otto cycle, have initial condition of pressure and
temperature are 1 bar and 37 ºC respectively. At the end of the adiabatic
compression pressure reach to 15 bar and peak temperature of the cycle is 2000K.
Calculate the thermal efficiency of the cycle and also find the heat supplied per
unit of air, work done per unit of air and pressure at the end of adiabatic
expansion. Take 𝐶𝑣 = 0.717 𝐾𝑗⁄𝐾𝑔 𝐾, and 𝛾 = 1.4. (Ans. 𝜼 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟗%, 𝑸𝑺 =
𝟗𝟓𝟐. 𝟐 𝑲𝒋⁄𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓, 𝑾𝑫 = 𝟓𝟏𝟑. 𝟐 𝑲𝒋⁄𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓, pressure at the end of expansion
= 2.98 bar).

24. A diesel cycle engine is working on compression ratio 15 and expansion ratio 10.
Calculate the air-standard efficiency of the cycle. Assume 𝛾 = 1.4. (Ans. = 𝟔𝟑% ).

25. Dual cycle engine working on compression ratio 10 and the maximum pressure is
limited to 70 bar. The heat supplied is 1680 Kj/Kg. At the beginning of the
compression stroke the air is at 1 bar and 100 ºC. Find the pressure and
temperature at the various points of the cycle and the also find the cycle efficiency.
Assume 𝐶𝑣 = 0.717 𝐾𝑗⁄𝐾𝑔 𝐾 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 , and 𝐶𝑝 = 1.004 𝐾𝑗⁄𝐾𝑔 𝐾 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 . (Ans. 𝑷𝟐 =
𝟐𝟓. 𝟏𝟐 𝒃𝒂𝒓, 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟔𝟔𝟑. 𝟗 𝑲, 𝑻𝟑 = 𝟐𝟔𝟏𝟏. 𝟏 𝑲, 𝑸𝑺−𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒍 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎. 𝟒 𝑲𝒋⁄𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓,
𝑸𝑺−𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟒𝟕𝟗. 𝟔 𝑲𝒋⁄𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓, 𝑻𝟒 = 𝟑𝟎𝟖𝟖. 𝟖 𝑲, 𝑻𝟓 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟒. 𝟒 𝑲, 𝑷𝟓 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟑 𝒃𝒂𝒓,
𝑸𝑹 = 𝟔𝟕𝟒. 𝟗𝟖 𝑲𝒋⁄𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓, 𝜼 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟖𝟐% ).

Theory of Carburetion, Types of carburetors, Electronic fuel injection system, Combustion

in spark Ignition engines, stages of combustion, flame propagation, rate of pressure rise,
abnormal combustion, Phenomenon of Detonation in SI engines, effect of engine variables
on Detonation. Combustion chambers, Rating of fuels in SI engines, Additives.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Carburetion :

The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the proper

amount of fuel with air before admission to engine cylinder is called carburetion.

The device which supplies the mixture of correct amount of fuel and air for the
efficient combustion in cylinder at all operating conditions is called Carburetor.

1.1. Factors Affecting Carburetion :

The process of carburetion is affected by the followings,

1.1.1. The engine speed –

The time available for formation of mixture by the carburetor is affected by the
speed of the engine. If engine runs at @4000rpm, the time available for the process of
carburetion is in the range of 0.0075sec to 0.01sec.

In this time period the fuel is to be atomized, mixed with air, vaporized and to be
inducted into the engine cylinder.

1.1.2. The vaporization characteristics of the fuel –

Complete vaporization could be achieved by using highly volatile fuels, which are
expensive to produced. It also achieve by using heat in intake manifold to promote
vaporization.

At the same time, the excessive vaporization reduces the volumetric efficiency,
thus in turn it reduces power output of the engine.

1.1.3. The temperature of the incoming air –

The temperature of air plays an important role in the vaporization process of fuel.
Higher surrounding air temperature increases the vaporization of fuel and homogeneity
of mixture, but increased temperatures reduce the volumetric efficiency, hence, the
power output.

1.1.4. The design of the carburetor –

When the multi-cylinder engines supplied a partially vaporized mixture of fuel and
air, each cylinder does not receive the same amount of fuel.

The cylinder nearer to intake manifold receive rich mixture and the cylinder
farthest received comparatively lean mixture as heavy fuel particles are separate out
from the mixture stream during its long path.

1.2. Air-Fuel Mixtures :

Air and fuel are mixed to form three different types of mixtures,

1.2.1 Chemically Correct (Stoichiometric) Mixture –

Chemically correct or stoichiometric mixture is one in which there is just enough air
(oxygen) for complete combustion of the fuel. Thus with this mixture there is complete
combustion of fuel and all carbon in the fuel is converted to carbon dioxides (CO 2) and all
hydrogen to water vapors (H2O) and there is no excess oxygen remains in combustion
gases.

The hydrocarbon fuel which is used in SI engine is a petrol and it mainly octane
(C8 H18). Chemical equation for combustion can be written as,

𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝐶8 𝐻18 + 12.5 (𝑂2 + 3.76 𝑁2 ) → 8 𝐶𝑂2 + 9 𝐻2 𝑂 + (12.5 × 3.76) 𝑁2

𝐶8 𝐻18 + 12.5 (4.76 𝐴𝑖𝑟) → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶8 𝐻18 + (12.5 × 4.76)𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Mass of air,

𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

= (12.5 × 4.76)𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 × 29 𝐾𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

= 1725.5 𝐾𝑔
Mass of fuel,

𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 × 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

= (8 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 × 12 𝐾𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒)𝐶 + (9 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 × 2 𝐾𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒)𝐻2

= (96 𝐾𝑔)𝐶 + (18 𝐾𝑔)𝐻2

= 114 𝐾𝑔
The air fuel ratio on mass basis is,
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐴∶ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

1725.5
𝐴∶ 𝐹 =
114
15.14
𝐴∶ 𝐹 =
1
Thus, Chemically correct (stoichiometric) Air-Fuel mixture contains about 15 part of air
by mass for 1 part of octane fuel.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 3
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𝑨 ∶ 𝑭 = 𝟏𝟓 ∶ 𝟏

1.2.2. Rich Mixture –

A mixture which contains less air than the stoichiometric requirement is called a rich
mixture. Thus with this mixture there is always incomplete combustion of fuel take place
and all carbon can not converted to carbon dioxides (CO2) due to deficiency of oxygen,
some carbon converted to carbon monoxide (CO).

It should be noted that there is extreme limit for richness beyond which mixture
unable to burn due to lack of oxygen (air) comparatively fuel in the mixture.

Thus rich mixture ranges the ratio of air-fuel, from 15:1 to 9:1, beyond 9:1 mixture
becomes too rich to burn.

1.2.3. Lean Mixture –

A mixture which contains excess air than the stoichiometric requirement is called a
lean mixture. Thus with this mixture there is always excess oxygen with result into
complete combustion of fuel and all carbon converted into carbon dioxides but excess
oxygen remain in the combustion gases as it is.

A mixture which contains excess air than the stoichimetric requirement is called a
lean mixture. There is also a extreme limit for leanness beyond which mixture unable to
burn due to lack of fuel comparatively oxygen (air) in the mixture.

Thus lean mixture ranges the ratio of air-fuel, from 15:1 to 19:1, beyond 19:1
mixture becomes too lean to burn.

1.2.4. Air-Fuel Mixture Requirement for Engine : SPPU : Dec.-15, 6-Marks

a) Under Steady State Operation –

Steady state operation means continuous operation at a given speed and power
output with normal engine temperature. There are three main areas which required
different air-fuel mixture. It consists of idling, cruising range and power range.

Idling and low load – the no load or to about 20% of rated power i.e. low load running
mode engine supplied with rich mixture as air supplied restricted by closed position of

Cruising range – the cruising

range is from about 20% to
75% of the rated power, as the
load increases the throttle
valve opens considerably and
more air supply is available,
thus mixture richness
decreases to the best economy
level. This is on leaner side
than that of the stoichiometric
A-F ratio. Hence in cruising
range prime consideration is
usually the best fuel economy
only.

Power range – the power

range is from about 75% to
100% of the rated power. In this range the mixture requirement is rich which provide
maximum power but at the same time rich mixture reduces the flame temperature and
the cylinder temperature, thus help to prevents overheating of various engine parts.

b) Under Transient Operation –

Transient operation means operation under which speed, load, temperature or

pressure change rapidly. The transient operations are starting, warming up, acceleration
and deceleration.

Starting and warm-up conditions – in this condition rich mixture required, as the
maximum part of fuel supplied do not vaporize and remain in liquid form only and also
some part of vaporized fuel when come into cold engine parts re-condensed. Therefore
the total evaporated fuel and air mixture become too lean to burn, thus needed to supply
very rich mixture so that enough evaporated fuel air mixture is prepared for proper
ignition. As the engine warm up the amount of evaporated fuel increase and hence the
mixture ratio should be progressively mad leaner.

Acceleration Conditions – the acceleration refer to an increase in engine speed

resulting form opening the throttle. During gradually opening throttle valve increase the
corresponding increased fuel supplied too which increases the richness of mixture. But
when throttle valve is suddenly opened then this cause sudden increase in air supply
but corresponding fuel rate done not changes, which result in lean mixture supplied this
is compensated by using power enrichment and acceleration pump system.

1.5. Simple Carburetor :

SPPU : May-17, Dec.-17, May-15, Dec.-14, May-14, 6-Marks

A simple carburetor consists of a float with float chamber, venture tube and main
jet, and throttle valve, as shown in figure below.

During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi, at venturi the velocity
increases reaching a maximum at throat, and thus pressure decreases to minimum.
Because of the differential pressure (carburetor depression) between the float chamber
and the throat of venture, fuel is discharged into the air stream.

To avoid overflow of fuel through the jet, the level of the liquid in the float chamber
is maintained at a level slightly below the tip of the discharge jet.

The gasoline engine is quantity governed, which is achieved by means of a throttle

valve usually a butterfly valve.

When throttle valve closed, less air flows through the venturi tube and less is the
quantity of air-fuel mixture delivered to the cylinder and hence power output is reduced.

And when throttle valve is opened, more air flows through the venturi tube
resulting in increased quantity of mixture being delivered to the engine and hence
increases the engine power output.

1.6.1. Drawbacks of a Simple Carburetor –

1. Simple carburetor provide the required Air-Fuel ratio only at one throttle
position, on changing position mixture become either leaner or richer
depending on the throttle open less or more.
2. It provided richer mixture with increase in engine speed, as the throttle valve is
opened the air flow increases which decreases pressure at venturi throat due to

To overcome drawback of simple carburetor, the idling system with choke valve,
power enrichment (economizer) system and acceleration pump system are incorporated.

1.7.1. Main metering & Idling system / Choke system –

Engine required rich mixture at idling and low speed, due to cold condition of
engine, which is fulfilled by incorporating idling system which contains choke valve,
idling air bleed, and idling jet with adjustment screw, as shown in figure.

This system get operational at starting, idling and very low speed running of the
engine and it become non-operational when throttle is opened beyond 15%.

But very low pressure caused on the downstream side of the throttle valve, the fuel
rise in the idling tube and very small amount of air from the idling air bleed discharged
through idling jet which mixes with venturi air and form rich mixture.

Thus the rich mixture below throttle valve is available for starting the engine. The
desired air-fuel ration for idling can be regulated by idling adjustment screw.

When the throttle valve opens more than 15% the suction pressure at the idle jet
is not sufficient to draw the fuel through the idling passage, thus it becomes non-
operational. Thereafter of more than 15% opening of throttle valve, main air flow
increases and the cruising range of operation is established.

1.7.2. Power enrichment (Economizer) system –

At the maximum power range of operation from 80% to 100% load, richer air-fuel
mixture is required. An economizer / power enrichment system valve remain partially
closed at normal cruise operation and regular required fuel is supplied.

The power enrichment / economizer system incorporate a valve operated varying

opening jet as shown in figure below,

The valve get opened to supply rich mixture at full throttle operation. It regulates
the additional fuel supply during the full throttle operation.

The valve as shown is attached to the lever which operated by linking to throttle
valve. Thus when full throttle operation the lever lifted and the opening to main jet fuel
supply is increased and more fuel is supplied and thus increase the output power of
engine.

1.7.3. Acceleration pump system –

In order to accelerate the vehicle, very rich mixture has to be supplied to the
engine, and that richness of the mixture has to be obtained quickly and very rapidly.

For acceleration, if the throttle valve is suddenly opened there is a increase in the
air flow, but due to inertia, liquid fuel flow does not increase in that proportion so there
is a temporary lean mixture causing the engine to misfire and a temporary reduction in
power output.

To prevent this condition there are accelerating pump system incorporated in

carburetor, as shown in figure below.

The pump comprises of a spring loaded plunger which takes care of the situation
with the rapid opening of the throttle valve.

In crushing operation the cylinder get filled with fuel, when sudden acceleration,
throttle movement link to actuator which pushes the plunger moves into the cylinder
and forces an additional fuel at the venturi throat.

When the throttle is partly open the spring sets the plunger back, there is an
arrangement which ensure that fuel in the pump cylinder is not forced through the jet
when valve is slowly opened or leaks past the plunger.

A vehicle on city road runs at about 60% of the throttle only. During such
condition the carburetor must be able to supply nearly constant air-fuel ratio mixture
(about 16:1) which is economical.

A simple carburetor has the tendency to richen the mixture as the throttle starts
opening. The main metering system alone will not be sufficient to take care of the needs
of the engine. Therefore certain compensating devices are usually added in the
carburetor along with the main metering system so as to supply a mixture with the
required air-fuel ratio.

1.8.1. Air-Bleed Jet –

Air-bleed jet compensating device contains an air-bleed into the main nozzle as
shown in the figure given. The flow of air through this bleed is restricted by an orifice
and thus it is called as restricted air-bleed jet.

When the engine is not operating the main jet and the air bleed jet will be filled
with fuel. When the engine starts, initially the fuel starts coming through the main as
well as the air-bleed jet. As the engine picks up, only air starts coming through the air
bleed and mixes with fuel at main jet, making a air-fuel emulsion. This emulsion of air-
liquid has negligible viscosity and surface tension. Thus same fuel-air mixture for the
entire power range of operation.

If the fuel flow nozzle of the air-fuel system is placed in the centre of the venture,
both the air-bleed nozzle and the venture are subjected to same engine suction resulting
approximately same fuel-air mixture for the entire power range of operation.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 10
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.8.2. Compensating Jet –

The compensating jet device make the mixture leaner as the throttle opens
progressively. In this system additional compensating jet is incorporated, which is
connected to the compensation well which is also vented to atmosphere like float
chamber.

With the increase in air flow rate, there is decrease of fuel level in the
compensating well, with decrease fuel supply through the compensating jet. The
compensating jet thus progressively makes the mixture leaner as the main jet
progressively makes the mixture richer.

The sum of the two, tends to keep the

air-fuel mixture more or less constant. The
main jet curve and the compensating jet curve
are more or less reciprocal of each other, but
the combined jet curve almost constant for
entire power range.

1.8.3. Emulsion Tube –

The mixture correction is done by air bleeding in emulsion tube compensating

device. In this, the main metering jet is kept at a level of about 25mm below the fuel level
in the float chamber, so that it is also called as submerged jet.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 11
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The jet is located at the bottom of a well and the sides of the well have holes and
these holes are in communication with the atmosphere as shown in given figure.

In the beginning the level of fuel in the float chamber and the well is the same.
When the throttle is opened the pressure at the venture throat decreases and fuel is
drawn into the air stream. This result in progressively uncovering the holes in the
central tube leading to increasing air-fuel ratio or decreasing richness of the mixture
when all holes have been uncovered.

Normal flow takes place from the main jet. The air drawn through theses holes in
the well, and the fuel is emulsified and the pressure differential across the column of
fuel is not as high as that in simple carburetor.

1.9. Solex Carburetor :

The solex carburetor is famous for ease of starting, good performance, and
reliability. It is made in various models, and is used in fiat and standard cars and wills
jeep.

1.9.1. Normal Running –

The solex carburetor has a conventional float in a float chamber. For normal
running, the fuel is provided by the main jet passes into the well of the air bleed
emulsion system, is the emulsion tube which has lateral holes.

The correct balance of air and fuel is automatically ensured by air entering
through and being calibrated by the air correction jet. The metered emulsion of fuel and
air is discharged through the spraying orifice or nozzles drilled horizontally in the

1.9.2. Normal Running –

1.9.3. Acceleration –

A diaphragm type acceleration pump is provided. It delivers spurts of extra fuel

needed for acceleration through pump injector. Pump lever is connected to the
accelerator so that when the pedal is pressed, the lever moves towards left, pressing the
diaphragm thus forcing the fuel through pump jet and injector.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 13
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When the pedal is left free, the lever movers the diaphragm back towards right
creating vacuum towards left which opens the pump inlet valve and thus admits the
petrol from chamber into the pump.

1.9.4. Idling and Slow Running –

Idling and slow running system, from the lower part of the main jet to emulsion
tube, fuel bleeds to pilot jet. At idling the fuel is drawn from the pilot jet and mixed with
a small amount of air from pilot air bleed and discharged through idling jet during idling
and slop speed opening during slow running.

1.9.5. Cold Starting –

Cold starting system consists of bi-starter. The starter valve is in the form of a flat
disc with holes of different sizes. These holes connects the starter petrol jet and starter
air jet sides to the passage which opens into a hole just below the throttle valve.

Depending on the position of the starter lever either bigger or smaller holes come
opposite the passage. The starter lever, which rotates the starter valve, is operated from
the dashboard control by means of a flexible cable.

Initially for starting richer mixture is required and after the engine starts the
richness required decreases. So in the start position bigger holes are the connecting
holes. The throttle valve being in the closed position the whole of the engine suction is
applied to starting passage, sucking fuel from jet and air from jet. Thus the mixture
supplied to the carburetor is rich enough for starting.

After the engine has started, the starter lever is brought to the intermediate
position, bringing the smaller hole in the starter valve into circuit, thus reducing the
amount of fuel. The reduced mixture supply from the starter system in this situation is
sufficient to keep the engine running.

2. Types of Carburetor :

2.1. Up-Draught Carburetor –

In this type, air enters the

carburetor against the gravity
from bottom in the upward
direction.

The disadvantage of such

carburetor is that it has to lift the
sprayed fuel droplets by air
friction, against the tendency of
fuel droplets to separate out from
the air stream due to high inertia.
Thus mixture tends to be leaner,
due to this up-draught carburetor
now a days become obsolete.

These are always at a

level higher than the intake
manifold. In this the flow is
assisted by the gravity in its
passage into intake manifold.

This allows the proper

flow of mixture even at low
engine speeds and at the same
time the carburetor is
reasonably accessible.

2.3. Side-Draught Carburetor –

It consists of a horizontal jet tube. Such a carburetor has the advantage where
under bonnet space is limited and also the resistance to flow is reduced due to
elimination of one right angled turn in the intake passage.

2.4. Constant Choke Carburetor –

In this type, the air and fuel flow areas are always maintained to be constant. But
the pressure difference or depression which causes the flow of fuel and air are being

2.5. Constant Vacuum Carburetor –

In this type, the air and fuel flow areas are being varied as per the demand on the
engine, while the vacuum is maintained to be always same.

It is also called as Variable Choke Carburetor, and automobile carburetors like,

SU and Carter carburetors belong to this class.

2.6. Multi-Venturi Carburetor –

This system uses double or triple venturi. The boost venturi is located
concentrically within the main venturi. The discharge edge of the boost venture is
located at the throat of the main venture.

The boost venturi is positioned upstream of the throat of the larger main venturi.
Only a fraction of the total air flows through the boost venturi.

The pressure at the boost venture exit equals the pressure at the main venture
throat. The fuel nozzle is located at the throat of the boost venturi.

There are double and triple venturi type carburetors used in automobiles, figure
shown below is the double ventrui carburetor.

2.7. Dual Barrel Carburetor –

This type consists of two barrels in a carburetor, and each contains a fuel jet,
venturi tube, an idling system, choke and throttle valve. The float chamber and
accelerating pump are common to both the barrels.

The advantages of dual carburetor over single barrel carburetors are as follows,

1. It supplies a charge of the mixture to the cylinders which is uniform in quality.

2. Volumetric efficiency is higher in case of a dual carburetor.
3. It is compact in the design.
3. Air-Fuel Ratio of a Simple Carburetor : Air Assumed Incompressible -

The air-fuel ratio is the ratio of mass of air to the mass of fuel in air-fuel mixture
prepared for combustion.
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐴∶𝐹=
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

a. Calculating actual mass flow rate of air through venturi (𝒎̇𝒂𝒊𝒓 ) –

Applying steady flow energy equation (SFEE) at inlet section-1 and throat section-2,

𝐶1 2 𝐶2 2
𝑞 + ℎ1 + + 𝑔 𝑍1 = 𝑤 + ℎ2 + + 𝑔 𝑍2
2 2
Where, 𝑞 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟,

𝑤 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟

𝐶 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝑍 = 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

ℎ = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑃 𝑣

𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑇

As heat transfer and work transfer is zero and venturi tube is horizontal, put, 𝑞 = 𝑤 = 0
and 𝑍1 = 𝑍2, above equation becomes,

𝐶1 2 𝐶2 2
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 17
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
𝐶1 2 𝐶2 2
(𝑢1 + 𝑃1 𝑣1 ) + ( )
= 𝑢2 + 𝑃2 𝑣2 +
2 2
As air flow is assumed incompressible, therefore, 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 and thus internal energy 𝑢1 =
1
𝑢2 , and specific volume 𝑣 = 𝜌

𝑃1 𝐶1 2 𝑃2 𝐶2 2
+ = +
𝜌1 2 𝜌2 2
Also, the change in density is negligible for small change in pressure, density of air,
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝜌1 = 𝜌2

𝑃1 𝐶1 2 𝑃2 𝐶2 2
+ = +
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 2 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 2

𝐶2 2 − 𝐶1 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
= … … . 𝑒𝑞. 1
2 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
Applying continuity equation applied at section 1 and 2,

𝜌1 𝐴1 𝐶1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝐶2 … … 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝐴1 𝐶1 = 𝐴2 𝐶2
𝐴2
𝐶1 = 𝐶 … … . 𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞. 1
𝐴1 2
2
𝐴
𝐶2 2 − (𝐴2 𝐶2 ) 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
1
=
2 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟

2 𝐴2 2 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝐶2 −( ) 𝐶2 = 2 ( )
𝐴1 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝐴2 2 2 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝐶2 2 [1 − ( ) ]=
𝐴1 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟

2 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝐶2 2 =
𝐴 2
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 [1 − (𝐴2 ) ]
1

2 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝐶2 =
√ 𝐴 2
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 [1 − (𝐴2 ) ]
1

2 (∆𝑃)
𝐶2 = … … . . ∆𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
√ 𝐴2 2
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 [1 − (𝐴 ) ]
1

Thus, theoretical mass flow rate of air is,

2 (∆𝑃)
(𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 )𝑡ℎ = 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐴2
√ 𝐴 2
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 [1 − (𝐴2 ) ]
1

2 (∆𝑃) 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
(𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 )𝑡ℎ = 𝐴2
√ 𝐴2 2
[1 − ( ) ]
𝐴1

Coefficient of Discharge for air is the ratio of actual mass flow rate the theoretical mass
flow rate.
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐶𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 =
(𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 )𝑡ℎ

𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐶𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 )𝑡ℎ

2 (∆𝑃) 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝐶𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐴2
√ 𝐴2 2
[1 − ( ) ]
𝐴1

𝐴
As compared to inlet, throat area is very small, neglecting term (𝐴2 ), the term,
1

𝐴 2
1 − (𝐴2 ) is called as approach factor.
1

Considering 𝐴2 = 𝐴𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝒎̇𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝑪𝒅𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑨𝒂𝒊𝒓 √𝟐 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 (∆𝑷) … … 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓

b. Calculating mass flow rate of fuel through orifice (𝒎̇𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 ) –

Applying Bernoulli’s Equation to fuel flow through an orifice of cross sectional area 𝐴𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
as shown,

𝐶1 2 𝑃1 𝐶2 2 𝑃2
+ = + +ℎ𝑔
2 𝜌1 2 𝜌2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 19
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Where , C = velocity of fuel flow in m/sec.
P = pressure in N/m2
ρ= density in Kg/m3
h = nozzle lip in m

Neglecting C1 as it is very less as compared to C2,

𝑃1 𝐶2 2 𝑃2
= + +ℎ𝑔
𝜌1 2 𝜌2

𝐶2 2 𝑃1 𝑃2
= − − ℎ 𝑔 … .. 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 = 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
2 𝜌1 𝜌2

𝐶2 2 𝑃1 𝑃2
= − −ℎ𝑔
2 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝐶2 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
= −ℎ𝑔
2 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝐶2 2 (∆𝑃)
= −ℎ𝑔
2 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

(∆𝑃)
𝐶2 2 = 2 −ℎ𝑔
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

(∆𝑃)
𝐶2 = √2 −ℎ𝑔
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Actual mass flow rate of fuel is,

𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶2

(∆𝑃)
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 √2 −ℎ𝑔
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝒎̇𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = 𝑪𝒅𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝑨𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 √𝟐 𝝆𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 (∆𝑷 − 𝒉 𝒈 𝝆𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 )

This is the mass flow rate of fuel, Where, Cdfuel = coefficient of discharge of fuel orifice

Thus the air fuel ratio is,

𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐴∶𝐹=
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝐶𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐴𝑎𝑖𝑟 √2 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 (∆𝑃)

𝐴∶𝐹=
𝐶𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 √2 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (∆𝑃 − ℎ 𝑔 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 )

If nozzle lip is neglected then,

𝐶𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐴𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝐴∶𝐹= √
𝐶𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

This is the air fuel ratio when air considered as incompressible.

Prob . 1 – A simple carburetor has the venture of throat diameter of 8cm and the
coefficient of discharge is 0.94. The fuel orifice has the diameter of 0.5cm and its
coefficient of discharge of 0.7. Find air fuel ratio if the pressure drop amount to 0.14
bars when,

a) Nozzle lip is neglected

b) Nozzle lip is taken into account and it is equal to 0.5cm.

Assume the density of fuel as 780 Kg/m3, density of air as 1.293 Kg/m3 and approach
factor as 1. SPPU : Dec.-12, 8-Marks

Ans. – Throat dia., 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 8𝑐𝑚 = 0.08𝑚, 𝐶𝑑_𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.94, Fuel Orifice dia., 𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0.5𝑐𝑚 =
0.005𝑚, 𝐶𝑑_𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0.7, ∆𝑃 = 0.14 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 1.4 𝑥 104 𝑁⁄𝑚2 , 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 780 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3 , 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.293 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3 ,
𝐴 2
Approach factor, [1 − (𝐴2 ) ] = 1, Nozzle lip, ℎ = 0.5𝑐𝑚 = 0.005𝑚
1

a) Air-Fuel Ratio when nozzle lip is neglected -

We know, air fuel ratio when nozzle lip is neglected and approach factor is 1,

𝐶𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐴𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝐴∶𝐹= √
𝐶𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝜋
𝐶𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 )2 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
= 4
𝑥 𝜋 2 𝑥√
𝐶𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (𝑑 ) 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
4 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝜋
0.94 (0.08)2 1.293
= 𝑥 𝜋4 𝑥√
0.7 ( )2 780
4 0.005
𝟏𝟑. 𝟗
𝑨∶𝑭= … . . 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
𝟏
b) Air-Fuel Ratio when nozzle lip is considered -

We know, air fuel ratio when nozzle lip is 0.5cm and approach factor is 1,

𝜋
𝐶𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑟 )2 2 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∆𝑃
= 4
𝑥 𝜋 2 𝑥√
𝐶𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (𝑑 ) 2 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (∆𝑃 − ℎ 𝑔 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 )
4 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝜋
0.94 (0.08)2 2 𝑥 1.293 𝑥 1.4 𝑥 104
= 𝑥 𝜋4 𝑥 √
0.7 (0.005)2 2 𝑥 780 𝑥 [(1.4 𝑥 104 ) − (0.005 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 780)]
4
𝟏𝟒. 𝟎𝟐
𝑨∶𝑭= … . . 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
𝟏

Prob . 2 – The diameter of main jet of a simple carburetor is 0.2 cm and the pressure
drop across the venture is equivalent to 12 cm of water and the coefficient of discharge is
0.68. Density of petrol is 760 Kg/m3. Find the mass flow rate of fuel into the carburetor.
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 ∶ (10.33 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = 1.013 𝑥 105 𝑁/𝑚2 ) SPPU : Dec.-12, 8-Marks

Ans. – 𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0.2𝑐𝑚 = 0.002𝑚, ∆𝑃 = 12𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.12 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝐶𝑑_𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0.68, 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 =
760 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3
We know,

10.33 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = 1.013 𝑥 105 𝑁/𝑚2

1.013 𝑥 105
0.12 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = 0.12 𝑥 = 1176.8 𝑁/𝑚2
10.33
Thus pressure drop across the venture is,

∆𝑃 = 1176.8 𝑁/𝑚2
Now, the mass flow rate of fuel is,

𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 √2 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (∆𝑃 − ℎ 𝑔 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 )

𝜋 2
= 𝐶𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑥 (𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ) 𝑥 √2 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (∆𝑃 − ℎ 𝑔 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 )
4
Neglecting nozzle lip as it is not given, ℎ 𝑔 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0,
𝜋 2
= 𝐶𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑥 (𝑑𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ) 𝑥 √2 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∆𝑃
4
𝜋
= 0.68 𝑥 (0.002)2 𝑥 √2 𝑥 760 𝑥 1176.8
4
𝒎̇𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝑲𝒈⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄 … . . 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

4. Drawbacks of Carburetor System :

In modern SI engines carburetors are completely replaced by Gasoline Injection

System in spite of development of efficient carburetors which are cheap and reliable.

In carburetor engine, uniformity of mixture strength is difficult to realize in each

cylinder of a multi-cylinder engine. As shown in figure, air-fuel mixture from carburetor
is supplied to cylinders but the cylinder farthest from carburetor, receives rich mixture
as gasoline moves to the end of the manifold and accumulates there and when valve
opens enrich mixture supplied to the cylinder. Whereas the nearest mixture supplied
with the leanest mixture as there is no waiting time for air-fuel mixture. This problem is
called as misdistribution.

Thus the following are the inherent drawbacks of the carburetors,

1. Low volumetric efficiency – due to restriction of mixture flow across the venturi
and other metering elements in air passage.
2. Non supply of exact air fuel (A/F) ratio at all loads.
3. Distribution of mixture flow is non-uniform to cylinder in case of multi-
cylinder engine – due to resistance to mixture flow in unequal length of intake
manifolds.
4. Economy of fuel is affected during idling and low load running of the engines.
5. Possibility of back firing at low speed particularly in multi-cylinder engines.
6. Exhaust emissions are high.
7. Problem of ice formation at low temperatures.
5. Electronic fuel injection system :

The Electronic Fuel Injection System (EFI) use engine sensors, a computer, and
solenoid operated fuel injectors to meter and inject the right amount of fuel into the
engine cylinders. Thus EFI system uses electrical and electronic devices to monitor and
control engine operation.

The fuel injectors in EFI system is a solenoid operated fuel valves, when it is not
energized spring pressure makes the injector to remain closed and no fuel will enter the
engine. When computer sends the signal through the injector coil, the magnetic field
attracts the injector armature and fuel inject into the intake manifold.

The injector pulse width decided by computer controls the period for which
injector is energized and kept open. Under full load condition, computer sense a wide
open throttle, high intake manifold pressure, and high inlet air flow, then ECU will
increase the injector pulse width to enrich the mixture which results to produced higher
power.

Under low load conditions, the ECU shorten the pulse width which kept injector in
open position for shorter time, thus air-fuel mixture become leaner and gives better fuel
economy.

EFI system has a cold start injector which sprays fuel into the center of the engine
intake manifold when the engine is cold. The cold start injector ensures easy engine
startup in very cold weather.

5.1. Merits of EFI System –

Followings are the merits of EFI system over the conventional carburetor,

1. Improvement in volumetric efficiency due to comparatively less resistance in

the intake manifold which will cause less pressure losses.
2. Manifold wetting is eliminated due to the fuel being injected into or closed to
the cylinder and need not flow through the manifold.
3. Atomization of fuel is independent of cranking speed and therefore starting
will be easier.
4. Better atomization and vaporization will made the engine less knock prone.
5. Formation of ice on the throttle plate is eliminated.
6. Distribution of fuel being independent of vaporization, less volatile fuel can be
used.
7. Variation of air-fuel ratio is almost negligible even when the vehicle takes
different positions like turning, moving on gradients, uneven roads etc.
8. Position of the injection unit is not so critical and thereby the height of the
engine can be less.
5.2. Demerits of EFI System –

Followings are the demerits of EFI system as compared to conventional carburetor,

1. EFI system has high maintenance cost.

2. Difficulty in servicing.
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Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 24
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3. There are number of sensors, hence possibility of malfunction of some
sensors.
4. Overall cost of the system is very high.

5.3. Components of Electronic Fuel Injection System : SPPU : May-18, 6-Marks

The objective of the fuel injection system is to meter, atomize and uniformly
distribute the fuel throughout the air mass in the cylinder. At the same time it must
maintained required air-fuel ratio as per the load and speed condition. To achieve this a
numbers of components are required as mentioned below,

1. Electronic Control Unit (ECU) – it control ignition timing and quality of fuel to
be injected.
2. Element and Controlling Devices –
a. Pumping Element – it moves the fuel from the fuel tank to the
injectors.
b. Metering Element – it measures and supplies the fuel at the rate
demanded by load and speed conditions of the engine.
c. Mixing Element – it atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air to form a
homogenous mixture.
d. Metering Control – it adjusts the rate of metering in accordance with
load and speed of the engine.
e. Mixture Control – it adjust fuel-air ratio as demanded by the load and
speed.
f. Distributing Element – it divides the metered fuel equally among the
cylinders.
g. Timing Control – it fixes the start and stop of the fuel-air ratio mixing
process.
h. Ambient Control – it compensates for changes in temperature and
pressure of either air or fuel that may affect the various elements of the
system.
3. Sensors –
a. Exhaust Gas / Oxygen Sensor – it senses the amount of oxygen in the
engine exhaust and calculates air-fuel ratio. Sensor output voltage
changes in proportion to air-fuel ratio.
b. Engine Temperature Sensor – it senses the temperature of the engine
coolant, and from this data the computer adjusts the mixture strength
to rich side for cold starting.
c. Air Flow Sensor – it monitors mass or volume of air flowing into the
intake manifold for adjusting the quantity of fuel.
d. Air Inlet Temperature Sensor – it checks the temperature of the
ambient air entering the engine for fine tuning the mixture strength.

6. Types of Gasoline Injection System : (on basis of position of injection )

6.1. Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) System –

In GDI system injectors are located such a way that gasoline injected directly into
the cylinder. The system used ECU and solenoid operated fuel injectors to meter the
fuel.

Advantages of GDI system -

a. Improves volumetric efficiency of the engine.

b. Improves atomization and vaporization of fuel and it is independent of
reduce gap spacing speed.
c. Ease of cold starting and low load running.
d. Specific fuel consumption is reduced.
e. Variation is A:F ratio is reduced.
f. Exhaust emissions are reduced.
g. Gives better performance on gradients.
Disadvantages of GDI system -
a. High initial cost.
b. Higher maintenance cost.
c. Injector choking is possible.
6.2. Port Injection System –

In port injection system, fuel is injector is placed on the side of the intake
manifold near the intake port. The injector sprays gasoline into the air, inside the intake
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Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 26
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manifold. The gasoline mixes with the air then passes through the intake valve and
enters into the cylinder.

Every cylinder is provided with an injector in its intake manifold. If there are four
cylinders, there will be four injectors.

6.3. Manifold Injection System –

In manifold injection system, fuel is injector is placed in throttle body with the
throttle valve controlling the amount of air entering the intake manifold.

The injector sprays gasoline into the air in the intake manifold where the gasoline
mixes with air, this mixture then passes through the throttle valve and enters into the
intake manifold.

7. Types of Gasoline Injection System : (on basis of time of injection )

7.1. Continuous Injection System –

This system usually has a rotary pump. The pump maintains a fuel line gauge
pressure of about 0.75 to 1.5 bar. The system injects the fuel through a nozzle located
in the manifold immediately downstream of the throttle plate.

In a supercharged engine, fuel is injected at the entrance of the supercharger. The

timing and duration of the fuel injection is determined by ECU system depending upon
the load and speed.

Advantages of Continuous Injection system ;

a. It increases the atomization of fuel.

b. It provides uniform A:F ratio to all the cylinders..
c. The volumetric efficiency is high due to cooling effect of the charge
caused by the evaporation of the injected fuel.

7.2. Timed Injection System –

This system has a fuel supply pump which sends fuel at a low pressure of about
2 bar when the engine is running at maximum speed. A fuel metering or injection pump
and a nozzle are the other parts of the system. The nozzle injects the fuel in the
manifold or the cylinder head port at about 6.5 bar or into the combustion chamber at
pressure that range from 16 to 35 bar.

Timed injection system injects fuel usually during the early part of the suction
stroke. During maximum power operation injection begins after the closure of the
exhaust valve and ends usually after BDC. Direct in-cylinder injection is superior and
always desirable and better compared to manifold injection.

In this case both low and high volatile fuels can be used and higher volumetric
efficiencies can be achieved. However, it was noticed that direct injection caused oil
dilution in the frequent warm up phases if the car is used for daily transportation.

8. Types of Gasoline Injection System : (on basis of no. of location of injection )

The single point injection system, one or two injectors are mounted inside the
throttle body assembly. Fuel sprays are directed at one point or at the center of the
intake manifold. This is also called as throttle body injection system.

8.2. Multi Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) System – SPPU : May-18, 6-Marks

In this system, fuel is injected in more than one location. This is more common
and is often called port injection system. This Multi Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) system
is to supply a proper ratio of gasoline and air to the cylinders.

MPFI system uses electric fuel pump to spray fuel into engine intake manifold. It
provide correct Air-Fuel ratio at all operating conditions of the engine.

8.2.1. D-MPFI System :

The D-MPFI system is the manifold fuel injection system. The vacuum in the
intake manifold is sensed first with the density of air inducted. As air enters into the
intake manifold, the manifold pressure sensor detects the intake manifold vacuum and
sends the information to the ECU. The speed sensor also sends information about the
rpm of the engine to the ECU. The ECU in turn sends commands to the injector to
regulate the amount of gasoline supply for injection. When the injector sprays fuel in
the intake manifold the gasoline mixes with the air and the mixture enters the cylinder.

8.2.2. L-MPFI System :

The L-MPFI system is a port fuel injection system. The fuel metering is controlled
by the engine speed and the amount of air that actually enters the engine. This is called
air-mass metering or air-flow metering. As air enters into the intake manifold, the air
flow sensor measures the amount of air and sends information to the ECU. Speed
sensors sends information of engine rpm and the ECU processes the information and
sends appropriate commands to the injector, in order to regulate the amount of gasoline
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Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 29
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supply for injection. When injection takes place the gasoline mixes with the air and the
mixture enters the cylinder.

9. Stages of Combustion in SI Engines : SPPU : Dec.-17, May-16, Dec.-15, 6-Marks

9.1. Ideal Stages of Combustion in SI Engine -

An Ideal or theoretical pressure crank

angle diagram, during the process of
compression (process a-b) piston
moves toward TDC and compresses
the entrapped charge till the point–b.
At TDC the spark is ignited and
combustion take place
instantaneously and the entire
pressure rises during the combustion
take place at constant volume i.e. at
TDC, shown by the process b-c. The
peak pressure attend at the point–c,
and then the expansion of gases take
place from point–c to point-d.

9.2. Actual Stages of Combustion in SI Engine - SPPU : May-15, Dec.-14, 6-Marks

In an ideal 4-stroke engine, the entire pressure rise during combustion takes place
at TDC at constant volume, but in actual engine this does not happen. The processes of
combustion and pressure variation is shown as below,

Thus A-B
represents the first
stage of combustion –
Ignition Lag, B-C
represents the second
stage of combustion –
Propagation of Flame and C-D represents third stage of combustion – After Burning.

Stage I - Ignition Lag (A-B) –

A-B is known as ignition lag or preparation phase in which growth and

development of a self propagating nucleus of flame takes place. This is a chemical
process depending upon temperature, pressure, type of fuel and residual exhaust gas.

Stage II – Propagation of Flame (B-C) –

B-C is known as flame propagation phase, it is concerned with the spread of the
flame throughout the combustion chamber. The starting point is the first measurable
rise of pressure is seen on the indicator diagram, where the line of combustion separated
from compression line i.e. motoring curve at point B.

During the second stage the flame propagates practically at a constant velocity.
The rate of heat release depends on the turbulence and the reaction rate which depends
on the mixture composition. And the rate of pressure rise is proportional to rate of heat
released.

The maximum/peak pressure is observed after TDC, shown by point C.

Stage III – After Burning (C-D) –

C-D is known as the after burning phase, it is started at a point of peak pressure (
point C). Since the expansion stroke starts before this stage, the piston moving away
from the TDC, there can be no pressure rise during this stage.

The flame velocity decreases during this stage, the rate of combustion becomes low
due to lower flame velocity and reduced flame from surface.

10. Flame Propagation :

Flame propagation mainly depends on two factors, Reaction Rate and

Transposition Rate.

The transposition rate is due to the physical movement of the flame front relative
to the cylinder wall and is also the result of the pressure differential between the
burning gases and the unburnt gases in the combustion chamber.

In area-I (A-B), the flame front progresses relatively slowly due to a low
transposition rate and low turbulence. The transposition of the flame front is small as
there is a comparatively small mass of charge burned at the start. Also the low reaction
rate resulting in a slow advance of the flame, this is due to quiescent layer of gas ( the
zone of A/F mixture gas near spark plug closed to cylinder wall which have lack of
turbulence ).

In area-II (B-C), where flame front leaves the quiescent zone and proceeds into
more turbulent areas and it consumed a greater mass of mixture, it progresses rapidly.
The transposition rate and reaction rate is high all the time, due to high turbulence and
greater mass of charge availability for flame propagation.

In area-III (C-D), the volume of unburned charge is very much less towards the
end of flame travel and so the transposition rate again becomes negligible therby
reducing the flame speed. The reaction rate also reduced as flame again entering the end
charge zone of low turbulence.

11. Rate of Pressure Rise :

The rate of pressure during the combustion process has a considerable influence
on the peak pressure obtained and consequently it affects the power output and the
smooth running of the engine.

The rate of pressure rise depends on the rate at which the mass of mixture burns
in the cylinder and the ignition timing.

In the given figure of pressure rise against crank angle,

This high rate of pressure rise causes rough running of the engine due to
vibrations and jerks produced on the crankshaft. Also it creates the undesirable
situation of abnormal combustion called detonation.

Curve-3 represent a low rate of combustion which takes longer time for the
completion of combustion which required initiation of burning at early point on the
compression stroke.

Curve-2 represents normal rate of pressure rise, which is a compromise between

curve-1 and curve-3, this results in the peak pressure being reasonably close to the
beginning of the power stroke. This is accomplished by designing and operating the
engine in such a manner that approximately one half of the maximum pressure is
reached by the time the piston reaches TDC.

12. Abnormal Combustion : SPPU : May-16, 6-Marks

In normal combustion the flame initiated by the spark travels across the
combustion chamber in a fairly uniform manner. Under certain operating conditions the
combustion deviates from its normal course leading to loss of performance and possible
damage to the engine. This type of combustion may be termed as an abnormal
combustion or knocking combustion. The consequences of this abnormal combustion
process are the loss of power, recurring pre-ignition and mechanical damage to the
engine.

12.1. The Phenomenon of Detonation in SI Engine :

SPPU : May-17, May-14, 6-Marks

In SI engine combustion is initiated at spark plug and the flame spreads across
the combustion chamber and consumed the combustible mixture. During combustion
of mixture the flame front which separates the fresh mixture from the burnt.
In the normal combustion the flame travels across the combustion chamber from
A towards D. The advancing flame front compresses the end charge BDB’ as the burnt
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Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 33
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gases tries to expand and exert pressure to end charge. This raises the pressure and
temperature of end charge. Also the heat transfer from burnt gases to fresh end charge
raise the temperature. Inspite of all these if end charge does not autoignite and get
consumed by the flame front. Then there will be no any knock and the combustion is
known as normal combustion.

Figure below shows cross –section of combustion chamber with flame front
advancing from the spark plug to end charge.

Figure below shows abnormal combustion, which means the end charge BDB’
reaches to self ignition temperature and get auto-ignited before the flame front reach to
end charge.

When main flame front from spark plug travel and reaches to level BB’ the fresh
charge ahead get compressed and reached to the temperarure where it get autoignited
and new flame front travel in opposite direction. When theses two flame front collides a
pressure pulse is generated. The gas in the chamber is subjected to compression and
rarefaction along the pressure pulse until pressure equilibrium is restored. This
disturbance forces the walls of the combustion chamber to vibrate and produces the
audible sound in the engine known as knock.

13.1. Effect of Density Factor on Knock :

13.1.1. Compression Ratio -

Increase in compression ratio increase the tendency of engine knock. Increase in

compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the gases at the end of
the compression stroke. This decreases the ignition lag of the end fresh charge with
increasing the auto-ignition possibility of end charge. Also the overall increase in
density of the charge due to higher compression ratio increase the pre-flame reactions
in the end charge.

13.1.2. Mass of Inducted Charge -

Increase in the inducted charge mass increases the tendency of engine knock.
With the increase in the inducted charge mass, both the density and the temperature
of the charge increases at the time of ignition. Which may promote the end charge for
the auto-ignition.

13.1.3. Inlet Temperature of the Mixture -

Increase in the inlet temperature of the mixture, increases the tendency of engine
knock. As the inlet temperature of mixture increase it makes the compression
temperature higher thereby increasing the tendency of knocking.

13.1.4. Combustion Chamber Wall Temperature -

Increase in the combustion chamber wall temperature, the tendency of engine

knock increases. As the overheating or hot spot of the combustion chamber act as an
additional source for ignition and thus knocking may increases.
13.1.5. Retarding/Advancing the Spark Timing -

13.1.6. Power Output / Engine Output -

Increase the power output increases the tendency of engine knock. As increase
in power output, the temperature of the cylinder and the combustion chamber walls
and also the pressure of the charge increases, thereby increasing the end charge
temperature. This increases the tendency of engine knock.

13.2. Effect of Composition Factor on Knock :

13.2.1. Fuel-Air Ratio -

Fuel-Air ratio affect the flame temperature and the reaction time. Flame speed is
higher at the little richer mixture than stochiometic mixture, this minimize the time for
complete combustion, thus minimize the reaction time for auto ignition. This result in
lowering the tendency of engine knock.

But for leaner and richer mixture reduces the flame speed and thus sufficient
time is available for the end charge reaction to get auto ignited. Thus increases the
engine tendency to knock.

13.2.2. Octane Value of the Fuel -

Increase in octane rating of fuel decreases the tendency of engine to knock. A

higher octane number means the higher self-ignition temperature of the fuel which
reduce the tendency of knocking.

13.3. Effect of Time Factor on Knock :

13.3.1. Turbulence -

Increases in turbulence decrease the tendency of engine to knock. Increasing

turbulence increases the flame speed and reduces the time available for the end charge
to attain auto-ignition conditions thereby decreasing the knock tendency of the engine.

13.3.2. Engine Speed -

An increase in engine speed increase the turbulence of the mixture and thus
result in increase in flame speed and reduces the tendency of engine knock.

13.3.3. Flame Travel Distance -

The tendency of engine knock is reduced by shortening the time for flame front to
travel and reach to end charge. Engine size and spark plug position are the factors
governed the flame travel distance.
13.3.4. Engine Size -
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Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 36
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The flame requires a longer time to travel across the combustion chamber of a
large engine. Which may gives sufficiency time for the end charge to reach the auto-
ignition. Thus larger size engine has a greater tendency for engine knocking

13.3.5. Shape / Compactness of Combustion Chamber -

The more compact combustion chamber, lesser the flame travel distance and
combustion time, hence lesser the tendency to engine knock. Also shape of the
combustion chamber should promote the turbulence so that flame speed will increase
and knocking tendency will decreases.

13.3.6. Location of Spark Plug -

Spark plug is centrally located in the combustion chamber, to minimize the

flame travel distance. This result in minimum knocking tendency. There for more than
two spark plug may used for the large size engine.

13.4. Types of Combustion Chambers for SI Engines : SPPU : May-17, 6-Marks

13.4.1. T-Head Combustion Chamber :

The T-head combustion chambers were used in the

early stage of engine development. It have two valves on
either side of the cylinder and thus required two cam shafts
to operate them. The distance across the combustion
chamber is very long, hence knocking tendency is high in
this type of engine.

13.4.2. L-Head Combustion Chamber :

The T-head combustion chamber is modified into L-head

type, which have two valve on the same side of cylinder and
operated by a single camshaft. The air flow has to take two right
angle turns to enter the cylinder. This causes a loss of velocity
head and a loss in turbulence level resulting in a slow
combustion.

13.4.3. I-Head Combustion Chamber :

The I-head type is also called overhead valve combustion

chamber in which both the valve are located on the cylinder
head. This arrangement have less surface to volume ratio and
therefore less heat loss, less flame travel length and hence
greater freedom from knock. Also it have higher volumetric
efficiency from larger valves lifts.

The F-head type arrangement is the compromise

between L-head and I-head type combustion chambers.
In this type one valve is in the cylinder head and the
other in the cylinder block. This required two separate
cam shaft as both valve needed to be operated
separately.

13.4.5. Recardo Turbulent Combustion Chamber :

Recardo combustion chamber overcomes the

disadvantage of L-head combustion chamber. This provides a
turbulent head. In this main body of the combustion chamber is
concentrated over the valves leaving a slightly restricted passage
communicating with the cylinder thereby creating additional
turbulence during the compression stroke. This arrangement
reduce the flame travel and thus knocking tendency of engine.
In this type removal of cylinder head without disturbing valve
gears etc. is possible and also it make easy to lubricate the valve
mechanism.

14. Rating of Fuels in SI Engines

SI engine fuels are rated for their antiknock quality. It is called as Octane Number,
which represents the ability of fuel to resist knocking.

To determine of antiknock value of SI engine fuel, it is compared with a mixture of

two reference fuels, Iso-Octane (𝐶8 𝐻18 ) which assigned a 100 octane number and N-
Heptanes (𝐶7 𝐻16 ) which assigned a zero octane number.

The octane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage (by volume) of iso-octane
in a mixture of iso-ocatne and n-heptanes, which exactly matches the knocking intensity
of the given fuel in a standard engine under standard operating conditions.

14.1. Determination of Octane Number :

Octane number determination is carried out in three steps as follow,

Step – 1 : Standard Knock : Variable compression engine is run at specified condition

with definite compression ratio and a definite blend of reference fuels (i.e. blend mixture
of iso-octane and n-heptane). The intensity of knock at these standard conditions is
called standard knock. The knock meter is adjusted to give a particular reading under
these conditions.

Step – 2 : Test Fuel Run : The test fuel is now used and air-fuel ratio is adjusted to give
maximum knock intensity. The compression ratio of the engine is gradually changed
until the knock meter reading shows the readings of standard knock. Now this
compression ratio is fixed.

14.2. Performance Number :

The performance Number (PN) is defined as the ratio of Knock Limited indicated
mean effective pressure (𝐾𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 ) of the test fuel to the iso-octane.

Where, Performance Number (PN) is calculated as,

𝐾𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑃𝑁 =
𝐾𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑠𝑜 − 𝑂𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒

In the reference fuel, iso-octane is given octane number 100. The addition of
certain compounds (tetraethyl lead) to iso-octane produces fuels of greater antiknock
quality above 100 octane number.

Further each octane number at the higher range of the octane scale will produce
greater antiknock effect compared to the same unit at the lower end of the scale. (e.g.
octane number increase form 92 to 93 produce greater antiknock effect than a same unit
increase from 32 to 33 octane number).

Because of this non-linear variation, a new scale was derived which expresses the
approximate relative engine performance and the units of this scale are known as the
Performance Number (PN). Octane Number (ON) above 100 can be computed by,
𝑃𝑁 − 100
𝑂𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑂𝑁 > 100) = 100 +
3
14.3. Highest Useful Compression Ratio (HUCR) :

Highest Useful Compression Ratio (HUCR) is define as the highest compression

ratio at which the fuel can be used in an engine without any detonation/knock, at the
specified standard test engine under standard operating conditions.

Some of the following fuels are tested for HUCR on Recardo E6 engine,

Sr. No. Test Fuel HUCR

1 n-heptane 3.75
2 Iso-Octane 10.96
3 Benzene 14.6
4 Toluene 15.0

15. Additives / Dopes for SI Engines :

To enhance the anti-knock characteristics of the fuel, certain compounds are

added, these compounds are known as additives / dopes.

Most common additive used is Tetra Ethyl Lead [Pb (𝐶2 𝐻5 )4 ], called as TEL. Lead is
the heavy metal and get deposited on spark plug and cause the fouling of spark plug and
it deposition on exhaust valve causes corrosion, to avoid this TEL added with Ethelene
Dibromide [𝐶2 𝐻4 𝐵𝑟2 ] to make a volatile mixture, and commonly called as Ethyl Fluid.

One percent of ethyl fluid by volume, it brings down the appreciable knocking
tendency in the engine and increases the octane number rating of fuels.

There are other metallic dopes such as, (𝐶𝑂)6 , 𝐹𝑒 (𝐶𝑂3 )2 and non-metallic dopes
like methyl aniline (𝐶7 𝐻9 𝑁), toluidine (𝐶7 𝐻11 𝑁), aniline (𝐶5 𝐻7 𝑁) etc.

Exercise

1. Define Carburetion and explain the principal of carburetion.

2. List out the requirement of a good carburetor.

3. What are different air fuel ratio used in an engine.

4. Explain in short, i. Rich mixture, ii. Stoichiometric mixture, iii. Lean mixture.

5. Explain the working of simple carburetor.

6. Derive the expression for air fuel ratio of a simple carburetor.

7. Describe the essential parts of a modern carburetor.

8. Explain with neat sketch,

a. Main metering system

b. Idling system
c. Economizer system
d. Acceleration pump system
e. Choke system.
9. Explain the basic types of carburetors.

10. What are the drawback of simple carburetors.

11. Explain the MPFI system for gasoline engine with the help of neat sketch.

12. Briefly explain the stages of combustion of SI engine.

13. Explain the various factors influence the flame speed.

15. Explain the phenomenon of detonation in SI engine.

16. Explain the various types of combustion chambers used in SI engine.

17. Discus the effect of the following variable on flame propagation,

a. Fuel-Air ratio

b. Compression ratio

c. Engine load

d. Turbulence

18. Write short note on Pre-ignition and Auto-ignition.

19. Write short note on HUCR.

20. What is ignition lag.

21. What is Octane Number and how it is determine for the fuel.

22. What is dopes used for SI engine

23. Explain the requirement of a good combustion chamber of SI engine.

24. Draw the neat sketch of the following combustion chambers used in SI engines,

a. T-headed combustion chamber

b. F-headed combustion chamber

25. A simple jet carburetor is required to supply 5 Kg of air and 0.5 Kg of fuel per
minute. The fuel specific gravity is 0.75. the air is initially at 1 bar and 300 K.
Calculate the throat diameter of the choke for a flow velocity of 100 m/sec. Velocity
coefficient is 0.8 of that of the choke, calculate orifice diameter assuming, 𝐶𝑑_𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 =
0.6 and 𝛾 = 1.4. (Ans. 𝒅𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎𝒎)

26. A 4-stroke petrol engine has a swept volume of 2 liters and is running at 400
rpm. The fuel-air ratio is 1 : 14 and the volumetric efficiency at this speed is 75%.
The venture throat diameter of the carburetor fitted to the engine is 3cm.
Determine the air velocity at the throat if the discharge coefficient for air is 0.9.
The ambient pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 20 ºC respectively. Find the
diameter of the fuel jet if the specific gravity of the fuel is 0.76. Assume the
coefficient for fuel flow is 0.6 and pressure drops to 0.96 bar at the throat. (Ans.
𝑪𝟐 = 𝟖𝟐 𝒎⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄 , 𝒅𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟓 𝒎𝒎)

a. Calculate the throat diameter of the choke for a flow velocity of 92 m/sec.
and velocity coefficient is 0.8.

b. If the pressure drop across the fuel metering orifice is 0.75 of that at the
choke, calculate the orifice diameter. Assume coefficient of discharge is 0.6.
(Ans. 𝒅𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟑 𝒎𝒎, 𝒅𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎𝒎)

28. A petrol engine consumes 10 Kg of petrol per hour. Fuel air ratio is 0.06 : 1.
Coefficient of discharge for the venture is 0.8 and that for main petrol jet0.75.
Choke diameter is 23 mm. Top of the jet is 6 mm above the petrol level in the float
chamber. Calculate size of fuel jet of a simple carburetor. Take specific gravity of
petrol as 0.75, atmospheric pressure 1 bar and air temperature 25 ºC. (Ans.
𝒅𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝒎)

Fuel supply system, types of fuel pump, injector and distribution system, Combustion in
compression ignition engines, stages of combustion, factors affecting combustion,
Phenomenon of knocking in CI engine. Effect of knocking, Methods of knock control, Types
of combustion chambers, rating of fuels in CI engines. Dopes & Additives, Comparison of
knocking in SI & CI engines.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Fuel Supply System :

The fuel injection system is the most important part of the working of CI engines. The
engine performance is greatly dependents on the effectiveness of the fuel injection
system.

The injection system has to perform the important duty of initiating and controlling
the combustion process of CI engines.

1.1. Requirement of Fuel Injection System -

For proper running and good performance from the engine, the following
requirements must be fulfilled by the injection system,

1. Accurate metering of the fuel injected per cycle – the quantity of the fuel
metered should vary to meet changing speed and load requirements of the
engine.
2. Proper control of rate of injection – to achieved desired heat release patter
during combustion.
3. Accurate injection timing in the cycle – to ensure the maximum power output
with clean burning and fuel economy.
4. Proper atomization of fuel and spray patter – to ensure very find droplet spray
for rapid vaporization and mixing of fuel and air.

2. Classification of Fuel Injection System :

2.1 Air Injection System -

In this system, fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of compressed air. It needs
multistage compressor to supply compressed air at about 70 bar pressure and the fuel
pump to draw the desired fuel from fuel tank. The mixture of compressed air and fuel is
injected hence called as air injection system.

Advantages of Air Injection System –

1. It provides good atomization of fuel.

2. Heavy viscous fuels which are cheap can be used.
3. Fuel pump needs to develop only small pressure as injection assisted by high
pressure compressed air.

Disadvantages of Air Injection System –

1. It cannot be used for portable engine due to requirement of air compressor.

2. The compressor run from engine power, thus neat power output and mechanical
efficiency get reduced.
3. Due to multistage compressor, the unit becomes bulky and expensive.
4. It needed separate maintenance of air compressor.

2.2 Airless / Solid Injection System -

In this system, fuel in liquid form is injected directly into the combustion chamber
without any assistance of compressed air. Hence this system is called as airless or solid
(not a mixture of air and fuel) injection system.

When the fuel is injected into combustion chamber at pressure about 70 bars helps
it to atomized and form a fine spray which get vaporized by the high temperature of
cylinder compressed air, and form air-fuel mixture.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 3
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This system comprise mainly following components,

1. Fuel tank
2. Fuel filters – to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump and
injectors to minimize the wear and tear of the components.
3. Fuel feed pump – to supply fuel from the main fuel tank to the injection
system.
4. Injection pump – to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection.
5. Governor – to ensure that the amount of fuel injected is in accordance with
variation in load.
6. Injector – to take the fuel from the pump and distribute it in the combustion
chamber by atomizing it into fine droplets.

2.3. Mechanical Injection Systems –

Mechanical injection system have the following types,

2.3.1. Common Rail (CRDI-common rail direct injection) system –

In the common rail system a high pressure (HP) pump supplies fuel under high
pressure to a fuel header. High pressure in the header forces the fuel to each of the
nozzles located in the cylinders.

At the proper time push rod and rocker arm arrangement open valve and allow
fuel to enter the respective cylinder through the nozzle. The pressure in the fuel header
is maintained higher which enable fuel to get injected and spread in the combustion
chamber.

The amount of fuel injected can be controlled by controlling the length of period of
push rod stroke.

In this system each cylinder is provided with one pump and one injector. In this
arrangement a separate metering and compression pump is provided for each cylinder.
Fuel from tank is supplied to low pressure (LP) pump through which raises pressure to
about 2.5bar and supplied to the fuel to individual high pressure (HP) pump of
respective cylinder.

HP pumps increase the pressure to about 100 bar and above and meter the amount
of fuel to be injected by the effective stroke of the plunger.

The HP pumps are placed close to the cylinder. The high pressure pump plunger is
actuated by a cam and produces the fuel pressure necessary to open the injector valve at
the correct time.

2.3.3. Distributor Injection system –

In this system the pump which pressurizes the fuel also meters and times it. The
fuel pump after metering the required amount of fuel supplies it to a rotating distributor
at the correct time for supply to each cylinder.

The number of injection strokes per cycle for the pump is equal to the number of
cylinders. There is one metering element in each pump, a uniform distribution is
ensured also cost of the fuel injection system is less than that of individual pump
system.

2.3.4. Unit Injector system –

In the unit injector system the pump and the injector nozzle are combined in one
housing and integrated as one unit.

Each cylinder is provided with one of these unit injectors. Fuel is brought up to the
injector by a low pressure pump where at the proper time a rocker arm actuates the
plunger and thus injects the fuel into the cylinder. The amount of fuel injected is
regulated by the effective stroke of the plunger.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 6
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3. Types of Fuel Pump :

The main function of fuel pump is to deliver accurately metered quantity of fuel
under high pressure in the range of 100bar to 200 bar, at the correct instant to the
injector.

There are following two types of fuel pumps,

3.1.1.Working of Jerk Pump (Bosch Fuel Pump) -

Bosch fuel pump is a jerk type pump which consist of a barrel in which a plunger
reciprocates when driven by a camshaft. The plunger has a constant stroke and is single
acting. The pump barrel has two radially opposite holes, one is inlet port and other is
spill port.

During the delivery stroke a cam raises the plunger up against the plunger return
spring. The plunger has vertical groove extended from top face of plunger to helix.

When plunger at bottom of stroke barrel get filled by fuel through inlet port and up
stroke of plunger when closes port then entrapped fuel get compressed by further
plunger movement. The high pressure fuel then moves out from check valve by lifting it
against spring and fuel is delivered to injector.

As soon as helix groove open spill port the pressure get released and the check
valve spring force to stop the delivery.

4. Fuel Injector :

Fuel injector atomize the fuel into very fine droplets it increase the surface are of the
fuel droplets resulting in better mixing which ensure complete combustion. Atomization
is done by forcing the fuel through a small orifice of nozzle under high pressure.

The fuel injector consist of following parts,

1. Needed valve
2. Compression spring
3. Nozzle
4. Injector body

The fuel from fuel pump is fed to the nozzle mouth through fuel passage, the fuel
pressure acts on the nozzle valve which lifts it against the spring and allows the fuel to
enter into the combustion chamber in the form of atomized spray though orifice.

One the fuel from delivery pump gets exhausted, the spring tension pushes the
nozzle valve back on its seat. To provide the lubrication between nozzle valve and its
guide a small quantity of fuel is allowed to leak through the clearance and then drained
back to the fuel tank though leak off port.

The adjusting screw provided on the top of spring house is used to adjust the
spring tension and hence the valve opening pressure.

Nozzle is that part of an injector through which the liquid fuel is sprayed into the
combustion chamber.

A good nozzle should fulfill the following functions,

1. Atomization – this is the first phase in obtaining proper mixing of the fuel and
air in the combustion chamber.
2. Distribution of fuel – distribution of fuel to the required areas within the
combustion chamber for complete combustion. Following factors are affect the
distribution,
a. Injection Pressure – higher the injection pressure better the dispersion
and penetration of the fuel into all the desired locations in combustion
chamber.
b. Density of air in the cylinder – if the density of compressed air in the
combustion chamber is high then the resistance to the movement of the
droplets is higher and dispersion of the fuel is better.
c. Physical properties of fuel – the properties like self ignition
temperature, vapour pressure, viscosity etc. play an important role in the
distribution of fuel.
3. Prevention of impingement on walls – this is necessary because fuel striking
the walls decomposes and produces carbon deposits, this causes smoky
exhaust as well as increase in fuel consumption.
4. Mixing – mixing the fuel and air in case of non-turbulent type of combustion
chamber should be taken care by nozzle.

5.1. Types of Nozzle :

5.1.1. Pintle Nozzle –

In this type, stem of the nozzle valve is

extended to form a pin or pintle which protrudes
through the mouth of the nozzle. The size and
shape of the pintle can be varied according to the
requirement. It provides a spray operating at low
injection pressure of 8-10 MPa. The spray cone
angle is generally 60°. Advantage of this nozzle is
that it avoids weak injection and dribbling. Also it
prevents the carbon deposition of nozzle hole.

In this type, at centre of the nozzle body there

is a single hole which is closed by the nozzle valve.
The size of the hole is usually of the order of 0.2
mm. injection pressure is of order of 8-10 Mpa,
and spray cone angle is about 15°. Disadvantage of
this type is that they tend to dribble. Also their
spray angle is too narrow to facilitate good mixing
unless higher velocities are used.

Multi Hole Nozzle –

This type consist of a number of holes bored in

the tip of the nozzle. The number of holes varies
from 4 to 18 and the size from 35 to 200 μm. The
hole angle may be from 20° upwards. These nozzles
operate at high injection pressures of the order of
18 MPa. This type has the advantage of distribute
the fuel properly even with lower air motion
available in open combustion chambers.

5.1.3. Pintaux Nozzle –

It is the pintle nozzle which has an auxiliary

hole drilled in the nozzle body. It injects a small
amount of fuel through this additional hole which is
called pilot injection in the upstream direction
slightly before the main injection. The needle valve
does not lift fully at low speeds and most of the fuel
is injected through the auxiliary hole. Main
advantage of the nozzle is better cold starting
performance. This has drawback of poorer injection
characteristics than multi-hole nozzle.

Fuel jet velocity at the exit of orifice –

2 (𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑗 − 𝑃𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑 )
𝑉𝑓 = 𝐶𝑑_𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 √ 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑠, … 𝐶𝑑_𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑗 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚2

𝑃𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚2

𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑔/𝑚3

Time for one injection –

𝜃𝐼𝑛𝑗_𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 60
𝑡1 = ( 𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
360 𝑁

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑠, … 𝜃𝑖𝑛𝑗_𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑘 = 𝐼𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

𝑁 = 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚

Volume of fuel injected per second –

𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑣𝑜𝑙 = (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒) 𝑥 𝑉𝑓 𝑥 𝑡1 𝑥 (𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒)
𝜋
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑠, … 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑑𝑜 2 𝑥 𝑛𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2
4

𝑛𝑜 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒

𝑑𝑜 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑁𝑖
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 sec 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 =
60
𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 4 − 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
2
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 − 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
Fuel consumption per cycle –
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝑥 𝐵𝑃
𝑚𝑓_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒/ℎ𝑟
𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑠, … 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒/ℎ𝑟 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 4 − 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
2

𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒/ℎ𝑟 = 𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 − 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒

Prob. 1 – A six cylinder, four stroke diesel engine develops 125 KW at 3000 rpm. Its
brake specific fuel consumption is 200 gm/KW hr. calculate the quantity of fuel to be
injected per cycle per cylinder. Specific gravity of the fuel may be taken as 0.85.

Ans : No. of Cylinders, 𝐾 = 6, 4-Stroke, 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝐵𝑃 = 125 𝐾𝑊, 𝑁 = 3000 𝑟𝑝𝑚, 𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 =
200 𝑔𝑚⁄𝐾𝑊 ℎ𝑟 = 0.2 𝐾𝑔⁄𝐾𝑊 ℎ𝑟 , 𝑆𝐺𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0.85.

We know,
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑆𝐺𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
0.85 =
1000
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 850 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3

We know, fuel consumption per hour,

𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 𝑥 𝐵𝑃

𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0.2 𝑥 125

𝒎𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = 𝟐𝟓 𝑲𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓

Now the fuel consumption per cylinder is,

𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑 =
𝐾
25
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑 =
6
𝒎𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍_𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒅 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟕 𝑲𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

Considering fuel consumption per cycle per cylinder is,

𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝑁⁄
2
4.17 ⁄
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 60
3000⁄
2
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 4.63 𝑥 10−5 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

𝒎𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍_𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒅_𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒈𝒎⁄𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑥 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

4.63 𝑥 10−5
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
850
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 0.00000005457 𝑚3 ⁄𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑭𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟒𝟓𝟕 𝒄𝒄⁄𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 … . . 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

Prob. 2 – Calculate the diameter of the fuel orifice of a four stroke engine which
develops 25 KW per cylinder at 2500 rpm. The specific fuel consumption is 0.3 kg/ KW
hr fuel with 30 °API (American petroleum institute gravity). The fuel is injected at a
pressure of 150 bar over a crank travel of 25°. The pressure in the combustion chamber
is 40 bar. Coefficient of velocity is 0.875 and specific gravity is given
141.5
𝑆𝐺 =
131.5 + °𝐴𝑃𝐼
Ans. : BP = 25 KW per cylinder, N = 2500 rpm, bsfc = 0.3 Kg/KW hr, °API = 30, Pinj =
150 bar, crank travel = 25°, Pcyld = 40 bar, Cd = 0.875.

We know, duration of fuel injection is,

𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐. = 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑗 =
𝑁
360 𝑥 60

25
𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑗 =
2500
360 𝑥 60

𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑗 = 1.667 𝑥 10−3 𝑠𝑒𝑐.

Given that the SG of fuel is,

141.5
𝑆𝐺 =
131.5 + °𝐴𝑃𝐼
141.5
𝑆𝐺 =
131.5 + 30
𝑆𝐺 = 0.8762
Thus density of fuel is,
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
0.8762 =
1000

Now the velocity of fuel injected is,

2 (𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑗 − 𝑃𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑑 )
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑗 = 𝐶𝑑 √
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

2 (150 𝑥 105 − 40 𝑥 105 )

𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑗 = 0.875 𝑥 √
876.2

𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑗 = 138.65 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.

Volume of fuel injected per cycle is,

𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 𝑥 𝐵𝑃
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑐𝑒 =
𝑁
2 𝑥 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
(0.3/60) 𝑥 25
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑐𝑒 =
2500
2 𝑥 876.2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑐𝑒 = 0.114 𝑥 10−6 𝑚3 ⁄𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

Now calculating the nozzle orifice area is,

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑜 =
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑗

0.114 𝑥 10−6
𝐴𝑜 =
138.65 𝑥 1.667 𝑥 10−3
𝐴𝑜 = 0.4932 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2
Thus diameter of orifice is,
𝜋
𝐴𝑜 = (𝑑 )2
4 𝑜
𝜋
0.4932 𝑥 10−6 = (𝑑 )2
4 𝑜
𝒅𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟐 𝒎𝒎 … . 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

In the compression ignition (CI) engines, only air is compressed though a high
compression ratio during compression stroke, raising its pressure and temperature to a
high value. Fuel is injected by the injector into this highly compressed air in the
combustion chamber. The fuel jet disintegrates into a core of fuel surrounded by a spray
envelope of air and fuel particles, which is created by the atomization and vaporization of
fuel.

The turbulence of air resulting in better mixing of fuel and air. Evaporation of
liquid fuel droplets starts by absorbing the latent heat of vaporization from the
surrounding air. As soon as this fuel vapor and air mixture within combustible range
reach the level of auto-ignition temperature ignition starts. Thus in CI engine there must
a certain delay period before the ignition starts.

The fuel air mixture is heterogeneous, this is because of the fact that the fuel
droplets cannot be injected and distributed uniformly throughout the combustion space.
In combustion chamber orderly and controlled movement is imparted to the air and the
fuel so that a continuous flow of fresh air is given to each burning droplet, this air
motion is termed as air swirl which is produced by the shape of the combustion
chamber.

7.1. Stages of Combustion in CI Engines : SPPU : May -18, 6-Marks

The combustion of a CI engine is considered to be taking place in four stages,

Stage I : Ignition Delay – SPPU : May -17, 6-Marks

Ignition delay period is defined as the period of inactivity between the time when first
droplet of fuel hits the hot compressed air in combustion chamber and the time it starts
through the actual burning.

On pressure–crank angle diagram, it is shown between the fuel injection start to

the start of combustion, this ignition delay is divided into two parts as physical delay
and chemical delay.

Physical Delay – the delay period between the time of fuel injection starts to the
attainment of chemical reaction conditions.

In this, the fuel is atomized, vaporized and form a mixture with air and then
temperature raised to its self ignition temperature.

Chemical Delay – the period where chemical reaction start slowly and then
accelerate until ignition takes place.

Chemical delay is larger than physical delay. In CI engine, the ignition delay is
shorter than the duration of fuel injection.

Stage II : Uncontrolled Combustion / Rapid Combustion Period –

The period of rapid combustion / uncontrolled combustion is shown on pressure-

crank angle diagram (indicator diagram), which starts from the start of combustion (ie
end of ignition delay) and it ended at the peak pressure point.

During the delay period a considerably amount of fuel accumulates in the

combustion chamber and is properly atomize and vaporized. When the actual ignition
starts, the fuel burns at an extremely rapid rate. This phase is called the period of
uncontrolled combustion.

The rate of heat release during this period is maximum. The longer the delay
period the more rapid and higher is the pressure rise since more fuel would have
accumulated in the combustion chamber.

Stage III : Controlled Combustion –

At the end of uncontrolled combustion, the temperature and pressure are so high
that the fuel droplets injected during the uncontrolled combustion burn almost and now
any further pressure rise can be controlled by the fuel injection rate.

Controlled combustion starts from the end of uncontrolled combustion and ends
at the point of maximum cycle temperature.

Stage IV : After Burning –

Combustion does not cease with the completion of the injection process. The
unburnt and partially burnt fuel particles left in the combustion chamber start burning
as soon as they come into contact with the oxygen. This process continues for a certain
duration called the after burning period. This period starts from the point of maximum
cycle temperature and continues over a part of the expansion stroke.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 16
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8. Abnormal Combustion / Knock in CI Engine : SPPU : May -17, 6-Marks

In CI engine the injection of fuel takes place for a certain interval of time. In
shorter delay period, the first droplets of the fuel being injected will commence actual
burning phase in a relatively short time after injection and small amount of the fuel will
be accumulated in the chamber when the actual burning commences. The mass burning
of the mixture will produce a smooth pressure rise and the combustion will be normal.

If ignition delay is longer the actual burning of the first droplets is delayed and
greater quantities of fuel droplet are accumulated in the combustion chamber. When the
actual burning starts, the ignition of the large amount of accumulated fuel causes a
violent and instantaneous rise of pressure. Under such conditions extreme pressure
differentials are produced and violent gas vibrations known as detonation or knock
occurs.

8.1. Comparing Knock in SI and CI Engine : SPPU : May-17, May-14, 6-Marks

Description SI Engines CI Engines

Indicator
Diagram

Detonation occurs due to end Detonation occurs due to first

Auto-Ignition
charge auto-ignition, away from portion of mixture auto-ignited,
Location
the spark plug. near the spray enveloped.

Detonation occurs near the end Detonation occurs beginning of

Timing
of combustion. the combustion.

Intensity of knocking is high due Intensity of knocking is low due

Intensity of
to homogeneous mixture in SI to heterogeneous mixture in CI
Knocking
engines. engines.

Knocking noise is very high as

Knocking noise is nearer to
compared to normal working
normal working noise of engine,
Noise Level noise of engine, hence
hence distinguishing by human
distinguishing by human ear is
ear not possible
possible.

Factors Short Delay Period, Low Self High Delay Period, High Self
Tending Ignition Temp. (SIT) of fuel Ignition Temp. (SIT) of fuel
Knocking causing knocking. causing knocking.

Compression High Compression Ratio make Low Compression Ratio make

Ratio engine knock prone. engine knock prone.

Inlet Pressure High inlet pressure & Low inlet pressure &
& temperature causes engine to temperature causes engine to
Temperature knock. knock.

8.2. Effect of Knocking :

Noise –
As intensity of detonation increases, the sound intensity increases and its is harmful
to engine parts.
Mechanical Damage –
The high pressure shock waves may damage piston and increase rate of wear and
erosion of piston.
Increase Heat Transfer –
The temperature of detonating engine cylinder is higher than non-detonating engine
which causes increase heat transfer.
Decrease in Power Output and Efficiency –
The thermal efficiency and power output by detonating engine is less than non-
detonating engine, due to abnormal combustion.

To reduce the knock, the CI engine must design to reduce delay period.

1. The delay period can also be reduced by reducing the degree of turbulence as it
will reduce heat loss. However, it will increase the combustion period and thus
reduce torque and thermal efficiency.
2. The delay angle is reduced, cetane number is increased, by adding chemical
dopes, called ignition accelerators. The chemical dopes increase the preflame
reactions and reduce the flash point. These chemicals increase the cetane rating of
diesel fuel by auto-ignition at lower temperatures.
3. There would be high rate of pressure rise and high maximum pressure in the
uncontrolled combustion if large amount of fuel collects in the delay period. It can
be reduced by arranging the injectors so that only a small amount of fuel is
injected at first.

9. Types of Combustion Chambers in CI Engines : SPPU : May-16, Dec.-15 6-Marks

Objectives of Combustion Chamber Design in CI Engine - SPPU : May-14, 6-Marks

The mixing of fuel and air is of great importance in CI engine to obtain the required
power, efficiency and short delay period for smooth operation. To fulfill these, following
are the main objectives of combustion chamber design in CI engines.
1. Fuel to be atomized into fine droplet spray.
2. Forming proper air-fuel mixture .
3. There must be turbulence to enhance chemical reaction and mixing.
4. Complete combustion to obtain peak pressure.
5. Low surface to volume ratio to reduce heat losses and to achieve high thermal
efficiency.
6. Short delay period for smooth, knock free operation of engine.

According to Air Swirl –

According to Injection Location / Turbulence –

9.1. Air Swirl :

Air movement generated to form a better air-fuel mixture in CI engine is known as

air swirl.

9.1.1. Induction Swirl –

In this method, the flow of air is directed in desired direction through a port
tangential to the piston or by shrouding the intake valve head or by squish during the
compression stroke. This method is used in case of open chamber / direct injection type
combustion chambers.

a) Tangential Port –

In this type the port opening to the combustion chamber is made tangential so
that the air entering through this port moves tangential to the combustion chamber.

b) Shrouding Intake Valve –

c) Squish during Compression Stroke -

In this type, the flow of air from periphery to the centre of the cylinder into the
combustion recess by squeezing it out from between the piston and cylinder head
towards the end of compression stroke.

Advantages of Induction Swirl –

1. It allows high excess air to lower the combustion chamber temperature with
low turbulence and low heat losses, these enhance the thermal efficiency of the
engine to approach the ideal air cycle efficiency.
2. In open combustion chamber the intensity of swirl is low, thus heat loss to
walls is less, resulting in easier cold starting.
3. Swirl is generated during induction, no additional work is supplied to the
engine.
Disadvantages of Induction Swirl –

1. This swirl is weak in intensity, thus required multi-orifice nozzle with high
injection pressure.
2. Small nozzle openings are frequently clogged and change fuel spray patter, thus
needed regular cleaning which increases maintenance cost.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 21
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3. Use of shrouded valves lowers the volumetric efficiency.
4. Swirl is not proportional to speed and hence efficiency is not maintained over a
wide range in a variable speed engine.

9.1.2. Compression Swirl - SPPU : May -18, 6-Marks

In this method swirl is generated into a divided chamber known as swirl chamber,
this generates a very strong swirl. It has a spherical shaped swirl chamber connected to
the main combustion chamber by throat and maximum possible air is transferred to it
during compression stroke.

The fuel is injected into the swirl chamber and the ignition and bulk of the
combustion takes place therein. Increase in the pressure in the swirl chamber causes a
rush of hot gases and partially burned fuel outwards into the main combustion chamber
through throat, resulting into excessive turbulence and better combustion.

Advantages of Compression Swirl –

1. Due to strong swirl a single orifice injector with low injection pressure is
required.
2. Due to strong swirl there is a greater utilization of air. Therefore for a given
power, the size of the engine is smaller as compared to open chamber
induction swirl engine.
3. In this injector is located towards one side of the cylinder, hence there is
freedom to use larger valves with a free entry.
4. The swirl generated is proportional to the speed, thus they are suitable for
variable speed operation.
5. The swirl chamber produces smoother engine operation because the small
swirl chamber absorbs the initial shock of peak pressure and saves the piston
from extreme pressure variations.

1. The work done during compression is considerable and there is a

corresponding loss during expansion also, which result in lowering mechanical
efficiency.
2. Because of strong swirl, there is greater heat loss to the combustion chamber
walls.
3. More energy is wasted in the exhaust gases which may lead to decreased
exhaust valve life and other problems in exhaust manifold.
4. The cylinder construction is more expensive than in the case of open chambers.

9.1.3. Combustion Induced Swirl -

In this method a small pressure rise is obtained by combustion of fuel and air in a
separate cell and then it is forced through a small hole at high velocity to create swirl
turbulence.

This method is employed in pre-combustion and air-cell combustion chamber

designs.

a) Pre-Combustion Chamber Type -

It consists of pre-combustion chamber connected to the main chamber through a

number of very small holes. Pre-combustion chamber is of 20-30% of the total clearance
volume. The fuel is injected into pre-combustion chamber in such a manner that bulk of
it reaches the orifice separating the two chambers.

The combustion is initiated in the pre-combustion chamber and the resulting

pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air and their combustion
products to rush out at high velocity through the small holes, thus both creating strong

Advantages of Pre-Combustion Chamber Type –

1. It has multi-fuel capability without any modification, because the temperature

of pre-combustion chamber is nearly constant at 2000°C and the difference
between optimum injection timing between petrol and diesel fuel is only 2°.
2. It uses single hole pintle type of nozzle. .
3. Low ignition quality fuels are required.
4. The initial shock of combustion is limited to pre-combustion chamber only.

Disadvantages of Pre-Combustion Chamber Type –

1. It has high heat losses due to high velocity and smaller size of valve due to
central location of pre-combustion chamber.
2. Thermal efficiency is low.
3. Cold starting is difficult.

b) Air-Cell Chamber Type

In this clearance volume is divided into two parts, one in the main cylinder and
the other called the energy cell. The energy cell is divided into two parts, major and
minor which are separated from each other and from the main chamber by narrow
orifices.

A pintle type of nozzle injects the fuel across the main combustion chamber.
During the compression the pressure in the main chamber is higher than that inside the
energy cell due to restricted passage area between the two. At TDC the difference in
pressure will be high and air will be forced at high velocity through the opening into the
energy cell and this moment the fuel injection also begins. The combustion starts

In energy cell the fuel is well mixed with air and high pressure is developed due to
heat release and the hot burning gases blow out through the small passage into the
main combustion chamber. This high velocity jet produces swirling motion in the main
combustion chamber and thereby thoroughly mixes the fuel with air resulting in
complete combustion.

Advantages of Air-Cell Chamber Type –

1. It required less injection pressure.

2. The direction of spraying is not very important.
3. Smooth running of engine.
4. This can be used for high speed engines.
Disadvantages of Air-Cell Chamber Type –

1. It has poor cold starting performance requiring heater plugs.

2. Specific fuel consumption is high because there is a loss of pressure due to
air motion through the duct and heat loss due to large heat transfer area.
3. It has low thermal efficiency.

10. Open Chamber / Direct Injection / Non-Turbulent Combustion Chambers

SPPU : May-16, Dec.-15 6-Marks

An open type combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion

space is essentially a single cavity with little restriction from one part of the chamber to
the other and hence with no large difference in pressure between parts of the chamber
during the combustion process. There are may designs as follows,

10.1. Hemispherical Type Chamber

This chamber has a centrally hemispherical cavity as shown, and it gives small
squish only.

In this, the depth of the cavity provided in the piston is quite small. This chambers
are usually adopted or the large engines running at low speeds. Since the cavity
diameter is very large the squish is negligible.

10.3. Toroidal / Truncated Cone Type Chamber

In this, air swirl is obtained by shrouding the inlet valves and produces powerful
squish with air movement. The cone angle of spray for this type of chamber is 150° to
160°.

10.4. Cylindrical Type Chamber

It provided better squish, the desired level of squish can be obtained by varying
depth to diameter ratio of the cavity. Swirl is produced by shrouding inlet valve.

10.5. Rectangular Type Chamber

It have a rectangular shape cavity, with larger diameter and comparatively small
depth. This chambers have lower squish.

Advantages of Open Combustion Chamber –

1. Heat loss to cylinder wall is small due to less turbulence in combustion

chamber, it give easy starting.
2. It is simple in construction.
3. Thermal efficiency is high.
4. Less costly fuel with longer delay period can be used.

Disadvantages of Open Combustion Chamber –

1. Supply of excess air required for better utilization of fuel but this results into
lower maximum temperature, thus power output suffers.
2. High injection pressure are needed.
3. Higher maintenance cost, as small opening for injecting fuel given frequent
clogging of orifice.

10.6. MAN Open Combustion Chambers

The MAN combustion chamber is a special type of open combustion chamber,

which was developed in West Germany. This is of spherical shape situated in the piston
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 27
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crown. Due to the presence of strong swirling action of air, a thin liquid film of fuel is
formed over the combustion space, this eliminates the formation of fine mist.

The principles employed in the design of this chamber are,

 To prevent the initial formation of heterogeneous fuel-air mixture so that the

reaction rate is normal.
 To prevent access of oxygen to the fuel to eliminate formation of peroxide.
 To assist early formation of slowly reacting hydrocarbon compounds.

For this type of chamber, it is claimed that combustion takes place in a

homogeneous gas phase, thermal decomposition is prevented and there is no soot
formation. The pressure rise is at low rate, thus ease of starting.

Advantages of MAN Open Combustion Chamber –

1. Smooth running of engine with high thermal efficiency.

2. Can use poor ignition quality fuels.
3. Weight to power ratio is low.
4. High volumetric efficiency.
5. Low smoke levels in exhaust.
6. Easy cold starting.

Disadvantages of MAN Open Combustion Chamber –

1. Engine at no load and low load gives diesel odour in exhaust.

2. At no load and low load emission is with smoke and high level of
hydrocarbons.

11. Rating of Fuels in CI Engines :

Fuel used in CI engine, i.e. diesel is rated by the Cetane Number. The fuel cetane
(𝐶16 𝐻34 ) is has good ignition qualities and it is assigned a rating of 100 cetane number.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 28
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Whereas, alpha-methyl-naphthalene (𝐶10 𝐻7 𝐶𝐻3 ) has poor ignition quality and it is
assigned zero cetane number.

Cetane Number is defined as, the percentage by volume of cetane in a mixture of

cetane and alpha-methyl-naphthalene that produces the same delay period or ignition lag
as the fuel being tested under same operating conditions on the same engine.

Higher the cetane number of fuel, lesser the tendency to diesel knock.

11.1. Diesel Index :

An alternative method of rating quality of diesel is called Diesel Index,

𝐴𝑛𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (℉)𝑥 𝐴𝑃𝐼 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 15℃

𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
100
Where, …..

Aniline Point : it represents the lowest temperature at which the

diesel fuel is completely miscible with an equal volume of aniline.

API gravity : API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity is the

density of diesel oil and it is expressed as,

141.5
𝐴𝑃𝐼 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = − 131.5
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 15℃

11.2. Dopes & Additives :

Dopes and additives are used to raise the cetane number of the fuels in the range
of 50 – 60 for high speed engines.

Such additives serve to reduce the self ignition temperature of fuel by acting as a
local ignition point.

Sr. Increase in Cetane Number on

Dope / Additives
No. adding of 5% by weight

1 Amyl Nitrate 13.5

2 Amyl Nitrite 9

3 Ethyl Thionitite 10

Exercise
1. What are the requirement of a fuel injection system in CI engines ?

3. Differentiate between air injection and airless injection system used in CI engine

4. Draw the neat sketch of different types of fuel injector nozzle nozzle used in CI
engine.

5. Explain the working principle of jerk fuel injection system.

6. Explain the working of Bosch fuel injector pump with neat sketch.

7. Explain the working of distributor type fuel injection pump with neat sketch.

8. Explain with neat sketch the common rail fuel injection system.

9. Draw a neat diagram of pressure – crank diagram.

10. Factor which leads to increased possibility of detonation in SI engine tend to

reduce knocking in CI engine. – discus.

11. Explain the concept of ignition delay period in CI engine.

12. What are the different stages of combustion in CI engines ?

13. What are the significance of controlling delay period in CI engines ?

14. What are the effect of following engine variables on diesel knock ?

15. Discuss the phenomenon of normal and abnormal combustion in CI engines.

16. Compare between the SI engine and CI engine about abnormal combustion.

17. Enlist the requirement of good combustion chamber for CI engines.

18. Write note on turbulence in CI engine combustion chamber.

19. Explain with neat sketch the induction swirl combustion chamber.

20. Enlist the combustion chambers used in CI engines.

21. Explain the air-cell chamber and list its advantages and disadvantages.

22. Explain the divided combustion chamber using compression swirl.

23. Explain with neat sketch any four direct injection combustion chambers used in
CI engines.

24. Give the classification of combustion chamber used in CI engines.

25. Write short note on MAN combustion chamber.

26. Define cetane number of a fuel used in CI engines.

28. What are additives ? List out the various additives used for CI engine fuel.

29. A four cylinder, four stroke diesel engine develops a power of 180 KW at 1500 rpm.
The BSFC is 0.2 kg/KW hr. At the beginning of injection pressure is 30bar and the
maximum cylinder pressure is 50 bar. The injection is expected to be at 200 bar
and maximum pressure at the injector is set to be about 500 bar. Assuming the
followings,

𝐶𝑑 for injector = 0.7

SG of fuel = 0.875
Atmospheric pressure = 1 bar
Effective pressure difference = Avg. pressure difference over injection period
Determine the total orifice area required per injector if the injection takes place
over 15° crank angle. (Ans. 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 2 𝑥 10−4 𝐾𝑔, 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑗 = 1.667 𝑥 10−3 𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑗 =
186.33 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 0.2286 𝑥 10−6 𝑚3 ⁄𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 , 𝑨𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟑𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒎𝟐 .

Syllabus :

Objective of Testing, Various performance parameters for IC engine – Indicated Power,

Brake Power, Friction Power, SFC, AF ratio etc. Methods to determine various performance
parameters, characteristic curves, heat balance sheet.
Supercharging – Supercharging and Turbo-charging methods and their limitations.
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1. Testing of IC Engines :

Testing of an engine is used to measure the various parameter intended to quantify

the engine performance level in terms of power output, efficiency, fuel consumption,
emission etc.

There are following objectives of the engine tastings,

Testing of an engine is carried out to get the correct information regarding the
performance of the engine, which data then used to judge whether an engine working
under-performance or not.

Testing of an engine also have an objective to justify the rating of an engine and the
guaranteed specific fuel consumption and power output.

It also used for validation of the engine performance with the design specifications.

2. Performance Parameter :

Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success with which it is doing

its assigned job. This degree of success is compared on the basis of following
parameters,

2.1. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (𝑷𝒊𝒎𝒆 ) –

It is define as, the constant pressure which if acted over the full length of the stroke
would produce the same amount of work done by the piston as it is actually produced by
the engine.

It is calculated from the indicator diagram as follow,

𝑃𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑥 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝒂
𝑷𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝒙𝑲 𝒊𝒏 𝑵/𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝒍
2.2. Indicated Power (IP) –

It is define as, the power developed within the engine cylinder, and it is denoted by IP.

Indicated Power (IP) of engine at a particular speed can be calculated with the help of
indicator (P-v) diagram.

Let ,
𝑃ime = Indicated Mean Effective Pressure in 𝑁/𝑐𝑚2
𝐴 = Cross sectional area of piston in 𝑐𝑚2
𝑑 = Diameter of piston in 𝑐𝑚
𝐿 = Length of stroke in 𝑐𝑚
𝑁 = Speed of engine in 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑛 = Number of power stroke per minute
= 𝑁 for 2-stroke engine
= 𝑁/2 for 4-stroke engine

𝐼𝑃 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑥 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛.

𝐼𝑃 = (𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ) 𝑥 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛.

𝐼𝑃 = (𝑃𝑚 𝑥 𝐴 𝑥 𝐿 ) 𝑥 𝑛

𝐼𝑃 = 𝑃𝑚 𝐴 𝐿 𝑛 in Nm/min.
𝑃𝑚 𝐿 𝐴 𝑛
𝐼𝑃 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑚/ sec (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)
60
𝑷𝒎 𝑳 𝑨 𝒏
𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑰𝑷) = 𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝑾 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
2.3. Brake Power (BP) –

The Brake Power is define as the useful power available at the output shaft (crank
shaft) of an engine, and it is denoted by BP.

The brake power (BP) is always less than indicated power (IP) because of the
following power losses,

 Pumping loss due to induction and exhaust.

 Mechanical losses / friction power losses in the moving parts.
 Resistance of air to flywheel rotation.

Brake Power can be calculated with the help of following methods,

2.3.1. Rope Brake Dynamometer –

The rope brake dynamometer consists of a

number of turns of rope wound around the rotating
drum attached to the output shaft. One side of the rope
is connected to a spring balance and other to a loading
device.

The power absorbed is due to friction between the

rope and the drum.

Let , 𝑊 = Dead weight in 𝑁

𝑆 = Spring balance reading in 𝑁
𝑁 = Engine speed in 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝐷 = Diameter of brake drum in 𝑚
𝑑 = Diameter of rope in 𝑚
𝑅 = Effective radius of brake drum in 𝑚
𝐷+𝑑
=
2
𝑁 = Engine speed in 𝑟𝑝𝑚

𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑) = (𝑊 − 𝑆)

𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑇) = (𝑊 − 𝑆)𝑥 𝑅

The prony brake consists of a frame with two shoes gripping the flywheel. The
pressure of the brake shoes on the flywheel can be varied by the spring loaded using
nuts on the top of the frame. The wooden block when pressed into contact with the
rotating drum opposes the engine torque and the power is dissipated in overcoming
frictional resistance. The power absorbed is converted into heat and hence it required
cooling.

Let ,
𝑊 = Dead weight in 𝑁
𝑙 = Length of lever arm in 𝑚
𝑁 = Engine speed in 𝑟𝑝𝑚

𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑇) = 𝑊 𝑥 𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑚

(2 𝜋 𝑁 )
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐵𝑃) = (𝑊 𝑥 𝑙 ) 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
60
(2 𝜋 𝑁)
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐵𝑃) = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
60

𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑩𝑷) = 𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝑾
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
2.3.3. Eddy Current Dynamometer –

It consists of a stator on which a number of electromagnets are fitted and a rotor

disc made of copper or steel which is coupled to engine output shaft.

When rotor rotates eddy currents are produced in the stator due to magnetic flux
setup by the passage of field current in the electromagnets. These eddy currents oppose
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 5
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the rotor motion, thus loading the engine. The torque is measured with the help of a
moment arm and the load. This dynamometer also required cooling as eddy currents are
dissipated in producing heat.

Advantages of Eddy Current Dynamometer are,

1. It can be used to measure high power output at all speed, thus suitable for
automobile and aircraft engines.
2. Overall size is less as compared to other dynamometer.
3. Eddy current development is smooth, hence the torque developed is smooth
and continuous under all operating conditions.
4. These can be made in all sizes for measurement of power.

2.3.4. Swinging Field Dynamometer –

It consists a DC shunt motor, the field coils tends to rotate due to the magnetic
drag. This dynamometer can be switch over from motor mode to generator mode.

When used as motoring device an external source of DC voltage is needed to drive

the motor. And when used as power absorbing device (DC generator) it converts
mechanical energy into electric energy which is dissipated in an external resistor. The
load is controlled by changing the field current.

This type of dynamometer used to measure brake power of high speed engines.

2.3.5. Transmission (Mechanical Type) Dynamometer –

Transmission dynamometer is also called Torque-meter, it consist of a set of strain

gauges fixed on the rotating shaft and the torque is measured by the angular
deformation of the shaft which is indicated as strain of the strain gauge.

Usually a four arm bridge is used to reduce the effect of temperature to minimum
and the gauges are arranged in pairs such that the effect of axial or transverse load on
the strain gauges is avoided.

These are very accurate and used where continuous transmission of load is
necessary. These are used mainly in automatic units.

It works on the principle of dissipating the power in fluid friction. It consists of an

inner rotating member or impeller coupled to the output shaft of the engine. This
impeller rotates in a casing filled with some hydraulic fluid.

The outer casing tends to revolve with the impeller due to centrifugal force
developed, but it is resisted by a torque arm supporting the balance weight.

The output can be controlled by regulating the sluice gate which can be moved in
and out to partially or wholly obstruct the flow of water between impeller and the casing.

2.4. Friction Power (FP) –

The friction power (FP) is the engine internal power losses, mainly due to pumping
losses and friction losses. Pumping Losses – during the inlet and exhaust stroke piston
moves against the gaseous pressure opposite to its movement, thus to overcome
pressure resistance some power is losses called as pumping losses.

Friction Losses – during the motion between two sliding or rotating parts some
power is lost to overcome friction between them, also to drive engine accessories like
water pump, ignition unit etc. engine power is used, all these power losses are called as
friction losses.

Thus the power available at output shaft of engine is always less than that of
generated and the difference is equal to the friction power.

𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑭𝑷 = 𝑰𝑷 − 𝑩𝑷
The following methods are used to determine the friction power (FP).

2.4.1. Willan’s Line Method – SPPU : Dec.-18, 7-Marks

In this method, a graph is prepared between fuel consumption on Y-axis and

brake power on X-axis at constant speed. And fuel consumption Vs. brake power curve
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 7
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is extrapolated on the negative axis of the brake power. The intercept of the negative axis
is taken as friction power of the engine at that speed. The extrapolated part is shown by
dotted line.

From the graph, at BP = 0, the engine consumes some fuel, this means that the
energy supplied by fuel is spent in overcoming friction.

Drawbacks of this methods,

 This method holds good mainly for CI engines

 The long distance is to be extrapolated from data obtained between 5 – 40%
load towards the zero line of fuel input.
 This method gives approximate friction power due to the errors involved in
extrapolation.

2.4.2. Morse Test Method –

This method can be used only on multi-cylinder engines. In this each cylinder is
cut off in turn and measures the brake power. SI engine cylinders cut off by shorting
respective spark plug and CI engine cylinders are cut off by cutting off the fuel supply to
respective injector.

Consider a four cylinder engine coupled to a dynamometer. Through out the test
engine is run at constant speed (i.e. N rpm), and it is assumed that friction losses are
the same whether the cylinder is working or motoring.

Let , measurement of brake power,

𝐵𝑃 = Brake Power when all cylinder working in 𝐾𝑊
𝐵𝑃1 = Brake Power when cylinder 1 is cut off (i.e. cyld. 2,3 & 4 working)
𝐵𝑃2 = Brake Power when cylinder 2 is cut off (i.e. cyld. 1,3 & 4 working)
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 8
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𝐵𝑃3 = Brake Power when cylinder 3 is cut off (i.e. cyld. 1,2 & 4 working)
𝐵𝑃4 = Brake Power when cylinder 4 is cut off (i.e. cyld. 1,2 & 3 working)
Now the measurement of indicated power,

𝐼𝑃1 = Indicated Power when cylinder 1 is cut off (i.e. cyld. 2,3 & 4 working)
𝐼𝑃1 = 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃1

𝐼𝑃2 = Indicated Power when cylinder 2 is cut off (i.e. cyld. 1,3 & 4 working)
𝐼𝑃2 = 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃2
𝐼𝑃3 = Indicated Power when cylinder 3 is cut off (i.e. cyld. 1,2 & 4 working)
𝐼𝑃3 = 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃3

𝐼𝑃4 = Indicated Power when cylinder 4 is cut off (i.e. cyld. 1,2 & 3 working)
𝐼𝑃4 = 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃4
Thus, total indicated power of the engine is,

𝑰𝑷 = 𝑰𝑷𝟏 + 𝑰𝑷𝟐 + 𝑰𝑷𝟑 + 𝑰𝑷𝟒

Calculation for Friction Power is,

Total Friction Power = Total Indicated Power – Total Brake Power

𝑭𝑷 = 𝑰𝑷 − 𝑩𝑷
2.4.3. Motoring Test Method –

In this method, engine is coupled with swinging field type dynamometer. The test
engine is operated at the rated speed by its own power and allow to reach a steady state
condition. During this power generated is absorbed by the swing field dynamometer.

When engine reach to steady state condition, the ignition is then cut off and
dynamometer is converted to run as motor to crank the engine at the same speed which
it was previously operating. The power supplied by the dynamometer to the engine is
measured which is equal to the friction power of engine at that speed.

Following factors affect the real data in this method,

 There is always a engine temperature difference when run by its own power
and when it is motor by dynamometer.
 Due lower temperature during motoring, the clearance between the piston
rings and wall is more which reduces the friction.
 Piston subjected to much higher pressure in firing engine as compared to
motored engine.
 There is a difference in back pressure of fired engine and motored engine.

2.5. Mechanical Efficiency (𝜼𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 ) –

Thermal efficiency of engine is the ratio of the power produced to the heat supplied
due to combustion of fuel.

Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ηith ), it the ratio of indicated power (IP) to the heat
supplied.
𝑰𝑷
𝜼𝒊𝒕𝒉 =
𝒎𝒇 𝒙 𝑪𝑽

Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηbth ), it the ratio of brake power (BP) to the heat
supplied.
𝑩𝑷
𝜼𝒃𝒕𝒉 =
𝒎𝒇 𝒙 𝑪𝑽

Where,
𝑚𝑓 = mass of fuel supplied
𝐶𝑉 = Calorific Value of fuel
2.7. Specific Output –

The specific output of the engine is defined as the brake power per unit of piston
displacement.
𝑩𝑷
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 =
𝑨𝒙𝑳
Where,
𝐴 = Area of piston
𝐿 = Stroke of piston
2.8. Relative Efficiency (𝜼𝒓𝒆𝒍 )–

Relative efficiency is defined as the ratio of the brake thermal efficiency to the air-
standard efficiency.
𝜼𝒃𝒕𝒉
𝜼𝒓𝒆𝒍 =
𝜼𝒂𝒊𝒕−𝒔𝒕𝒅
𝟏
Where, 𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑡−𝑠𝑡𝑑 SI Engine = 𝟏 − (𝒓)𝜸−𝟏
𝟏 𝒓𝒄 𝜸 −𝟏
𝜂𝑎𝑖𝑡−𝑠𝑡𝑑 CI Engine = 𝟏 − (𝒓)𝜸−𝟏
[ ]
𝜸 (𝒓𝒄 −𝟏)
𝑟 = Compression Ratio
𝑟𝑐 = Cut off Ratio
𝛾 = 1.4
2.9. Volumetric Efficiency (𝜼𝒗𝒐𝒍 ) –

It also defined as, the actual mass of charge inducted during suction stroke to the
mass of charge corresponding to swept volume of the engine at atmospheric pressure and
temperature.
𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒓−𝒂𝒄𝒕
𝜼𝒗𝒐𝒍 =
𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒓−𝒕𝒉

Where,
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟−𝑎𝑐𝑡 = from air consumption measuring device
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟−𝑡ℎ = for two stroke engine = 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑁
𝑁
= for four stroke engine = 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 2
2.10. Specific Fuel Consumption (𝑺𝑭𝑪)–

Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) is defined as the amount of fuel required to be

supplied to an engine to develop 1KW power per hour.

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) is the amount of fuel required to be

supplied to an engine to develop 1KW brake power per hour.
𝒎𝒇
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪 = 𝒙 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝒈 / 𝑲𝑾 𝒉
𝑩𝑷
Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC) is the amount of fuel required to be
supplied to an engine to develop 1KW brake power per hour.
𝒎𝒇
𝑰𝑺𝑭𝑪 = 𝒙 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝒈 / 𝑲𝑾 𝒉
𝑰𝑷
Where,
𝑚𝑓 = fuel consumed in Kg

3. Methods of improving engine performance –

The engine performance can be improved by increasing the energy input to the
engine or by improving the conversion efficiency of the engine.

The following methods can be used to improve the engine performance,

1. By increasing mass flow rate of mixture

2. By using fuel of higher calorific value
3. By using fuel with higher octane rating in SI engine and cetane rating in
CI engine
4. By supercharging the engine
5. By increasing engine speed
6. By improving engine volumetric efficiency by reducing pressure losses in
intake manifolds and reducing the mixture flow restrictions
7. By using higher compression ratios
8. By using fuel additives, exhaust gas recirculation, positive crankcase
ventilation etc.
9. By reducing heat losses.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 11
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4. Heat Balance Sheet –

Heat energy is supplied to the engine by the combustion of fuel. Only a part of this
heat energy is converted into useful work at the engine crankshaft and the remainder is
lost.

The accounting of the energy supplied, the energy losses and the useful energy
output is expressed in the tabulated sheet known as heat balance sheet.

To draw a heat balance sheet for an internal combustion engine a complete test
must be made on the engine while running at constant speed. The various terms used in
heat balance sheet are as follows,

Heat supplied (𝑸𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 ) – This count the total heat supplied by the fuel on combustion,
and this is calculated as,

𝑸𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 = 𝒎𝒇 𝒙 𝑪𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝑱/𝒎𝒊𝒏

Where,
𝑚𝑓 = Mass of fuel consumed in Kg/min
𝐶𝑉 = Calorific value of fuel in KJ/Kg

Heat Equivalent to Brake Power (𝑸𝒃𝒑 ) – Heat equivalent to useful work can be
measured by measuring the brake power of the engine.

𝑄𝑏𝑝 = 𝐵𝑃 𝑥 60 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝐽/𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
𝑸𝒃𝒑 = 𝒙 𝟔𝟎
𝟔𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
Where,
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵𝑃 = 60 𝑥 1000 = brake power in KJ/min

Heat Rejected to Cooling Water (𝑸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 ) – Heat part which is carried away by the
cooling water is considered as heat rejected to cooling water, and it is calculated as,

𝑸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝒎𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒙 𝑪𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒙 ∆𝑻𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝑱/𝒎𝒊𝒏

Where,
𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = mass of cooling water in Kg/min
𝐶𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = specific heat of water in KJ/Kg K
∆𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = (𝑇𝑤𝑜 − 𝑇𝑤𝑖 ) = cooling water temperature difference in °C

Heat carried away by exhaust gases (𝑸𝒈𝒂𝒔 ) – Heat part which is carried away by the
exhaust gases is considered as heat rejected from the engine, and it is calculated as,

𝑸𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝒎𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒙 𝑪𝒑𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒙 (𝑻𝒈𝒂𝒔 − 𝑻𝒂𝒊𝒓 ) 𝒊𝒏 𝑲𝑱/𝒎𝒊𝒏

Where,
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 12
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𝑚𝑔𝑎𝑠 = mass of exhaust gas in Kg/min
𝐶𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑠 = specific heat of exhaust gas in KJ/Kg K
𝑇𝑔𝑎𝑠 = temperature of exhaust gas in °C
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 = temperature of air at inlet in °C

Heat unaccounted (𝑸𝒖𝒏𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 ) – Heat part which is expended in heating engine parts,
engine oil, heat losses by radiation and convection to surrounding, all are consider
under the unaccounted heat loss, and it is calculated as,

𝑸𝒖𝒏𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝑸𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 − (𝑸𝒃𝒑 + 𝑸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝑸𝒈𝒂𝒔 )

All these information if tabulated as the heat balance sheet as follow,

Heat Supplied KJ/min % Heat Expenditure KJ/min %

1. Heat utilized in Brake

--- ---
Power (𝑄𝑏𝑝 )

2. Heat rejected to
Heat supplied --- ---
cooling water (𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 )
by fuel on
combustion --- 100 %
3. Heat carried away by
(𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 ) --- ---
exhaust gases (𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑠 )

4. Unaccounted heat
--- ---
loss (𝑄𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 )

Total heat
--- 100% Total heat expenditure --- 100%
supplied

Prob . 1 – A single cylinder engine running at 2000rpm develops a torque of 10Nm. The
indicated power of the engine is 2.3 KW. Find the loss due to friction power as the
percentage of brake power. Also calculate mechanical efficiency of the engine.

Ans. – No. of cylinder, K = 1, N = 2000rpm, T= 10Nm, IP = 2.3 KW.

Loss of friction power as % of brake power –

We know, the brake power is,

2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵𝑃 = 𝐾𝑊
60 𝑥 1000
2 𝜋 𝑥 2000 𝑥 10
𝐵𝑃 =
60 𝑥 1000
𝑩𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟒 𝑲𝑾
The friction power is,

𝐹𝑃 = 2.3 − 2.09

𝑭𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝑲𝑾

Now, % loss of friction power as of BP is,

𝐹𝑃
% loss of friction power as of BP =
𝐵𝑃
0.21
% loss of friction power as of BP = 𝑥 100
2.09
% 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐁𝐏 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝟕 % … … 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

Prob . 3 – The following data were recorded in a test one hour duration on a single
cylinder oil engine working on 4-stroke cycle,

Bore = 300mm Stroke = 450 mm

Fuel used = 8.8 Kg Calorific value of fuel = 41800 KJ/Kg
Average speed = 200 rpm Mean effective pressure = 5.8 bar
Brake friction load = 1860 N Quantity of cooling water = 650 Kg
Temperature rise = 22 °C Diameter of brake wheel = 1.22 m

Calculate,
1. Mechanical efficiency
2. Brake thermal efficiency
3. Draw Heat Balance Sheet

Ans. – 𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡 = 1 ℎ𝑟 = 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐., 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 1,

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠 = 4, 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑑 = 300𝑚𝑚 = 0.3𝑚, 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 𝐿 = 450𝑚𝑚 = 0.45𝑚, 𝑚𝑓 =
8.8 𝐾𝑔 𝑖𝑛 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝐶𝑉 = 41800 𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔, 𝑁 = 200 𝑟𝑝𝑚, 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑚𝑒 =
5.8 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑊 = 1860 𝑁, 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚𝑤 = 650 𝐾𝑔 𝑖𝑛 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙,
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = Δ𝑇 = 22 °𝐶, 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝐷𝑏 = 1.22 𝑚.
1. Mechanical efficiency -

We know, indicated power is,

𝑃𝑚𝑒 𝐿 𝐴 𝑛
𝐼𝑃 =
60 𝑥 1000
𝜋 2 𝑁
𝑃𝑚𝑒 𝐿 ( 𝑑 )( )
𝐼𝑃 = 4 2
60 𝑥 1000
𝜋 200
5.8 𝑥 105 𝑥 0.45 𝑥 ( 4 0.32 ) ( 2 )
𝐼𝑃 =
60 𝑥 1000
𝑰𝑷 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝑲𝑾
We know BP using brake drum dynamometer is,
2 𝜋 𝑁 𝑊 𝑅𝑏
𝐵𝑃 =
60 𝑥 1000
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 14
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2 𝜋 𝑥 200 𝑥 1860 𝑥 0.61
𝐵𝑃 =
60 𝑥 1000
𝑩𝑷 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟕𝟔 𝑲𝑾
Thus, mechanical efficiency is,
𝐵𝑃
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ =
𝐼𝑃
23.76
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ =
30.75
𝜼𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟕 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟐𝟕% … . . 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟏
2. Brake thermal efficiency -

We know, brake thermal efficiency is,

𝐵𝑃
𝜂𝑏𝑡ℎ =
𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑉
23.76
𝜂𝑏𝑡ℎ =
8.8
3600 𝑥 41800
𝜼𝒃𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟐𝟓 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 % … . . 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟐

3. Draw Heat Balance Sheet (on the basis of KW) –

Heat supplied –

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑉

8.8
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑥 41800
3600
𝑸𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐. 𝟏𝟖 𝑲𝑾
Heat Equivalent to BP –

𝑄𝑏𝑝 = 𝐵𝑃

𝑄𝑏𝑝 = 23.76

𝑸𝒃𝒑 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟕𝟔 𝑲𝑾

Heat carried out by cooling water -

𝑄𝑤 = 𝑚𝑤 𝑥 𝐶𝑝_𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 Δ𝑇

650
𝑄𝑤 = 𝑥 4.187 𝑥 22
3600
𝑸𝒘 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 𝑲𝑾
Unaccounted Heat (Heat carried out by exhaust, radiation) -
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 15
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𝑄𝑢𝑛 = 𝑄𝑠 − ( 𝑄𝑏𝑝 + 𝑄𝑤 )

𝑄𝑢𝑛 = 102.18 − (23.76 + 16.63)

𝑸𝒖𝒏 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟕𝟗 𝑲𝑾
Thus heat balance sheet on KW basis is,

Heat Supplied KW % Heat Utilized KW %

Heat Equivalent to BP, 23.76 23.25%

𝑄𝑏𝑝 = 𝐵𝑃

Heat carried out by

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑉 102.18 100% cooling water, 16.63 16.27%
𝑄𝑤 = 𝑚𝑤 𝑥 𝐶𝑝_𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 Δ𝑇

Unaccounted Heat, 61.79 60.47%

𝑄𝑢𝑛 = 𝑄𝑠 − ( 𝑄𝑏𝑝 + 𝑄𝑤 )

Heat Supplied 102.18 100% Heat Utilized 102.18 100%

1. Super charging :
Supercharging is the method of increasing the power output of the engine without
increasing its weight and size. This can be made possible by increasing the density of the
charge supplied to engine cylinder, which ensures greater amount of the charge
aspirated into the same stroke volume.

Thus supercharging can be defined as, the admittance of the more charge into the
engine cylinder than what the engine can take during the normal suction stroke.

The device which is used to increase the pressure (density) of air or charge above
the atmospheric pressure is called supercharger.

a. Factors which increase the power output by supercharging –

 Increase in power due to increase in inlet pressure of the charge –

The output of the supercharged engine is increased due to the increased density of
the charge. This is obtained by increasing the inlet pressure of the charge by using
compressor called as supercharger.

As charge pressure increased, the corresponding temperature of charge also

increases which decreases the charge density, therefore it is cool in the after-cooler
before it enters into the cylinder.

 Increase in power due to the additional filling of the engine cylinder –

The high pressure fresh charge in the engine cylinder, causes the compression of the
residual gases present in the clearance volume. This facilitates the additional filling of
the cylinder.

 Increase in power due to the positive gas exchange work –

In the case of the naturally aspirated engine, the suction pressure is less than the
exhaust pressure. So a negative work is done during the gas exchange process.

In the supercharged engine the inlet pressure is higher than the exhaust pressure,
therefore a positive work is done during the gas exchange process. This is because,
during the exhaust stroke the piston has to move only against the back pressure in
both the cases whether the engine is naturally aspirated or supercharged, but during
the suction stroke the pressure is higher in the supercharged engine, hence there is
additional energy delivered to the piston and therefore more power is obtained.

b. Effect of Supercharging -

The induced charge by the supercharger during suction helps in better mixing of fuel
and air during its compression stroke due to the turbulent effect created by the
supercharger and the increased temperature helps in vaporization of fuel.

Thus the power output of the supercharged engine is increased without increasing
engine weight and size.

The increase in temperature of charge, reduces the charge density and it is may tend
to detonation in SI engine.

The supercharger is driven from the engine power itself, hence it reduces the power
output available.

The p-v diagram for the naturally aspirated and supercharged engines are shown
below,

Mean effective pressure for naturally aspirated engine is,

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑎) − 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑏)

𝑃𝑚𝑒 = [ ] × 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑙

Mean effective pressure for supercharged engine is,

Thus there is increased mean effective pressure with supercharged engine, which
result into increase in power output of the engine.

c. Objectives of Supercharging -

There are following objective of supercharging an engines,

1. To increase the power output of the engine by increasing the density of charge at
intake.
2. To reduce the weight to power ratio. It is very useful in case of aircraft, racing cars
and marine applications.
3. To overcome the loss of power at high altitudes either in case of static engines or
in case of aircraft applications. The loss of power of an engine is estimated to be
1% per 100 m of altitude.
4. To reduce the bulk of the engine where weight and space are important
consideration like in case of locomotives and marine engines.

d. Effects of Supercharging -

 Power Output : The power output of a supercharged engine is higher than its
naturally aspirated engine, due to increased in mean effective pressure.

 Fuel consumption : In SI engines, the use of a lower compression ratio, increased

heat losses due to higher values of specific heats and dissociating losses at higher
temperatures, all result in lowering the thermal efficiency and in producing higher
brake specific fuel consumption for supercharged engines.
In CI engines fuel consumption is less than that of naturally aspirated engines
due to better fuel distribution, improved combustion and increased mechanical
efficiency.

 Volumetric Efficiency : Supercharging increases volumetric efficiency slightly, since

the residual gases in the clearance are compressed by the inducted charge which is
at a pressure higher than the residual exhaust gas pressure.

 Mechanical Efficiency : Mechanical efficiency of the supercharged engine is

increases, inspite of an Increase in intake pressure, increases gas load, hence large
bearing areas and heavier components are needed. Thus frictional losses are
increased. But the friction losses is less than the power gained by supercharging.

2. Limits of Supercharging -

Supercharging of an IC engine is limited to certain limit, due to following reasons,

1. Increased maximum pressure in the cylinder tend to increase detonation

tendency in case of SI engines.
2. Increase in intake pressure increases the maximum pressure attained in the
cylinder. This increases the weight of the cylinder since the engine has to be
designed to withstand higher pressure.
3. Higher peak pressure increases the friction losses, and bearing loads.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 18
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4. Excessive supercharging may result into higher mean cylinder wall
temperatures and it may cause the melting of piston top and pre-ignition
problems.
5. Higher temperature will lead to higher exhaust gas temperature, it causes
overheating of exhaust valves.

a. Supercharging limits of SI engines –

There are following reasons due to which SI engines are not supercharged,

1. The compression ratio in SI engines is limited from knock and detonation

considerations for a given octane rating of fuel to be used.
2. Knocking tendency in SI engines increases with the increase in pressure
temperature, compression ratio and density of charge and the mixture
strength.
3. The engine supercharged, the increased induction pressure will increase the
peak pressure and temperature which may lead to increase in detonation.
4. Otherwise supercharged engine, the compression ratio needs to reduced, but
it reduces the power output and thermal efficiency and increase the bsfc.

SI engines are supercharged in the following cases only,

1. For compensation of reduced pressure at high altitudes in case of static

engines and aero-plane engines.
2. For increased power requirement at the time of take off in aero engines on
the expense of high fuel consumption. But it is required for short duration of
time.

b. Supercharging limits of CI engines –

1. In CI engines, increase in induction pressures due to supercharging help to

decrease the knocking tendency, and improve combustion characteristics.
2. Supercharging in these engines improves power output, thermal efficiency
and it can use inferior fuels with low cetane rating.
3. In CI engines, supercharging is limited due to peak pressure and
temperatures, thermal stresses developed, mean temperature of cylinder wall
temperatures and loads on bearings etc.
4. Also supercharging limited due to fuel economy in CI engines.

3. Methods of Supercharging -

The following arrangements are used to supercharge engines,

a. Mechanical Supercharging (Gear Driven Supercharger) –

In this method, a compressor coupled to the engine with step up gearing to

increase the rotational speed of compressor. In this a certain percentage of engine
output is utilized to drive the compressor. Compressor uses atmospheric air and
compressed it and supplied to engine through after cooler. After cooler through which
the compressed cool air supplied to engine. This will further increase the density of the
intake air.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 19
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The net output increase due to supercharging is obtained by subtracting the
power used for compressor from the engine gross output.

b. Turbo-charged (Gas Turbine Driven) Supercharger –

In this arrangement the engine so equipped are said to be turbo-supercharged.

The exhaust energy of the engine is used to drive the gas turbine which is coupled to a
compressor.

There is no mechanical coupling of compressor or gas turbine with the engine. The
hot exhaust gases are supplied to gas turbine where its energy is utilized to drive gas
turbine. The mechanical work output of gas turbine is supplied to compressor, which
inhaled atmospheric air and compressed it and supplied to engine through after cooler.
After cooler through which the compressed cool air supplied to engine. This will further
increase the density of the intake air.

In this, if the turbine output is insufficient to run the compressor particularly at

part loads, the engine power takes care of the load of compressor. Engine runs the
compressor through the common shaft passing through the gas turbine.

When gas turbine producing the sufficient power then it supplied power to run the
compressor and any addition power of turbine can be fed to the engine.

d. Free Piston Engine or Gear Driven Supercharger –

In this arrangement, engine drive only the compressor. Air from the compressor
supplied to engine through after cooler. Engine supercharging increases the cycle
pressure and temperature. The exhaust gas are supplied to power gas turbine, which
utilized energy of exhaust gas and converted to mechanical work output. The ultimate
load is taken care by this power gas turbine output.

Hence may time it is called as free piston engine.

4. Turbo-charging -

The major parts of a turbocharger are, turbine wheel, turbine housing,

turbocharger compressor wheel, compressor housing and bearing housing.

When engine load is high enough, there is enough gas flow and this makes the
turbine wheel to spin rapidly. The turbine wheel is connected to the compressor wheel
by the turbo-shaft.

As such the compressor runs with the turbine which inhaled atmospheric air and
supplied the compressed air to the engine.

5. Methods of Turbo-charging -

There are following methods of turbocharging,

a. Constant Pressure Turbo-charging –

In this method the exhaust of all the cylinders are released to common exhaust
manifolds from where it supplied to run the gas turbine. It could be seen that the
exhaust pressure of all the cylinder is constant and above the atmospheric pressure. The
exhaust manifold is made big in size to absorb any pressure pulsations. The system is
very efficient in operation.

Limitations of constant pressure turbo-charging –

 To maintain constant pressure and to avoid any pressure pulsations, it is

necessary to use large diameter exhaust pipe. It increases the space requirement
of the engine.
 Response of the system to change in load is poor because the acceleration of
turbine occurs slowly when the load on the engine is suddenly increased reason

b. Pulse (Buchi Type) Turbo-charging –

The main objective of this system is to utilize the kinetic energy of blow down
gases to drive the gas turbine without much increase in exhaust pressure. To achieve
this, the exhaust lines are grouped together to receive the exhaust pulses as soon as the
exhaust valve opens.

Then these gases are gathered and passed from the narrow exhaust pipes directly
to the gas turbine by the shortest route.

Separate exhaust pipes are used so that exhaust process of various cylinders do
not interface with another.

Limitations of pulse (Buchi Type) turbo-charging –

 With high turbine pressure ratio, the recovery of energy is poor. Pressure ratio for
turbine is limited too.
 Engine with large number of cylinders requires complicated intake and exhaust
pipe arrangement.
 Poor turbine efficiency is obtained in case of one or two cylinders.
 Scavenging process is disturbed if the waves have to travel through long exhaust
pipes to turbine.

c. Pulse Converter Turbo-charging –

In this system, the exhaust of engine cylinder from exhaust manifolds is joined in
a venturi section. The pressure pulse is converted into kinetic energy in the nozzle
section of venturi. It creates a suction effect in the exhaust line and helps in scavenging
process of the engine.

In the diffuser part of the venturi the pressure gradually increase and high
pressure exhaust is supplied to the turbine.

This system is suitable and efficient even at part load conditions for low pressure
ratio turbocharging.

Exercise

1. What is dynamometer? Give the classification of dynamometer.

2. Write short note on Hydraulic Dynamometer.

3. Explain with neat sketch rope brake dynamometer used in testing of IC engine.

4. With the help of neat sketch explain the working of Prony type dynamometer.

5. Explain the working of mechanical type of transmission dynamometer.

7. What is Willan’s line method ?

8. Write short note on Heat Balance Sheet.

9. Define the Indicated Power, Brake Power, Friction Power.

10. Explain the motoring test to measure the friction power.

11. Explain the Morse test during performance test of IC engine.

12. Discuss the volumetric method of fuel measurement.

13. Explain the working of orifice flow meter for measurement of fuel consumption.
14. With neat sketch explain the air flow meter.
15. Define the volumetric efficiency, mechanical efficiency, thermal efficiency.
16. Discuss the various losses in IC engines.
17. An engine working on Otto cycle, having compression ratio = 6, brake power =
14.8 KW, suction pressure = 1 𝑥 105 𝑁/𝑚2 , and suction temperature = 27 ºC,
relative efficiency = 68%, mechanical efficiency = 78%. Calculate the air standard
and thermal efficiency of an engine. (Ans. 𝜼𝒂𝒊𝒓_𝒔𝒕𝒅 = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟏𝟔%, 𝜼𝒊𝒕𝒉 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟕𝟗%, 𝜼𝒃𝒕𝒉 =
𝟐𝟕. 𝟏𝟑% ).
18. A single cylinder, four stroke CI engine has the following data, bore = 10cm, stroke
= 11cm, brake torque = 28 Nm, speed = 1600 rpm, imep = 6.5 bar. Calculate the
brake power, indicated power, friction power, and mechanical efficiency. (Ans. 𝑩𝑷 =
𝟒. 𝟔𝟗 𝑲𝑾, 𝑰𝑷 = 𝟕. 𝟒𝟗 𝑲𝑾, 𝑭𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗 𝑲𝑾, 𝜼𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟔%).
19. Morse test conducted on four cylinder, four stroke engine of 75mm bore and
100mm stroke. Brake Power : when all cylinder are working is 31.2KW, when
cylinder-1 cut off is 22.2KW, when cylinder-2 cut off is 22.06KW, when cylinder-3
cut off is 21.76KW and when cylinder-4 cut off is 21.32KW. Clearance volume is
100cc and Calorific Value of fuel used is 43600 KJ/Kg.
Calculate, indicated power, friction power, mechanical efficiency and air standard
efficiency. (Ans. 𝑰𝑷 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟒𝟔 𝑲𝑾, 𝑭𝑷 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟔 𝑲𝑾, 𝜼𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟐𝟖 %, 𝜼𝒂𝒊𝒓_𝒔𝒕𝒅 = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟎%).
20. An engine uses 0.28 Kg/KW hr of fuel based on brake power of calorific value of
45000 KJ/Kg. Its mechanical efficiency is 80%. Compression ratio is 5.6. Find
brake thermal efficiency, indicated thermal efficiency, air standard efficiency and
relative efficiency. Assume 𝛾 = 1.4. (Ans. 𝜼𝒃𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝟕 %, 𝜼𝒊𝒕𝒉 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟕𝟏 % 𝜼𝒂𝒊𝒓_𝒔𝒕𝒅 =
𝟒𝟗. 𝟖 %, 𝜼𝒓𝒆𝒍 = 𝟕𝟏. 𝟕 %).
21. A six cylinder and four stroke engine has a bore diameter of 100mm and stroke
length of 120mm, working on compression ratio of 8. The relative efficiency is 60%
and indicated fuel consumption is 0.25 Kg/KW hr. Calculate the calorific value of
fuel used. In case the engine has a indicated mean effective pressure of 8 bar at
3000 rpm. Also find the corresponding fuel consumption. (Ans. 𝑪𝑽 =
𝟒𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟐. 𝟗 𝑲𝑱⁄𝑲𝒈, 𝑰𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑. 𝟎𝟗 𝑲𝑾 𝒎𝒇 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟕 𝑲𝒈⁄𝒉𝒓).
22. The following data obtained during a trial on two-stroke engine, bore = 200mm,
stroke = 250mm, imep = 4.5 bar, fuel consumption = 7 K/hr, calorific value = 43600
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 26
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Kj/Kg, speed = 3 revolution per second. Calculate, indicated power and indicated
thermal efficiency. (Ans. 𝑰𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔 𝑲𝑾, 𝜼𝒊𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 %).
23. What is supercharging ?
24. Differentiate between the supercharger and turbocharger.
25. Why supercharging is not preferred for SI engine?
26. Explain with neat sketch constant pressure turbocharger.
27. List the various methods of turbo-charging, explain briefly the pulse turbo-
charging.
28. What is turbo-charging? Explain the thermodynamic cycle with turbo-charging.
29. What do we mean by supercharging? Differentiate between supercharged and non-
supercharged engines.
30. Supercharging is preferred in diesel engine than petrol engine, why?

Syllabus :

IC Engine Systems : Cooling System, Lubrication System, Ignition System, Governing

system, Starting System
IC Engine Emissions and Control : Air pollution due to IC engine and its effect,
Emissions from petrol/gas and diesel engines, Sources of emissions, Euro norms, Bharat
stage norms, Emission control methods for SI and CI engines
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1. Cooling Systems : SPPU : Dec.-15, 6-Marks

Internal combustion engines, the process of converting thermal energy to mechanical

energy, high temperatures are produced in the cylinders of the engine as a result of the
combustion process. A large portion of the heat from the gases of combustion is
transferred to the cylinder head, walls, piston, and valves etc. unless this excess heat is
carried out and these parts adequately cooled, the engine will be damaged.

A cooling system must be provided not only to prevent damage to the engine parts due to
overheating, but also to maintain certain temperature limits in order to obtain maximum
performance for m the engine.

Thus adequate cooling is a fundamental requirement associated with reciprocating

internal combustion engines. Hence, a cooling system is needed to keep the engine from
not getting so hot as to cause problems and yet to permit it to run hot enough to ensure
maximum efficiency of the engine.

There are following types of IC engine cooling systems,

1.1 Direct Cooling / Air Cooling Systems –

In this type of IC engine cooling, heat from cylinder walls is directly transferred to
surrounding air. In air cooling system, air is used as a cooling medium and it is used
for small capacity engines. The heat transfer coefficient for air cooling is very low, which
can be increased by using the forced flow of air over the engine surface and also by
increasing the heat transfer rate from the cylinder surface with the help of fins provided.

In case of two wheelers and aircrafts, the high air velocities resulting from their motion
is taken to advantage while in case of multi-cylinder air cooled engines used for cars the
air velocities are increased with the help of a fan driven by the engine crank shaft.

The cooling fins are either cast integral with the cylinder and cylinder heat or they are
fixed to the cylinder block separately. The number of the fins used are 2 to 3 per cm and
the height of the fins are normally 2 cm to 5 cm. and spacing is limited to 2.5 mm.

Advantages of Air Cooling Systems –

1. Cooling medium is air which is free of cost available.

2. Engine becomes light weight and simple in design as there is no water jackets,
radiator, cooling medium pumps and piping arrangements.
3. Thus the air cooling system is less costly and installation of the system is easy.
4. The problems like leakage of coolant, loose connection of piping’s arrangement
etc. are absent.
5. No antifreeze solution required.
6. It is almost maintenance free cooling system.
Disadvantages of Air Cooling Systems –

1. Heat transfer rate is less due to low heat transfer coefficient of air. Thus this
system can used for low capacity engines.
2. Cooling is not uniform. It may cause the distortion of cylinder.
3. Cylinder wall temperatures are high.
4. If fan is used to improve heat transfer rate to lower the cylinder wall temperature,
5 to 10 % of power is lost to run the fan.
5. Specific fuel consumption is high.
6. It limits the use of compression ratio.
7. Its use is limited to scooters and motor cycles.

1.2 Indirect Cooling / Water Cooling Systems – SPPU : May-17, 6-Marks

In case of indirect cooling system, the heat from the cylinder walls is transferred to
surrounding air through water.

Water cooled engines the cylinder and the cylinder heat are enclosed in a water jacket.
This water jackets is connected to a radiator. Water is caused to flow in the jacket where

For ease of cold starting many types and anti-freeze solutions are added to the water.
Commonly used anti-freeze materials are, kerosene, wood alcohol, denatured alcohol,
glycerin, sugar solution, calcium or magnesium chloride, ethylene glycol and propylene
glycol.

Advantages of Water Cooling Systems –

1. Cooling system is compact in size.

2. Heat transfer rate is high, thus it is used for heavy duty engines.
3. More even cooling is achieved.
4. Volumetric efficiency of the engine is high.
5. The engine may locate anywhere conveniently as cooling not depends on air
motion.

Disadvantages of Water Cooling Systems –

1. Water cooling systems, required radiator, water pump and other hoses which
increases overall weight of the system.
2. Engine performance related to climatic condition, starting is difficult in cold
whether condition and high altitude.
3. It needed anti-freeze solution in cold condition.
4. Scale formation in water jackets reduces the heat transfer rate and thus cooling
efficiency affected.
5. Cost and maintenance of the system is high.
6. Cooling system fails if adequate water level not maintained.

2. Types of water cooling system -

2.1 Thermo-syphon type water cooling systems –

In thermo-syphon type water cooling systems, the force required to circulate the water
through the system is the difference in pressure head due to hot and cold water.

In this system, water in cooling water jackets surrounding to engine get heated by
absorbing heat from the engine, and this hot water rises due to lower density and
supplied to radiator at top. A radiator having upper and lower tanks connected with thin
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 4
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pipes attached to fins. Thus hot water during it pass cooled down due to air blow and
collected into lower tank. From the lower tank of radiator water is supplied to cooling
water jacket inlet. And the flow continue.

The heat removal rate / capacity is depends on the temperature difference of water in
cooling jacket and engine wall temperature. And the water flow is obtained due to the
density difference of hot and cold water.

2.2 Pump Assisted Thermo-Syphon water cooling systems -

In this the improved thermo-syphon system in which, the water is circulated through
jackets around the parts of the engine to be cooled, and is kept in motion by a
centrifugal pump which is driven by the engine.

A pump is mounted on the engine and driven by the crankshaft with a fan belt. The
water is passed through the radiator where it is cooled by air drawn through the radiator
by a fan and by the air draft due to the forward motion of the vehicle.

2.3 Thermostatic Regulator type water cooling systems –

SPPU : Dec.-15, May-14, 6-Marks

In the pump assisted thermo-syphon system, as the pump starts, it will start the
circulation of cooling water, and this circulating water continuously absorb the heat
from engine and carried always due to which engine takes longer time to get warm up to
desired working temperature which reduce the efficiency of the engine and engine
output. To overcome this difficulty a thermostat is incorporated in the cooling system as
shown,

A thermostat consists of a valve attached to a bellows containing volatile liquid such as

ether. Heating of bellow by the water around it causes vaporization of the liquid, which
in turn expand the bellows and the valve get opened and water flow to radiator upper
tank. If the water temperature is not reach to the working temperature of the engine, the
ether not expanded enough to open the flow to radiator, so the outcome warm water flow

2.4 Pressurized water cooling systems –

The boiling temperature of water increases with the increase in pressure, this fact is
used to cool the heavy duty engines, and the cooling system is known as pressurized
water cooling systems.

In this type of cooling system, the pressure type radiator cap fits over the radiator. The
cap contains two valves, the pressure valve and the vacuum valve. The pressure valve
consists of a valve held against a valve seat by a calibrated spring. The spring holds the
valve closed so that pressure is produced in the cooling system. If the pressure rises
above that for which the system is designed, the pressure valve is raised off its seat. This
relieves the excessive pressure.

The vacuum valve prevent the formation of a vacuum in the cooling system when the
engine is stopped and begins to cool. If the vacuum forms, the atmospheric pressure
from the outside causes the small vacuum valve to open and admit air into the radiator.
Without a vacuum valve, the pressure within a radiator might drop so low that
atmospheric pressure would collapse the radiator.

2.5 Evaporative water cooling systems –

When the water vaporized, it absorbs the latent heat of vaporization from the metal
surfaces to be cooled. The quantity of heat thus removed is much more and it is also
possible to use a much smaller quantity of cooling water and a smaller radiator.

In this system a positive displacement type gear pump is used, to return the water from
the condensed steam from the lower tank of the radiator to the engine water jackets. The
water jacket is maintained under pressure and allows only the steam to leave the jacket
by means of a throttle. The steam leaving the jacket is condensed in a radiator and
returned to the engine jacket by the gear pump.

This system with relatively complex controls has a well designed steam cooling system,
and using the high octane fuels it is possible to operate an engine at a temperature
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 7
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higher than that possible with the normal cooling system, and with a possible gain in
thermal efficiency.

3. Lubrication Systems :

3.1 Mist Lubrication System –

This system is used where crankcase lubrication is not suitable. The mist lubrication
system is most commonly used in two stroke engines, the lubricating oil is mixed with
the fuel itself. The fuel with oil is inducted through the carburetor, fuel is vaporized and
the oil in the form of mist goes via the crankcase into the cylinder. The oil which strikes
the crankcase wall lubricates the main and connecting rod bearings, and the rest of the
oil lubricates the piston, piston rigs and cylinder.

The advantage of this system is its simplicity and low cost as it does not required any
additional lubricating system parts like, pump, filters, piping or storage etc.

In this, the excess oil burned with fuel and deposits on piston and exhaust port which
affect engine efficiency, also causes heavy exhaust smoke.

3.2 Wet Sump Lubrication System –

In wet sump lubrication system, the

bottom of the crankcase contains an
oil sump form which the lubricating
oil is pumped to various engine
components by a pump. After
lubricating these parts, the oil flows
back to the sump by gravity. Again it
is picked up by a pump and re-
circulated through the engine
lubricating system.

3.2.1 Splash Lubrication System –

This lubrication system is used in light duty engines like lawn mowers, golf carts etc.

The lubricating oil is pumped by a low pressure oil pump from oil sump to small toughs
placed under each connecting rod. The big end of the connected rods are provided with
the dipper which dips into the oil trough when come to bottom and splashed it when
moves up. The oil is splashed to all engine parts like main bearings, camshaft bearings,
lower portion of the cylinder walls, piston, cams etc. The excess oil returns into the
sump by gravity.

The lubrication is done due to splash of oil thus it does not required high pressure oil
pump and tubing.

3.2.2 Pressure Lubrication System – SPPU : May-17, May-16, Dec.-15, 7-Marks

All modern cars and buses engines are lubricated by pressure lubrication system.

In this system, crankshaft having internal drill passage for lubrication, the high
pressure pump delivered oil at 2 to 5 bar to the main distributor gallery, through a
pressure relief valve. The pressure relief valve keeps the delivery pressure constant,
excess pressure oil released and re-circulate back to pump.

The cylinder walls, rocker arm tappet rollers, piston rings and cylinder walls are
lubricated by oil spray from around the piston pins and the main and connecting rod
bearings.

3.2.3 Splash and Pressure Lubrication System – SPPU : Dec.-17, 6-Marks

This lubrication system is used for medium speed stationary engines, it is a combination
of the splash lubrication and pressure lubrication systems.

It is more simple and less expensive to install than the complete pressure lubrication
system. In this system, oil is drawn from the sump by means of pump and then
delivered to the crankshaft main bearings and camshaft bearings. The big end bearings
of the connecting rods are lubricated by the splash system using dippers and through
slots cut in the lower ends of the connecting rods. The other parts of the engine are
lubricated by splash or spray of oil thrown up by dippers.

3.3 Dry Sump Lubrication System – SPPU : May-15, 6-Marks

In this system, the supply of lubricating oil is carried in an external tank. An oil pump
draws oil from the supply tank and circulates it under pressure to the various bearings
of the engine. Oil dripping from the cylinders and bearings into the sump is removed by
a scavenging pump which is fed back to the supply tank.

The capacity of scavenging pump is always greater than the oil pump this prevents oil
from accumulating in the oil sump, so it remains dry, hence called as dry sump
lubrication system.

4.1 Battery Ignition System –

SPPU : Dec.-17, May-17, May-16, May-15, Dec.-15, 6-Marks

Most of the modern spark-ignition engine use battery ignition system. The required
components of the system are, battery of 6 volt or 12 volt, induction coil, contact
breaker, condenser, distributor and spark plug.

Battery is connected to the primary of the induction coil through starting switch, other
end of the primary coil is connected to the breaker and through it to the ground. When
breaker contact points are closed, as one terminal of the battery is grounded, the circuit
is closed by passing the current from the battery - starting switch - primary coil -
contact breaker - ground and back to the battery.

Thus the primary circuit is closed, a current is flow through the primary coil and
magnetize core of the coil. The emf is induced in the secondary but this is not sufficient
to produce a spark at the spark plug.

When primary circuit is opend due to separation of contact breaker points, the magnetic
field collapses, the emf induced in the secondary coil, which is directly proportional to
the rate at which the magnetic field collapse. A capacitor is connected across the contact
breaker helps to collapse the field very rapidly by absorbing part of the energy of the
magnetic field which is thrown back into the primary winding and produces a very high
voltage in the secondary. This emf in the secondary coil is sufficient to ignite the charge
is supply to respective spark plug with the help of distributor.

Ballast resistor is made of iron wire, it having property that its electrical resistance
increases very rapidly if a certain temperature is exceed. When engine runs for a long
time at low speed then induction coil get overheated, thus as ballast coil exceed its
temperature, its resistance increases very rapidly and the primary circuit current
reduces to safe value. In cold condition ballast resistance not come in to play hence
more current flow in the primary circuit.

Advantages of Battery Ignition Systems –

1. Its initial cost is low compared with magneto.

2. It provides better sparks at low speeds of the engine during starting and idling.
3. The maintenance cost is negligible except the battery.

Disadvantages of Battery Ignition Systems –

1. The engine con not be started if the battery runs down.

2. The weight of the battery ignition system is greater than magneto.
3. The wiring involved in the coil ignition is more complicated than that used in
magneto, hence it more likelihood of defects occurring in the system.
4. The sparking voltage drops with increasing speed of the engine.

4.2 Magneto Ignition System – SPPU : May–18, 7-Marks

The figure shows rotating magnet type magneto ignition system, in this a rotating
magnet attached to the cam which controls the opening and closing of the contact
breaker. The primary and secondary winding are kept stationary, one end of both are
grounded and other end of primary winding is grounded through the contact breaker, a
capacity is attached in parallel to the contact breaker.

The rotating magnet is rotated by engine, thus it producing a voltage in primary winding,
the circuit is completed through contact breaker, during this capacitor get charged. A
current is flow through the primary coil and magnetize core. The emf is induced in the
secondary but this is not
sufficient to produce a
spark at the spark plug.

When primary circuit is

opend due to separation
of contact breaker points,
the magnetic field
collapses, the emf
induced in the secondary
coil, which is directly
proportional to the rate at
which the magnetic field
collapse. A capacitor is
connected across the
contact breaker helps to
collapse the field very
rapidly by absorbing part
of the energy of the
magnetic field which is
thrown back into the
primary winding and
produces a very high
voltage in the secondary.
This emf in the secondary
coil is sufficient to ignite
the charge is supply to
respective spark plug
with the help of
distributor.

Advantages of Magneto Ignition Systems –

1. It does not required battery and ignition coil, hence corresponding cost is reduced.
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Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 16
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2. With the increase in speed the current generated also increased, thus it gives
strong spark, therefore it is used in racing cars and aero-plane.
3. It having light weight, occupies less space and less maintenance, thus it is favored
in two wheelers.
4. It is more reliable as the complicated ignition coil and battery run down problems
are not there.

Disadvantages of Magneto Ignition Systems –

1. Since wiring carry high voltage current, there is a strong possibility of leakage
which may cause.
2. This system required extensive shielding to prevent leakage of high voltage
current.
3. At low speed, it develops poor quality of spark at the time of starting, thus some
time separate battery is needed for starting.
4.3 Comparison between Battery Ignition and Magneto Ignition system –
SPPU : May-14, 6-Marks

Battery Ignition System Magneto Ignition System

It produces its own power thus does
It needed external power source of 6 or
not required external battery, also
12 volt battery and ignition coil.
replace ignition coil.
Current for primary circuit is obtained Current for primary circuit is
from the battery. generated by the magneto.
In this system, intensity of spark is In this system, intensity of spark is
inversely proportional to the engine directly proportional to the engine
speed, hence not preferred in high speed speed, hence preferred in high speed
engines. engines.
This system is less reliable as compared This is more reliable as compared to
to magneto ignition system. battery ignition system.

This system is heavy in weight, also This system is light in weight, and
occupies more space, hence not occupies less space, hence preferred
preferred in two wheelers. in two wheelers.
It needed excessive maintenance of It does not have battery, thus
battery, thus maintenance cost is more. maintenance cost is less.
It is used in low and medium speed It is used in high speed vehicles like
vehicles like cars, buses, trucks etc. racing cars, aero-planes etc.

5. Governing Systems : SPPU : May-16, 6-Marks

Governing system of the engine is to keep it operating at a certain speed irrespective of

the load conditions. If the engine load decreases, the speed of engine will increases

On the other side, if the engine load increases, it slow down the speed (unless increase
in fuel supply) as a result of fuel supply is not sufficient according to the increased
engine load. As the engine speed decreases, the centrifugal force on the rotating weights
on the governor will also decreases and it moves down the control sleeve, this motion
transfer to the fuel metering mechanism to increase the fuel supply, thereby the speed of
an engine brought to the rated value.

Thus the function of governor is to control the fluctuation of speed of the engine within
the certain prescribed limit according to the variation of engine load from no load
condition to maximum load condition.

1.1 Types of Governing / Methods of Governing : SPPU : May–18, 7-Marks

There are following types of IC engine governing used as,

1. Hit and Miss Governing – In this method fuel supply is completely cutting off for
one or more cycles, to bring down the speed on the engine to rated value.
2. Quality Governing – in this method, by varying the supply of fuel to the cylinder
per cycle the quality of the air-fuel mixture (rich mixture to lean mixture) is
changes according to the engine requirement.
3. Quantity Governing – in this method, the supply of air as well as fuel are varied
keeping the ratio of air-fuel constant, thus the quantity of the mixture supplied is
varied to keep engine speed within the rated limit.
4. Combination Governing – in this type, the quality and quantity methods are
combined to control the engine speed within the rated limit.

5.1.1. Hit and Miss Governing :

In the hit and miss governing system, when engine speed exceed the rated value then,
some cylinder explosion / power stroke is skipped thus the overall power developed is
reduced so that engine speed brought back to its rated speed limit and once it bring
back to rated limits the skipped cylinder made active again.

SI engines - as shown in figure, when engine working in rated speed then the governor
weight balls does not experience much centrifugal force and they can not pull up sleeve
above the excess speed limit.

When engine speed increases and extends the rated speed, this causes the weight balls
to fly out by greater centrifugal force to that extend which lifted sleeve above the excess
speed limit. At this point the sleeve lever pull out the knife edge from the valve such that
even cam actuating knife edge with the help of lever but it is out of the range to push the
valve to supply the air-fuel ratio. Thus without charge this particular cylinder become
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 18
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inactive and misses the power. Overall power developed is reduced and speed bring
down.

Once engine speed reach to the rated speed level the fly balls come down due to lesser
centrifugal force this bring back the knife edge in the reach of valve and that cylinder
again hit the power i.e. it become active by continuing supply of charge again.

CI engines - as shown in figure, the governing mechanism almost remain same only the
difference is, the knife edge actuation is given to the fuel pump plunger. when engine
working in rated speed then the governor weight balls does not experience much
centrifugal force and they cannot pull up sleeve above the excess speed limit.

When engine speed increases and extends the rated speed, these causes the weight balls
to fly out by greater centrifugal force to that extend which lifted sleeve above the excess
speed limit. At this point the sleeve lever pull out the knife edge from the plunger such
that even cam actuating knife edge with the help of lever but it is out of the range to
push the plunger to supply the fuel. Thus without fuel this particular cylinder become
inactive and misses the power. Overall power developed is reduced and speed bring
down.

5.1.2. Quality Governing :

Quality governing uses the method to control the fuel supply to cylinder while air supply
kept constant, the example of this type is Hartwell Governor. Thus the air-fuel mixture
quality is controlled to keep the engine speed with in the rated speed limit, hence this
method is called as Quality Governing Method.

As shown in figure given below, the governor receive the rotational power from
crankshaft, thus when engine rotates the governor spindle along with weight balls are
rotated. The centrifugal force acting on the weight balls accordingly it may fly outward or
inward. Engine running within the normal rated speed, the centrifugal force acting on
governor weight balls are not enough to lift the sleeve beyond the excess speed limit,
thus fuel supply to cylinder does not affect.

When engine speed exceed the rated speed, the centrifugal force acting on weight balls
causes it to fly out to such level that sleeve lifted up and this motion transfer to the
control rod through bell crank lever and the control rod movement then reduces the
plunger stroke in turn reduces the fuel supply. The reduced fuel supply result in lean
mixture and production of less power bring speed back to rated speed limit.

Once engine speed reach to the rated speed level the weight balls come down due to
lesser centrifugal force this bring back the control rod to its normal working range so
that the cylinder now start receiving regular fuel supply again.

5.1.3.Quantity Governing :

Quantity governing may be accomplished by varying the quantity of air-fuel mixture

entering the cylinder, while the quality of air-fuel mixture keeps constant. It is applied to
petrol engines by having a throttle valve in the pipe leading from the carburetor to the
engine cylinder.

In this method, a throttle valve is connected to the governor with the help of bell crank
lever, when engine speed exceed the rated limit, then the weight balls fly out on account
of the higher centrifugal force and this causes lift of the sleeve to such level where bell
crank lever actuate the throttle valve and rotate it to closing position. Thus the total
quantity of the air-fuel supplied to engine reduces and thus intern engine speed reduces.

Once engine speed reach to the rated speed level the weight balls come down due to
lesser centrifugal force this bring back the throttle valve to its normal working range so
that the cylinder now start receiving regular air-fuel supply again.

This type of quantity governors are used in static petrol and gas engines, in case of
automobiles the throttle valve is either hand operated or accelerator pedal operated.

The governing of an engine may be obtained by combining two or more of the above
methods. For instance, quality or quantity governing at high loads has been successfully
combined with hit and miss governing at low loads. Also quality governing at high loads
is used with quantity governing at low loads. The latter system is economical and gives
close governing.

6. Starting Systems :

Engine starting from its initial cold state condition required externally to supply some
power to move the piston inside the cylinder to initiate the suction stroke, compression
stroke and when the charge is able to ignite then engine actually started repeating the
stroke and cycle continuous at its own.

The following methods are used to start the engine from its cold dead state,

6.1. Hand or Kick Starting -

Hand starting is used in old days of the evolution of the engine starting, in this type a
crank is provided which engaged to the crankshaft and rotated with the help of hand till
engine ignition started. Even in some stationary or small engine a rope is wounded on
the crankshaft pulley and pulled out which gives the motion to the crankshaft to move
piston inside the cylinder.

Kick starting is used in small SI engine or motor cycles, in this kick motion is cause the
crank to rotate which intern moves piston inside the cylinder to complete the required
suction, compression processes before ignition of the charge.

6.2. Electrical Starting - SPPU : May-14, 6-Marks

Electrical starting consists of the battery, starting switch, starting motor. The starting
motor shaft gear engaged with the teeth wheel of flywheel. When starting switch is On a
battery supplies the energy to the starting motor. The starting motor are series wound
motors designed to operate on large currents at low voltages, and thus it supplied the
torque to the flywheel. The flywheel is mounted on the crankshaft thus, in tern power is
supplied to the piston to move inside the cylinder till the engine start after completing
necessary suction, compression, ignition and exhaust processes and the cycle is
repeated by its own.

These system are used in all moderate and heavy engines, especially in all automobiles.
It become very easy to start the engine, but the drawback of the system is, it become
inoperative if battery goes on discharge.

6.3. Compressed Air Starting -

In case of multi-cylinder internal combustion engines, especially in diesel engine, all

cylinders are cut-off except for one cylinder. Now the engine power developed is used to
run the other cylinder which suck air and compressed, thus all those are working as air
compressor and compressed air stored into a receiver.

When engine needed to start from dead condition, the stored compressed air is supplied
to some cylinder which are cut-off, thus those cylinder use to crank the engine and the
cylinder where the fuel supply is not cut-off, the power is generated and once engine
started, all cylinder are made active and thus engine get started.

6.4. Auxiliary Petrol Starting -

In auxiliary petrol starting system, instead of using a motor and battery as in case of
electrical starting, a small capacity petrol engine is used to crank the diesel engine. The
petrol engine is coupled to diesel engines through reduction gears, the petrol engine is
usually started by cranking. When diesel engine picks up adequate speed and it starts
firing, the drive disengages the petrol engine and it is subsequently shut down.

6.5. Hot Bulb Ignition Starting -

In this system a chamber of bulb shape is attached to the cylinder head and it is
unjacketed for cooling. It is heated by a blow lamp before staring the engine and the fuel
is injected into the hot combustion chamber at the end of the compression stroke and
ignition takes place partly due to heat of the compressed charge of air and partly due to
heat of the hot bulb. The blow lamp is removed after the engine takes up its speed. The
ignition then goes on due to the combined effect of compression heat and the heat
retained by the combustion chamber from the previous cycle.

7. IC Engine Emissions : SPPU : Dec.-17, May-17, 7-Marks

7.1. Air pollution due to IC engines –

Air pollution can be defined as addition to our atmosphere of any material which will
have a deleterious effect on life upon our planet. The atmospheric air is made up of 78%
of nitrogen and 21% of oxygen by volume and remaining other gases and particulates
like argon, carbon-dioxide, dust particles etc.

Air is required for breathing and contents of pure air as such are healthy. However,
certain toxic gases and substances which are emitted by various machinery, plants,
equipments etc. and mixed with atmosphere air are very harmful to human beings,
animals and plants. These undesirable gases and substances in the air are called air
pollutants.

The main pollutants contributes by automobiles are carbon monoxide, unburned

hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and lead and other particulate emissions. The
pollutants from one car do not amount too much, but if we consider the very large
number of cars, which number rising very rapidly, then the pollutants amount becomes
millions of tones.

IC engines generates undesirable emissions during the combustion process. The

emissions exhausted into the surroundings pollute the atmosphere and causes the
problems, like global warming, acid rain, smog, odours, respiratory and other health
hazards. The major causes of these emissions are non-stoichiometric combustion,
dissociation of nitrogen, and impurities in the fuel and air.

7.2. Air pollutants and their harmful effects –

Carbon Monoxide (CO) – It is produced by incomplete combustion of fuel, generally

caused by insufficient oxygen. It causes headache, nausea and breathing problems.

This gas has strong affinity to combine with hemoglobin in the blood and reduces its
oxygen carrying capacity to body tissues.

Hydrocarbons (HC) – Hydrocarbons is unburnt fuel escaping to atmosphere. The major

source of HC emissions are the engines of automobiles, aircrafts, ships, locomotives and
oil refineries.

This gas causes irritation in respiratory system.

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) – There are several oxides of nitrogen’s like, NO, NO2, N2O,
N2O3 etc. commonly called as oxides of nitrogen (NOx). It is produced when N2 and O2
combine at higher temperature above 1100°C.
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Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 24
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These gases irritates the eyes, nose and throat and it causes coughing, headache and
damage to lungs. NO2 is most poisonous with penetrating odour which can destroy
lung’s tissues.

Soot – Soot are solid particles of pure carbon. They get suspended in the air and are
breathed in by humans and animals. Their size is few microns. The maximum amount of
soot is produced at full load by diesel engines.

Soot is very dangerous to health as it produces lung cancer.

Aldehydes – Aldehydes are formed in diesel engines mostly at idling speed due to cold
flames.

This cause unpleasant smell due to pungent, odour from diesel fuel and causes irritation
to eyes and nose.

SO2, H2S and Lead – Toxic gas SO2 and bad smell of gas H2s are formed on burning of
sulphur present in petroleum products.

Poisonous lead compounds are also released to atmosphere if TEL and TML are added in
petrol as an additive or dopes.

Particulate Matters – Particulates are ash, carbon and liquid like sulphuric acid
vapors. These are heavily produced on burning of diesel fuel. Size of particulate matters
is generally less than 100 μm and they remain suspended in atmospheric air for long
time.

Particulate matters breathed in respiratory system causes bronchitis and cardiac

diseases.

7.3. Effect of air pollution on Human Health and Environment :

Respiratory and Heart Problems – Air pollution causes various respiratory diseases
and heart problems, these results in increase in the death toll. There have been
instances where several respiratory and heart conditions have developed, children are
observed to contract pneumonia and asthma due to increased exposure to air pollutants.

Depletion of Ozone Layer – Air pollution is responsible for the depletion of the ozone
layer, ozone is present in the stratosphere and protects humans from dreadful ultraviolet
rays. This ozone layer has been depleting due to chlorofluorocarbons and hydro-
chlorofluorocarbons in the air. Due to this thinning of the ozone layer harmful ray
getting through and causing eye and skin related problems and also it affect the
agricultural crops and food chain system.

Acid Rain – The suspended air pollutant particles and gases like nitrous oxides and
sulphur oxides get converted into harmful form of nitric acid or sulphuric acid. These
acids causes acid rain and have a very large potential to harm the natural resources, all
living things, crops etc. Thus acid rain affect the living as well as non-living substances,

Eutrophication – It is a condition which is caused when there is existence of high

amount of nitrogen present in pollutants enters the water bodies and leads to the
development of algae. The development of algae hampers the conditions where fishes can
live leading to the death of marine plants and also the various animal species existing in
these water bodies. The presence of the algae is a sign of low oxygen level in the water as
the algae uses pretty much all of the available oxygen in the water body.

Effects on Wildlife – Air pollution not just affect the human beings but animal also
affect by it. Toxic chemicals that exist in the atmosphere due to pollution, force the
wildlife to migrate to new places and search for more adaptable habitats. Pollutants that
deposit in the water bodies and seas adversely affect the marine and aquatic animals as
well.

Global Warming - Increased air pollution is directly related to the cause of global
warming which is increasing the temperature worldwide. The rising sea levels, thermal
expansion of sea water, melting ice bergs, displacement of living beings from their
habitats and even loss of habitats with serious signals of impending disasters.

7.4. Air pollution due SI engine :

Emission of pollutants from SI engine through exhaust gases –

When the sufficient amount of oxygen is available then there will be an ideal combustion
take place and all carbon particles are converted into CO2 and all hydrogen converted
into water vapors, but in actual this is not happened and always having some other
productions of combustions present in the exhaust gases like,

Carbon Monoxide (CO) emission – Its presence shows that there was deficiency
of oxygen which results in incomplete combustion causes some carbon get
converted to CO2 and some converted to CO. Also some time due to dissociation of
CO2 at high temperature take place which added CO in exhaust gases.

Hydro-Carbon (HC) emission – Unburnt HC emissions in the exhaust gases are

because of the incomplete combustion, also combustion chamber geometry and
engine operating parameters also influence the HC emissions. In addition to these,
there are other reasons behind the HC emissions are as, crevice volumes and flow
in crevices, leakage past the exhaust valve, valve overlap, deposits on walls, oil on
combustion chamber walls etc.

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) emission – Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are produced at

very high temperature and presence of excess oxygen. Oxygen and Nitrogen of
atmospheric air combine inside the combustion chamber when temperature
exceeds 1000 ºC. At low temperature during expansion and exhaust stokes the
nitric oxides is dissociated in N2 and O2, this reduces NOx emissions considerably.

When the gasoline evaporated and this entered into the atmosphere, the pollution thus
added is known as emission of pollutants due to evaporation of gasoline.

Fuel tank evaporation emissions – Gasoline (HC) entered into the atmosphere
from tank, most commonly when filling the gasoline into it, also some part is
evaporated through air vent of the tank cap. This leakages or evaporation
increases considerably in the summer seasons due to higher temperature.

Carburetor evaporation emission – In carburetor there is a air vent provided to

float chamber through which gasoline evaporated part get escape and entered into
the atmosphere. Also from the overflow port of the carburetor some evaporation
leak off into the atmosphere.

Emission of pollutants from SI engine through crankcase blowby –

When the piston rigs fails to seal the combustion pressure pass through it, i.e. when
cylinder wall wear out and charge pass through it and enter into the crankcase is known
as blowby. Unburnt gasoline thus enter into crankcase from where entered into
atmosphere through air venting to crankcase.

7.5. Air pollution due CI engine : SPPU : May-17, May-15, 7-Marks

The major components of air pollution from CI engine are same as in the SI engines, but
the concentration of pollutant are varies as,

Carbon Monoxide (CO) emission – Its emissions is mainly due to deficiency of oxygen
during combustion and also due to dissociation of CO2. But in CI engine the
concentration of CO emission is at high temperature take place which added CO in
exhaust gases lesser than that of the SI engine.

Hydro-Carbon (HC) emission – CI engines HC emission are 1/5 of that of the SI engine
but having higher soot particle emissions, as it operates with overall lean air-fuel ratio.
Also the components in diesel fuel have higher molecular weights than gasoline, this
results higher boiling and condensing temperatures. Therefore, soot formation in more
in CI engines.

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) emission – Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission level in CI

engine is higher than that of SI engine. These are produced at very high temperature and
presence of excess oxygen. Both these conditions are most favorably satisfied in CI
engines, as due to higher compression ratio the overall pressure and temperature is
always higher in CI engine and excess oxygen is always available surrounded to fuel due
to heterogeneous mixture of air-fuel.

Aldehydes and other emission – Aldehydes are more pronounced in diesel engines.
Aldehydes in diesel fuel has pungent odor. H2S and SO2 gases are formed on burning of

Smoke and Particulate emission – Smoke means the visible product of the combustion
which is due to poor combustion of fuel which mostly contain the CO, Soot and HC
emissions. The color of smoke is white mainly due to liquid droplets of lubricating and
fuel oil and its appears in exhaust under cold starting, idling and low load condition run,
also when piston rings are wear out, the smoke appearance become white. Black smoke
in exhaust gases is due to incomplete combustion of fuel, the blackness of smoke is
increases with increase in load on the engine.

8. Emission Norms / Standards :

Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released into
the atmosphere. Emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible amount
of specific air pollutants that may be released from specific sources over specific
timeframes. They are generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to protect
human life.

9.1 Euro norms :

Emission norms are prescribed CO, HC and NOx levels set by the government which a
vehicle would emit when running on roads. All the manufacturers need to implement the
same for vehicles being manufactured from the date of implementation.

EURO norms refer to the permissible emission levels from both petrol and diesel
vehicles, which have been implemented in Europe and European Countries.

Euro Norms Operational Year Vehicle Types

EURO-I 1993 Passenger Cars
EURO-II 1996 Passenger Cars
EURO-III 2000 Any Vehicles
EURO-IV 2005 Any Vehicles
EURO-V 2008 Light Passenger And Commercial Vehicles
EURO-VI 2015 Light Passenger And Commercial Vehicles

Specification of Euro Norms for Petrol Engine Vehicles,

Euro CO HC HC+NOx NOx

Norms (gm/KW-hr) (gm/KW-hr) (gm/KW-hr) (gm/KW-hr)
EURO-I 2.72 ---- 0.97 ----
EURO-II 2.2 ---- 0.5 ----
EURO-III 1.3 0.2 ---- 0.15
EURO-IV 1.0 0.1 ---- 0.08

Specification of Euro Norms for Diesel Engine Vehicles,

Euro CO HC NOx PM Smoke

Norms (gm/KW-hr) (gm/KW-hr) (gm/KW-hr) (gm/KW-hr) (m-1)
EURO-I 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36 ----
EURO-II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.25 ----
EURO-III 2.1 0.66 5.0 0.15 0.8
EURO-IV 1.5 0.46 3.5 0.02 0.5
EURO-V 1.5 0.46 2.0 0.02 0.5
EURO-VI 1.5 0.13 0.4 0.01 ----

9.2 Indian (Bharat) Stage Norms : SPPU : May-17, May-16, 7-Marks

Bharat stage emission standards (BSES) are emission standards instituted by

the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal
combustion engines and Spark-ignition engines equipment, including motor vehicles.
The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution
Control Board under the Ministry of Environment & Forests and climate change.

The standards, based on European regulations were first introduced in 2000.

Progressively stringent norms have been rolled out since then. All new vehicles
manufactured after the implementation of the norms have to be compliant with the
regulations. Since October 2010, Bharat Stage (BS) III norms have been enforced across
the country. In 13 major cities, Bharat Stage IV emission norms have been in place since
April 2010 and it has been enforced for entire country since April 2017. In 2016, the
Indian government announced that the country would skip the BS-V norms altogether
and adopt BS-VI norms by 2020.

Indian / Bharat Stage Norms for four wheeler vehicles,

10 Emission Control Methods for SI and CI Engines : SPPU : Dec.-17, 7-Marks

The main objective of the emission control methods is to minimize the release of
pollutants to atmosphere form IC engines. There are two approaches as, change or
modification in engine design – to reduce or control those parameter which promote the
production of pollutants like compression ratio, combustion chamber, valve timing, fuel
supply system etc. and other treatment of exhaust gases – conversion of harmful air
pollutants into un-harmful substances before they are released into the atmosphere.

10.1 Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) System – SPPU : May–18, 6-Marks

It is a system that was developed to remove harmful vapors from the engine and to
prevent those vapors from being expelled into the atmosphere. The PCV system does this
by using manifold vacuum to draw vapors from the crankcase into the intake manifold.

Positive crankcase ventilation involves recycling these gases through a PCV valve to the
intake manifold, from where pumped back into the cylinders for another shot at
combustion. When the engine is idling the air pressure in the intake manifold is lower
than the air pressure in the crankcase, and it's this lower pressure that sucks the blow-
by gases through the PCV valve and back into the intake. When the engine speeds up,
the air pressure in the intake manifold increases and the suction slows down, reducing
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 30
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the amount of blow-by gas recycled to the cylinders. Since the whole point of positive
crankcase ventilation is to keep these gases out of the crankcase, the PCV valve is
designed to close off when this happens and block the backflow of gases.

10.2 Catalytic Converter System –

A catalytic converter is an exhaust emission control device that converts toxic gases
and pollutants in exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine into less-toxic
pollutants by catalyzing a redox reaction (an oxidation and a reduction reaction).
Catalytic converters are usually used with internal combustion engines fueled by
either gasoline or diesel.

Inside the converter, the gases flow through a dense honeycomb structure made from
a ceramic and coated with the catalysts. The honeycomb structure means the gases
touch a bigger area of catalyst at once, so they are converted more quickly and
efficiently.

Typically, there are two different catalysts in a catalytic converter:

One of them tackles nitrogen oxide pollution using a chemical process

called reduction (removing oxygen). This breaks up nitrogen oxides into nitrogen and
oxygen gases (which are harmless, because they already exist in the air around us).

The other catalyst works by an opposite chemical process called oxidation (adding
oxygen) and turns carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. Another oxidation reaction
turns unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust into carbon dioxide and water.

In effect, three different chemical reactions are going on at the same time. That's why we
talk about three-way catalytic converters. (Some, less-effective converters carry out only
the second two (oxidation) reactions, so they're called two-way catalytic converters.) After
the catalyst has done its job, what emerges from the exhaust is mostly nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and water (in the form of steam).

10.3 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) System –

SPPU : May-17, May-15, Dec.-15, May-14, 6-Marks
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) is used as a nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions reduction
technique in petrol/gasoline and diesel engines. EGR works by re-circulating a portion of
exhaust gas back to the engine cylinders. This dilutes the O2 in the incoming air stream
and provides gases inert to combustion to act as absorbents of combustion heat to
reduce peak in-cylinder temperatures. NOx is produced in high temperature mixtures of
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 31
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atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen that occur in the combustion cylinder, and this
usually occurs at cylinder peak pressure.

A properly operating EGR can theoretically increase the efficiency of gasoline engines via
several mechanisms as,

Reduced throttling losses - The addition of inert exhaust gas into the intake system
means that for a given power output, the throttle plate must be opened further, resulting
in increased inlet manifold pressure and reduced throttling losses.

Reduced heat rejection - Lowered peak combustion temperatures not only reduces NOx
formation, it also reduces the loss of thermal energy to combustion chamber surfaces,
leaving more available for conversion to mechanical work during the expansion stroke.

Reduced chemical dissociation - The lower peak temperatures result in more of the
released energy remaining as sensible energy near TDC, rather than being bound up
(early in the expansion stroke) in the dissociation of combustion products. This effect is
minor compared to the first two.

10.4 Evaporative Emission Control System –

In evaporative emission control system, vapors from the fuel tank passed through a
vapor-liquid separator, where liquid gasoline is separated and sent back to fuel tank.
Residual vapors are passed to charcoal canister. Similarly some vapors from carburetor
float chamber through its air vent are also supplied to charcoal canister. Charcoal
canister absorbs the fuel vapors and stored them. Vapors laden air from both the fuel
tank and the carburetor passes through the canister. The HC are left in the canister due
to the process of adsorption and air leaves which get sucked into intake manifold.

In this way, evaporative emission especially HC get arrested and clean air supplied to
either engine or escape to atmosphere.

10.5 Thermal Reactor Package System –

The emission control methods discussed above either reducing NOx and tends to
increase HC and CO emission and vice versa. The thermal reactor package system is the
method which can reduce all the emissions NOx, HC and CO to the desirable level.

Thermal reactor is made of high nickel steel so as to withstand high temperatures to

which it is exposed continuously. It consists of a heating reactor chamber in the exhaust
system which provides sufficient residence time for oxidation of HC and CO to get
converted into CO2 and water vapors. Thermal reactor consists of two enlarged exhaust
manifolds which allows burning of HC and CO in excess amount of O2. The additional
air allowed assures complete combustion, some part of this exhaust gas is re-circulated
by the EGR system which reduces the formation of NOx.

Exercise

1. Explain the necessity of cooling system of an engine.

2. Classify the cooling system and explain any one with neat sketch.

3. What is evaporating cooling system.

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of liquid cooling system?

6. Compare between air cooling and water cooling systems.

7. What is pressurized cooling system?

8. Differentiate between wet sump and dry sump lubrication system.

9. With neat sketch explain any one wet sump lubrication system.

10. Explain with neat sketch dry sump lubrication system.

11. Explain with neat sketch Magneto Ignition system.

12. What are different types of ignition system used in IC engine.

13. List out the various components of battery ignition system and explain its working
in brief.

14. Explain the function of distributor in ignition system.

15. Explain the electronic ignition system.

16. Enlist the various types of governing systems used in IC engine.

17. With neat sketch explain the air flow meter.

18. Explain Hit and Miss governor used in Diesel engine with neat sketch.

19. Explain the function of the governing systems.

20. Explain with neat sketch quantity governing system.

21. Explain with neat sketch quality governing system.

22. Explain with neat sketch the electrical starting system.

23. Write short note on starting systems used in IC engines.

24. Explain mechanical governor with the help of neat sketch.

25. What are the different pollutants emissions from CI and SI engines.

26. Write short note on Euro Norms.

27. What are the sources of HC emissions.

28. Write short note on NOx emissions.

29. Write short note on EGR / or charge dilution system.

31. Explain in brief use of catalytic converter to reduce the harmful emission.

32. What is crankcase ventilation?

33. Discuss the effect of air pollutants on human health.

34. What is air pollutants? Explain their harmful effects on human.

35. Enlist the Bharat stage emission norms.

36. Write short note on emission control methods.

37. How the thermal reactor package work to reduce the emission.

38. What are the various sources of air pollutants.

Syllabus :

Reciprocating Compressor : Single stage compressor – computation of work done,

isothermal efficiency, effect of clearance volume, volumetric efficiency, Free air delivery,
Theoretical and actual indicator diagram, Multi-staging of compressor, Computation of
work done, Volumetric efficiency, Condition for maximum efficiency, Inter-cooling and after
cooling, Capacity control of compressors
Rotary Compressor : Introduction, vane compressors, roots blower, screw compressor.
(Numerical treatment on Reciprocating compressor single stage and multistage
only)
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1. Air Compressor :

The compressor is a device that convert mechanical work into potential energy in terms
of pressure stored in compressed air. It is a work absorbing device.

It can be defined as, A compressor is a device which consumed mechanical energy and
stored as potential energy in terms of increased pressure of the working fluid.

When the working fluid is an air then the compressor is known as air compressor.

2. Classification of Air Compressor :

2.1 According to the pressure ratio of compressor – the air compressor can also be
classified according to the pressure ratio as,

Fan – the device which give the pressure ratio of 1.1 are classied as fan.

Blower – the device which give the pressure ratio of 1.1 to 2.5 are classied as
blower.

Compressors – the device which give the pressure ratio above 2.5 are classied as
compressor.

2.2 According to the principle of operation – the air compressor can be classified
according to the workign principle of compression as,

Positive Displacement Compressor – these are work by forcing air into a

chamber whose volume is decreased to compres the air.

Non-Positive Displacement Compressor – these are work on centrifugal action,

the rotating component imparts its kinetic energy to the air which is eventually
converted into pressure enerngy.

2.3 According to the relative motion of the components – the air compressor can be
classified according to the working principle as,
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 2
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Reciprocating Air Compressor – these are further classified as, Signle-Stage
reciprocating air compressor and Multi-Stage reciprocating air compressor.

Rotary Air Compressor – these are further classified as, Rotary Screw air
compressor, Rotary Vane air compressor, Scroll Compressor, Turbo Compressor,
Axial Compressor.

2.4 According to the no. of stages of compression – the air compressor can be
classified according to the no. of stages of compression of working fluid from initial entry
pressure to final delivery pressure as,

Signle-Stage Compressor – in this working fluid is compressored in a single

cylinder and in one single compression process from initial entry pressure to final
delivery pressure.

Multi-Stage Compressor – in this working fluid is compressored in more than one

cylinder and in more that one compression process from initial entry pressure to
final delivery pressure.

2.5 According to the discharge pressure – the air compressor can be classified
according to the pressure delivered as,

Low Pressure Air Compressors (LPACs) – the air compressor which have a
discharge of 150 psi (i.e. 10 bar) or less.

Medium Pressure Air Compressors (MPACs) – the air compressor which have a
discharge of 151 psi to 1000 psi (i.e. inbetween 10 bar to 70 bar).

High Pressure Air Compressors (HPACs) – the air compressor which have a
discharge above 1000 psi (i.e. more than 70 bar).

2.6 According to the capacity of compressor – the air compressor can also be
classified according to the delivery flow rate capacity of working fluid as,

Low Capacity Compressors – the air compressor which have a volume flow rate
capacity upto 10 m3/min or less.

Medium Capacity Compressors – the air compressor which have a volume flow
rate capacity inbetween 10 m3/min to 300 m3/min.

High Capacity Compressors – the air compressor which have a volume flow rate
capacity more than 300 m3/min.

3. Applications of Compressed Air :

In industry, compressed air is so widely used that it is often regarded as the fourth
utility, after electricity, natural gas and water.

Compressed air is used for many purposes as,

o Pneumatic post - using capsules to move paper

and small goods through tubes.

o Air tools

o HVAC control systems

 Vehicle propulsion

 Energy storage (compressed air energy storage)

 Air brakes

o Railway braking systems

o Road vehicle braking systems

 Underwater diving, for breathing and to inflate buoyancy devices

 Refrigeration using a vortex tube

 Air-start systems in engines

 Ammunition propulsion

o Air guns

o Air-soft equipment

o Paintball equipment

 Cleaning dust and small debris in tiny spaces

 Sandblasting in machine shops

 Injection molding

 Food and beverage capping and fermentation

 Compressed air from Lysefjorden/Preikestolen (Norway) is being sold in cans,

mostly to China.

4. Reciprocating Air Compressed :

The reciprocating compressor having basic working principal similar to IC engine, only
the difference is that there is no any power stroke and exhaust stroke. In compressor
only two stroke are take place one is suction in which fressh atmospheric air is taken in
and other is compression in which compressed air is taken out to receiver.

4.1 Working of Reciprocating Air Compressed :

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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 4
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The conventinal reciprocating air compressor is shown in the figure below, it consists of
a piston which reciprocates in a cylinder with help of crankshaft which receive power
from external source. When piston moves down from extream top position, the negative
pressure developed inside the cylinder causing intake valve to get open and atmospheric
air get sucked inside the cylinder. This is continue till piston reach to bottom expream
position, i.e. pressure inside the cylinder equals to outside atmospheric pressure. When
piston moves upward inside pressure rises and intake valve get closed. Now the
entrapped air get compressed continuously as piston moves upword. Then pressure
exceed to set delivery pressure then delivery valve opens and compressed air delivered to
receiver, this continues till piston reach to extream top position and cycle repeated.

4.2 Assumptions :

Following assumptions are made in considering the reciprocating air compressor

operations,

 The working fluid ‘Air’ is a behave like a perfect gas

 There is no any clearance volume.
 Friction losses are negligible, so consider as zero power loss in friction.
 There are no wire-drawing effects in the valve or pipe line.
 There is not heat addition or rejection from cylinder, so cylinder is well
insulated.
5. Single Stage Air Compressor : SPPU : May – 15, 6-Marks

As shown in PV and TS diagram, in single stage reciprocating air compressor, air is

sucked inside the cylinder at atmospheric pressure P1, process 0-1, at point-1 cylinder
is completely filled with air, this entrapped air then compressed to delivery pressure P2
by following isentropic compression (𝑃 𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐶 ), polytrophic compression (𝑃 𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶 ) or
isothermal compression (𝑃 𝑉 = 𝐶 ). Then delivered to receiver at delivery pressure P2,
process 2-3.

The graph area under the curve is representing the actual work consumed by the
compressor, thus from PV diagram, it is clear that when compression follows the
isothermal compression process it consumed minimum work (Area under 0-1-2’’-3) and
when compression is isentropic then it took maximum work (Area under 0-1-2-3). Where
as the practically possible process, i.e. polytrophic process consumed work (Area under
0-1-2’-3) which is in between that of isentropic and isothermal compression.

5.1. Isothermal Compression Work Done :

Work done on the air when compressed from P1 pressure to P2 pressure, if the
compression follows isothermal process (1-2’’) is,

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 0 − 1 − 2’’ − 3

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1 − 2′′ ) + 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 (2′′ −
3) − 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (0 − 1)

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 0 − 1 − 2’’ − 3

𝑉1
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln ( ) + (𝑃2 𝑉2′′) − (𝑃1 𝑉1)
𝑉2′′
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2′′
… … . … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 1 − 2, =
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2′′ … . . 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇1 = 𝑇2

𝑉1
= 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln ( ) + (𝑃1 𝑉1) − (𝑃1 𝑉1)
𝑉2′′
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑃2
= 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln ( ) … . . 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2′′ ⟹ =
𝑉2′′ 𝑉2′′ 𝑃1
𝑃2
= 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln ( ) … . . 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1
𝑃1
𝑷𝟐
𝑰𝒔𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑫𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒎 𝑹 𝑻𝟏 𝐥𝐧 ( )
𝑷𝟏

5.2. Polytropic Compression Work Done :

Work done on the air when compressed from P1 pressure to P2 pressure, if the
compression follows polytropic process (1-2’) is,

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 0 − 1 − 2’ − 3

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1 − 2′ ) + 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 (2′ −
3) − 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (0 − 1)

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 0 − 1 − 2’ − 3

𝑃2 𝑉2′ − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = + 𝑃2 𝑉2′ − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑛−1
(𝑃2 𝑉2′ − 𝑃1 𝑉1) + (𝑛 − 1) (𝑃2 𝑉2′ − 𝑃1 𝑉1)
=
𝑛−1
1 + (𝑛 − 1)
= (𝑃2 𝑉2′ − 𝑃1 𝑉1)
𝑛−1
𝑛
= (𝑃2 𝑉2′ − 𝑃1 𝑉1) … . . 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 & 𝑃2 𝑉2′ = 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇2
𝑛−1
𝑛
= (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1)
𝑛−1
𝒏 𝑻𝟐
𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑫𝒐𝒏𝒆 = (𝒎 𝑹 𝑻𝟏) [ − 𝟏]
𝒏−𝟏 𝑻𝟏
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2′
… … . … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 1 − 2′, =
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑉2′
= ( )( )
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉1
1 1
′𝑛
𝑉2′ 𝑃1 𝑛 𝑃2 −𝑛
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑃1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 ⟹( )=( ) =( )
𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑃1
1 𝑛−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑃2 −𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑝𝑢𝑡, = ( )( ) = ( )
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑃1
𝒏−𝟏
𝒏 𝑷𝟐 𝒏
𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑫𝒐𝒏𝒆 = (𝒎 𝑹 𝑻𝟏) [( ) − 𝟏]
𝒏−𝟏 𝑷𝟏

… . . 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1

5.3. Isentropic Compression Work Done :

Work done on the air when compressed from P1 pressure to P2 pressure, if the
compression follows isentropic process (1-2) is,

𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 0 − 1 − 2 − 3

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1 − 2) + 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 (2 −
3) − 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (0 − 1)

𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 0 − 1 − 2 − 3

𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = + 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝛾−1

(𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1) + (𝛾 − 1) (𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1)

=
𝛾−1

1 + (𝛾 − 1)
= (𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1)
𝛾−1
𝛾
= (𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1) … . . 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 & 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇2
𝛾−1
𝛾
= (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1)
𝛾−1

𝜸 𝑻𝟐
𝑰𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑫𝒐𝒏𝒆 = (𝒎 𝑹 𝑻𝟏) [ − 𝟏]
𝜸−𝟏 𝑻𝟏

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
… … . … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 1 − 2, =
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑉2
= ( )( )
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉1

… . . 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1
𝜸−𝟏
𝜸 𝑷𝟐 𝜸
𝑰𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑫𝒐𝒏𝒆 = (𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏) [( ) − 𝟏]
𝜸−𝟏 𝑷𝟏

5.4. Free Air Delivery (FAD) : SPPU : May – 17, 6-Marks

It is the volume of air delivered under the conditions of temperature and pressure
existing at the compressor intake i.e. volume of air delivered at surrounding air
temperature and pressure.

In the absence of any given free air conditions, these are generally takes as 1.01325 bar
and 15 ºC.

Thus, free air delivery (FAD) represents the rate of volume of surrounding air which is
sucked by the compressor and delivered at discharge pressure.

5.5. Isothermal Efficiency : SPPU : May – 17, 6-Marks

It is defined as the ratio of isothermal work done to the actual work done (i.e. Polytropic
work done).

Isothermal work done or isothermal power is calculated from the theoretical indicator
diagram drawn on the basis of an assumption that the compression is isothermal, and
actual work done or actual power is determine from the actual indicator diagram taken
during the test on the compressor.

Mathematically,

𝑃2
𝑃1 𝑉1 ln (𝑃1)
𝜂𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
( ) [( )
𝑛 − 1 𝑃1 𝑉1 − 1]
𝑃1

5.6. Indicated Power (IP) :

The indicated power is also called as air power, which is required to drive the
compressor is given by the equation as,
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 10
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𝑊 𝑛
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐾𝑊
60000
… … 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑛 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛. 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟.

𝑛 = 2𝑁 𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔.

𝑛 = 𝑁 𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑁 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚

5.7. Mechanical Efficiency :

It is defined as the ratio of air power i.e. indicated power to the shaft power i.e. brake
power.

Indicated power is determine from the actual indicator diagram taken during the test on
the compressor, and brake power is the power delivered to the shaft of the compressor or
the power required to drive the compressor.

Mathematically,

𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ =
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
5.8. Polytropic Efficiency :

It is define as the ratio of polytropic work done to the actual work input.

The actual work input may be taken as isentropic work input in case of the actual work
input is not given.

Mathematically,
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
( ) [( )
𝑛 − 1 𝑃1 𝑉1 − 1]
𝑃1
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑃2 𝛾
( ) [( )
𝛾 − 1 𝑃1 𝑉1 − 1]
𝑃1

6. Methods of Achieving Isothermal Compression -

SPPU : May-15, May–14, 6-Marks

From the PV diagrams, it is observed that work required for isothermal compression is
lesser than other polytropic and isentropic compression. To achieve isothermal
compression the speed of the compressor should be low which means time taken for the
isothermal compression process would increase.

The following methods are the practical means of achieving isothermal compression as,
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 11
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Water Spray Injection – some of the heat was removed by injecting water into the
cylinder towards the end of the compression stroke.

Suitable Cylinder Dimensions – cooling can be done more effectively if surface

area is increased by using cylinder of large diameter and shorter stroke length.

Water Jacketing – water kept circulating around the compressor and air is
cooled.

Inter Stage Cooling – the compression is divided into two or more stages and in-
between two stages cooling is provided.

Prob . 1 – A single stage reciprocating air compressor intake air at the rate of 1 m 3/min.
at 1.013 bar and 15 ºC. Then compressed air is delivers at 7 bar according to the law
PV1.35 = constant. Calculate power required for the compression.

Ans. – Single Stage Compressor, V1=1 m3/min., P1 = 1.013 bar = 1.013x105 N/m2, T1
=15 ºC, P2 = 7 bar = 7x105 N/m2, PV1.35 = constant, n = 1.35.
Power required for the compression –

We know, power required for compression is equal to the work done on the air during
compression, thus,
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑃 = 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (𝑃1 𝑉1) [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1

1.35−1
1.35 1 7 1.35
𝑃 = 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (1.013𝑥105 𝑥 ) [( ) − 1]
1.35 − 1 60 1.013

𝑃 = 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = 4236.88 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡

𝑷 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟑𝟕 𝑲𝑾 … . 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

Prob . 2 – A single stage, single cylinder reciprocating air compressor delivers air at 6
bar. The rate of air taken in during suction is 12 Kg/min. at 1.013 bar and 27 ºC. the
compression take place with the index of 1.25.

Calculate,

i) Work required for delivering 1 Kg of air.

ii) Actual power required to run the compressor if 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 80%.

Ans. – Single Stage, Single Cylinder Compressor, 𝑚̇=12 Kg/min., P1 = 1.013 bar =
1.013x105 N/m2, T1 =27 ºC = 300 K, P2 = 6 bar = 6x105 N/m2, n = 1.25.

i) Work required for delivering 1 Kg of air –

We know, compression index n = 1.25 indicates the compression process is polytropic,

thus,

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1) [( ) − 1] … . 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑚 = 1 𝐾𝑔
𝑛−1 𝑃1

1.25−1
1.25 6 1.25
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (1 𝑥 0.287 𝑥 300) [( ) − 1]
1.25 − 1 1.013

𝑾𝑫𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚 = 𝟏𝟖𝟑. 𝟗𝟒 𝑲𝑱⁄𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 … . . 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟏

ii) Actual power required to run the compressor if 𝜼𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 = 𝟖𝟎% –

We know, actual power means the brake power, and indicated power also known as air
power which required to drive the compressor, thus,

𝐼𝑃 = 𝑚̇ 𝑥 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦

12
𝐼𝑃 = 𝑥 183.94
60

𝑰𝑷 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟕𝟖𝟖 𝑲𝑾

Now the mechanical efficiency is,

𝐼𝑃
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ =
𝐵𝑃
36.788
0.88 =
𝐵𝑃
𝑩𝑷 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟖𝟎𝟓 𝑲𝑾 … … 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟐

Prob . 3 – A single cylinder air compressor delivers 9 Kg of air per minute. The air is
compressed from 1 bar and 27 ºC to 7 bar. The compression process follows the law
PV1.25 = C.

Find,

i) Work Done
ii) Brake Power required if mechanical efficiency is 85%.

SPPU : Dec.–15, 7-Marks

Ans. – Single Stage, Single Cylinder Compressor, 𝑚̇=9 Kg/min., P1 = 1 bar = 1x105
N/m2, T1 =27 ºC = 300 K, P2 = 7 bar = 7x105 N/m2, n = 1.25.

i) Work Done –

We know, compression is polytropic,

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (𝑚̇ 𝑅 𝑇1) [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1

1.25−1
1.25 9 7 1.25
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = ( 𝑥 287 𝑥 300) [( ) − 1]
1.25 − 1 60 1

𝑾𝑫𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚 = 𝟑𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝑲𝑾 … . . 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟏

iii) Brake Power required if (𝜼𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 = 𝟖𝟓%) –

We know, the indicated power is the polytropic work done,

𝐼𝑃 = 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦

𝐼𝑃 = 30.72

𝑰𝑷 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝑲𝑾

Now the mechanical efficiency is,

𝐼𝑃
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ =
𝐵𝑃
30.72
0.85 =
𝐵𝑃
𝑩𝑷 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟏𝟒 𝑲𝑾 … … 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟐

7. Effect of Clearance in Compressor

The clearance in the cylinder ensures the mechanical freedom to moving parts like
valves and piston without much wear and tear. Also provides the necessary space for
valve operation movement.

The figure shows PV diagram of the single cylinder single

acting and single stage reciprocating compressor with
the clearance.

The intake valve is open at point-0 and air at

atmospheric pressure P1 is taken in cylinder, this air
suction continue till point-1. After the suction when
intake valve get closed the entrapped air is compressed
till the pressure reaches to delivery pressure P2, shown
by process 1-2. The delivery valve get opened at point-2
and air delivery is started from point-2 and ends at
point-3.
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 14
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Thus, the some small quantity of air Vc at pressure P2 remaining in the dead space at
the end of delivery. In next cycle first compressed air at P2 get expanded till the pressure
reduced to atmospheric, shown by expansion of air by process 3-4. Once inside cylinder
pressure reach to P1 at point-4, then after further movement of piston create a negative
pressure inside the cylinder and the intake valve get opened and now actual outside
atmospheric air is sucked into the cylinder.

Therefore the volume of air sucked inside the cylinder when clearance is provided is (V1-
V4) which is lesser than the stroke volume (V1-V3), this means handling capacity of the
compressor is reduced due to clearance provided. Due to this, in compressor the
clearance volume is kept as small as possible.

7.1 Volumetric Efficiency of Compressor at Suction Conditions -

SPPU : May–17, 6-Marks

The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is the ratio of actual mass or volume of air
delivered to the mass or volume corresponding to the displacement of piston.

The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is the ratio of free air delivered (FAD, i.e. rate
of volume of atmospheric air which is actually sucked by the compressor and delivered
at discharge pressure.) to the stroke volume.

Mathematically,
𝑉𝐹𝐴𝐷
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑉𝑠
𝑉1 − 𝑉4
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = … . . 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑠
(𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑐 ) − 𝑉4
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = … . . 𝐸𝑞. 1
𝑉𝑠

For polytropic air expansion process 3-4,

𝑃3 𝑉3 𝑛 = 𝑃4 𝑉4 𝑛

… . . 𝑃3 = 𝑃2 = 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

… . . 𝑃4 = 𝑃1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑃2 𝑉𝑐 𝑛 = 𝑃1 𝑉4 𝑛

𝑉4 𝑛 𝑃2
( ) =( )
𝑉𝑐 𝑃1
1⁄
𝑉4 𝑃2 𝑛
( )=( )
𝑉𝑐 𝑃1
1⁄
𝑃2 𝑛
𝑉4 = ( ) 𝑉𝑐 … . 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑞. 1
𝑃1

It is the measure of handling capacity of the compressor, which is reduced with

increased in clearance. But there is no effect on the work done for the air delivered.

7.2 Volumetric Efficiency of Compressor at Ambient Conditions

The ambient conditions pressure (P0) is assumed to be 1 bar and ambient condition
temperature (T0) is assumed to be 15ºC.

Let the V0 be the volume of air delivered at ambient pressure and temperature.

We know, mass of air at ambient condition is,

𝑃0 𝑉0
𝑚=
𝑅 𝑇0

And from PV diagram, mass of air sucked is,

𝑃1 (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 )
𝑚=
𝑅 𝑇1
Since the mass of air sucked remains constant,
𝑃0 𝑉0 𝑃1 (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 )
𝑚= =
𝑅 𝑇0 𝑅 𝑇1
𝑃1 𝑇0
𝑉0 = (𝑉 − 𝑉4 )
𝑃0 𝑇1 1

The volumetric efficiency at ambient conditions is,

𝑉0
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙_𝑜 =
𝑉𝑠
𝑃1 𝑇0
( )
𝑃0 𝑇1 𝑉1 − 𝑉4
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙_𝑜 =
𝑉𝑠
𝑃1 𝑇0 (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 ) 𝑉1 − 𝑉4 1⁄
𝑛
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙_𝑜 = [ ] ….. = 1 + 𝐶 − 𝐶 (𝑅𝑝 )
𝑃0 𝑇1 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑷𝟏 𝑻𝟎 𝟏⁄
𝒏
𝜼𝒗𝒐𝒍_𝒐 = [𝟏 + 𝑪 − 𝑪 (𝑹𝒑 ) ]
𝑷𝟎 𝑻𝟏
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 16
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7.3 Work Done on Air by Compressor with clearance :

Considering polytropic compression process take place

with the polytropic compression index ‘n’ and
compressed air from intake pressure P1 to delivery
pressure P2 in single stage with clearance in
compressor cylinder.

𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 ⁄𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 1 − 2 − 3 − 4

𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 ⁄𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴 (𝑎 − 1 − 2 − 𝑏) − 𝐴 (𝑎 − 4 − 3 − 𝑏)

𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 ⁄𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 − 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦

𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 ⁄𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = (𝑃1 𝑉1) [( ) − 1] − (𝑃4 𝑉4) [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑛−1 𝑃4

𝑝𝑢𝑡 … . . 𝑃4 = 𝑃1, 𝑃3 = 𝑃2
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 ⁄𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = (𝑃1 𝑉1) [( ) − 1] − (𝑃1 𝑉4) [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑛−1 𝑃1

𝒏−𝟏
𝒏 𝑷𝟐 𝒏
𝑾𝑫𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚 ⁄𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 = 𝑷𝟏(𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟒) [( ) − 𝟏]
𝒏−𝟏 𝑷𝟏

Similarly,

For Isentropic compression, the work done is,

𝜸−𝟏
𝜸 𝑷𝟐 𝜸
𝑾𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒏 ⁄𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 = 𝑷𝟏(𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟒) [( ) − 𝟏]
𝜸−𝟏 𝑷𝟏

For Isothermal compression, the work done is,

𝑷𝟐
𝑾𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒐 ⁄𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 = 𝑷𝟏(𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟒) 𝐥𝐧 ( )
𝑷𝟏

Prob . 8 – A single stage, single cylinder and single acting reciprocating compressor, the
actual volume of air sucked inside the cylinder during intake is 11.5 m3/min. Intake
pressure and temperature are 1.013 bar and 27 ºC respectively. The delivery pressure
920 KPa. Take clearance 5.5 % of the stroke, compressor run at the speed of 410 rpm,
L/D ratio equal to 1.25 and compression index is 1.3.

Calculate,

i) Volumetric Efficiency
ii) Cylinder Dimensions
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 17
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iii) Indicated Power

Ans. – Single Stage, Single Cylinder, Single Acting Reciprocating Compressor, 𝑉̇ =

(𝑉1 − 𝑉4) = 11.5 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛, P1 = 1.013 bar = 1.013x105 N/m2, T1 =27 ºC = 300K, P2 = 920
KPa = 9.2 bar = 9.2x105 N/m2, 𝑉𝑐 = 5.5 % 𝑉𝑠 , N = 410 rpm, L/D = 1.25, n = 1.3.

i) Volumetric Efficiency –

We know,

𝑉𝑐
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝐶 = … … … … 𝑉𝑐 = 0.055 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑠

𝑽𝒄
𝑪= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟓
𝑽𝒔

And pressure ratio is,

𝑃2
𝑅𝑝 =
𝑃1
9.2
𝑅𝑝 =
1.013
𝑹𝒑 = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟗

The volumetric efficiency when clearance is consider,

1⁄
𝑛
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 1 + 𝐶 − 𝐶 (𝑅𝑝 )
1⁄
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 1 + 0.055 − 0.055 (9.0819) 1.3

𝜼𝒗𝒐𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟒𝟖 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟒𝟖 % … … 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟏

ii) Cylinder Dimensions -

We know, volume flow rate is,

𝑉̇ = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

From L/D ratio,

𝐿⁄𝐷 = 1.25

𝐿 = 1.25 𝐷

𝐿 = 1.25 𝑥 0.3057

𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟐𝟏 𝒎 … . . 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟐

iii) Indicated Power –

We know, indicated power is a polytropic work done as,

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝐼𝑃 = 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = 𝑃1(𝑉1 − 𝑉4) [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1

1.3−1
1.3 11.5 9.2 1.3
𝐼𝑃 = 𝑥 1.013 𝑥 105 ( ) [( ) − 1]
1.3 − 1 60 1.013

𝑰𝑷 = 𝟓𝟓𝟖𝟓𝟒. 𝟓 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟖𝟓 𝑲𝑾 … . 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟑

Prob . 9 – A single stage, single cylinder and single acting reciprocating air compressor,
deliver 0.75 Kg/min. at a pressure of 7 bar. The intake pressure and temperature are
1.013 bar and 27ºC. The cylinder bore and stroke are, 100mm and 150mm respectively.
The clearance volume is 3.5% of the stroke volume. Assume polytropic compression with
index of 1.3.
Calculate,

i) Volumetric Efficiency
ii) Power required to drive the compressor if mechanical efficiency is 82%
iii) Speed of the compressor per min.

Ans. – Single Stage, Single Cylinder, Single Acting Reciprocating Compressor, 𝑚̇ =

0.75 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛, P2 = 7 bar = 7x105 N/m2, P1 = 1.013 bar = 1.013x105 N/m2, T1 =27 ºC =
300K, D=100mm, L=150mm, 𝑉𝑐 = 3.5 % 𝑉𝑠 , n = 1.3.

i) Volumetric Efficiency –
We know the volumetric efficiency when clearance is consider,

𝑉𝑐 𝑃2
…..𝐶 = = 3.5% = 0.035 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑝 =
𝑉𝑠 𝑃1
1⁄
𝑃2 𝑛
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =1+𝐶−𝐶 ( )
𝑃1
1⁄
7 1.3
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 1 + 0.035 − 0.035 ( )
1.013
𝜼𝒗𝒐𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟎𝟐 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟎𝟐 % … … 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟏

ii) Power required to drive the compressor if mechanical efficiency is 82% –

We know, Indicated Power i.e. Polytropic work done is,

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝐼𝑃 = 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 [( ) − 1] … … 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑚̇ 𝑅 𝑇1
𝑛−1 𝑃1

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝐼𝑃 = 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = 𝑚̇ 𝑅 𝑇1 [( ) − 1] … . 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 287 𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔 − 𝐾
𝑛−1 𝑃1

1.3−1
1.3 0.75 7 1.3
𝐼𝑃 = 𝑥 𝑥 287 𝑥 300 𝑥 [( ) − 1]
1.3 − 1 60 1.013

𝑰𝑷 = 𝟐𝟔𝟐𝟏. 𝟖𝟐 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟐 𝑲𝑾
Now, the power supplied to drive the compressor, i.e. BP is,
𝐼𝑃
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ =
𝐵𝑃
2.62
0.82 =
𝐵𝑃
𝑩𝑷 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟗𝟓 𝑲𝑾 … 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟐
iii) Speed of the compressor per min. –

We know, the rate of actual volume intake per min. is,

𝑃1 𝑉1̇ = 𝑚̇ 𝑅 𝑇1

1.013 𝑥 105 𝑉1̇ = 0.75 𝑥 287 𝑥 300

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆, 𝑽𝟏̇ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏

Now, rate of theoretical volume intake per min. is,

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆, 𝑽𝒔̇ = (𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑵) 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏

We know, Volumetric efficiency is,

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒

𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒
𝑉1̇
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑉𝑠̇
0.6375
0.8802 =
(1.178 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 𝑁 )

𝑵 = 𝟔𝟏𝟒. 𝟖𝟑 𝒓𝒑𝒎 … . 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟑

8. Limitations of Single Stage Compression :

1⁄
Volumetric efficiency when clearance is considered is given by 𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 1 + 𝐶 − 𝐶 (𝑅𝑝 ) 𝑛 . It
is observed that, the 𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 of a reciprocating compressor is depends on the clearance ratio
‘C’ , pressure ratio ‘𝑅𝑝 ’ and index of expansion.

From the figure, it is clear that, volume of air taken in is

compressed which causes decrease in volume and
increase in corresponding delivery pressure. For the
same clearance volume Vc and fixed intake pressure P1,
if delivery pressure is P2 the residual compressed air in
clearance volume expanded to point-4, thus the
effective volume of air taken into the compressor is (V1-
V4). When delivery pressure increases to level P3, then
residual compressed air expanded to point-4’, thus
effective volume of air taken into the compressor is (V1-
V4’) which is lesser than the first one.

On increasing delivery pressure further, at some point

the compression ends at the clearance volume i.e. all air compressed to clearance
volume and there is no air delivery. When these entrapped air expands it follows the
same path and reach to point-4’’, and thus there will be only compression and re-
expansion of air again and again and no air delivery.

Therefore the maximum pressure ratio attainable with a single stage reciprocating
compressor is limited by the clearance volume.

The arrangement of two stage compressor with inter cooler and its PV diagram are
shown in following figure,

In two stage compressor with inter-cooler, the air is first taken into low pressure (LP)
cylinder. After compression to some desired intermediate pressure P2, the air from the
LP cylinder at condition 2 is passed through inter-cooler. The condition of air leaving the
inter cooler is shown by the point where its temperature is reduced from T2 to T3
(temperature T3 < T2). It is possible to cool the air in the inter-cooler to initial intake
temperature T1, by properly regulating the supply of cooling water I the inter-cooler.
Finally air is compressed from condition 3 to condition 4 in high pressure (HP) cylinder
and is discharge to receiver at final delivery pressure P3. If the same pressure ratio is
achieved by single stage then the compression process will be 1-2-6, but doing inter-
cooling the some work is saved shown by shredded area. If the inter-cooling is perfect
and temperature achieved will be intake temperature then the curve passing through
these points is shown by dotted curve line is a isothermal compression.

9.1. Advantages of Multi Stage Compressor with Inter-Cooling :

SPPU : Dec.-17, May – 16, May – 15, Dec. -15, 6-Marks

 The work done per kg of air can be reduced by introducing an inter-cooler in

between two stages of compression, as compared to single stage compression for the
same delivery pressure.

 Better mechanical balance can be achieved with multi-stage compressors.

 The pressure and hence temperature range in each state is reduced.

 Loss of air due to leakage is less.

 Higher volumetric efficiency can be achieved as the pressure of each stage is less
than the overall pressure ratio, as the volumetric efficiency is also a function of a
pressure ratio.

 Effective lubrication is possible due to lower temperature range.

9.2. Disadvantages of Multi Stage Compressor with Inter-Cooling :

 Design and Construction is more complicated than that of single stage compressor.

 The initial cost is more.

 Not suitable for low pressure ratio or less delivery pressure.

 It needed additional component inter-cooler and its accessories like water pump,
hose system, filters etc.

 The additional accessories like water pump consumed power, thus overall power
requirement is more.

10. Differentiate between Theoretical and Actual Indicator Diagram for

Reciprocating Compressor : SPPU : May -17, 6-Marks

Theoretical Indicator Diagram Actual Indicator Diagram

The intake valve opens at point-4, and thus The intake valve not opened at point-4, but
it is assumed at point-4 cylinder experience when the pressure inside the cylinder is
the negative pressure instantly. slightly below the atmospheric pressure.

Valve inertia is play the role in delay in

Valve inertia factor not considered.
opening

Intake of air is actually started at pressure

Intake of air is assumed at constant below the atmospheric pressure and ends
atmospheric pressure throughout the when pressure equal to atmospheric. The
suction process. pressure difference is called as intake
depression.
The abrupt opening of the valve causes the
The intake is at the atmospheric pressure,
formation of eddies and valve bounce which
the suction curve is a smooth and
result in wavy curve during suction process
horizontal.
4-1.

The delivery process curve is smooth and

The delivery process curve is wavy, due to
horizontal and take place at constant
valve flutter and inertial effect.
delivery pressure.

There is work done is equals to that of The shaded area represent the extra work of
required for the compression process only, compression required. It is because of the
not extra work is done during suction and delay in opening and closing of valves,
delivery. flutter and inertial effect of valves.

11. Ideal intermediate pressure with perfect inter-cooling of two stage

compression : SPPU : May -18, 6-Marks

Figure shows the PV diagram of two stage compressor with

perfect inter-cooling. In stage one, low pressure (LP)
cylinder air is intake at pressure P1 and temperature T1,
then it is compressed polytropically to pressure P2, process
shown by 1-2. The exits of the LP cylinder at point-2 with
pressure P2 and temperature T2 is enter into the inter-
cooler where its temperature bring back to intake
temperature, i.e. 𝑇2’ = 𝑇1, thus there is a perfect inter-
cooling. Now at point-2’, the air at pressure P2 and
temperature T1 is enter into high pressure (HP) cylinder
where it is again compressed polytropically to delivery
pressure P3, the process shown by 2’-3.

If the compression take place in single stage, then the curve will be 1-2-3’’, but using two stage
with inter-cooling the compression curve is 1-2-2’-3, thus the shaded area is the work saved
duet to multi-stage compression.

If the temperature is kept constant then the compression will follow the curve 1-2’-3’ which is
isothermal compression which result in minimum work done which is practically not possible.

The total work done is,

𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = 𝑊𝐷𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒−1 + 𝑊𝐷𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒−2

𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 [( ) − 1] + 𝑃2 𝑉2′ [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑛−1 𝑃2

𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 ) [( ) − 1] + (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇2′) [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑛−1 𝑃2

… … 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑇2′ = 𝑇1

𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 ) [( ) −1+( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑃2

𝒏−𝟏 𝒏−𝟏
𝒏 𝑷𝟐 𝒏 𝑷𝟑 𝒏
𝑾𝑫𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚 = (𝒎 𝑹 𝑻𝟏 ) [( ) +( ) − 𝟐]
𝒏−𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐

Now, if the intake pressure P1 and delivery pressure P3 are fixed, then optimum
intermediate pressure for minimum work of compression in both LP and HP cylinder can
be calculated by differentiating WD with respect to pressure P2 and equal to zero as,

For minimum work done condition,

𝑑
(𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 ) = 0
𝑑 (𝑃2)
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑑 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛
{ (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 ) [( ) +( ) − 2]} = 0
𝑑 (𝑃2) 𝑛 − 1 𝑃1 𝑃2

𝑛−1 𝑛 1
… 𝑃𝑢𝑡 = 𝑥, =
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑥

𝑑 1 𝑃2 𝑥 𝑃3 𝑥
{ (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 ) [( ) + ( ) − 2]} = 0
𝑑 (𝑃2) 𝑥 𝑃1 𝑃2

1 𝑑
(𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 ) [(𝑃2)𝑥 (𝑃1)−𝑥 + (𝑃3)𝑥 (𝑃2)−𝑥 − 2] = 0
𝑥 𝑑 (𝑃2)

𝑑
[(𝑃2)𝑥 (𝑃1)−𝑥 + (𝑃3)𝑥 (𝑃2)−𝑥 − 2] = 0
𝑑 (𝑃2)

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑃1)−𝑥 (𝑃2)𝑥 + (𝑃3)𝑥 (𝑃2)−𝑥 − (2) = 0
𝑑 (𝑃2) 𝑑 (𝑃2) 𝑑 (𝑃2)

(𝑃1)−𝑥 𝑥 . (𝑃2)𝑥−1 + (𝑃3)𝑥 . −𝑥 . (𝑃2)−𝑥−1 − 0 = 0

[(𝑃1)−𝑥 𝑥 . (𝑃2)𝑥−1 ] − [(𝑃3)𝑥 . 𝑥 . (𝑃2)−(𝑥+1) ] = 0

[(𝑃1)−𝑥 𝑥 . (𝑃2)𝑥−1 ] = [(𝑃3)𝑥 . 𝑥 . (𝑃2)−(𝑥+1) ]

(𝑃2)𝑥−1 (𝑃3)𝑥
=
(𝑃2)−(𝑥+1) (𝑃1)−𝑥

(𝑃2)𝑥−1 (𝑃2)𝑥+1 = (𝑃3)𝑥 (𝑃1)𝑥

(𝑃2)2𝑥 = (𝑃3)𝑥 (𝑃1)𝑥

(𝑃2)2 = (𝑃3) (𝑃1)

𝑃22 = 𝑃3 𝑃1 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑃2 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 𝑃1

𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝟑
𝑷𝟐 = √𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟑 𝑨𝒍𝒔𝒐 =
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
Therefore, the ideal intermediate pressure, with which the minimum work of
compression is required is the geometric mean of the intake pressure (P1) and delivery
pressure (P2) of two stage compression. This is also known as the condition for
maximum efficiency.

Thus, with perfect inter-cooling and ideal intermediate pressure P2, the work of two
stage compression will be,
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑃3
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 ) [( ) +( ) − 2] … … . 𝑝𝑢𝑡, =
𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑃2

𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 ) [( ) +( ) − 2]
𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑃1

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 ) [2 ( ) − 2]
𝑛−1 𝑃1

𝒏−𝟏
𝒏 𝑷𝟐 𝒏
𝑾𝑫𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚 =𝟐 (𝒎 𝑹 𝑻𝟏 ) [( ) − 𝟏]
𝒏−𝟏 𝑷𝟏

Similarly, for K-stage compression with perfect inter-cooling and ideal intermediate
pressure is,
𝒏−𝟏
𝒏 𝑷𝟐 𝒏
𝑾𝑫𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚 =𝑲 (𝒎 𝑹 𝑻𝟏 ) [( ) − 𝟏] … . 𝐾 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠.
𝒏−𝟏 𝑷𝟏

12. After Cooling of Compression :

After compression, high

pressure air is supplied to the
receiver for storage. But with
increase in pressure there is
rise in temperature too, which

If the compressed air is cooled before the storage in receiver it will result in decreased in
specific volume thus needed small size receiver.

This objective is completed by incorporating a heat exchanger after compression, this is

called as after-cooler. It is provided in between the compressor outlet and receiver inlet,
the compressed high pressure and high temperature air is cooled by circulating water
into the heat exchanger, thus compressed air is cooled almost upto atmospheric
temperature.

Thus after-cooler reduces the specific volume of compressed air supplied to the receiver
which help in reducing the size of the receiver.

13. Capacity control of compressors :

The compressors are not run continuously all the time at their maximum rated capacity,
so it become essential to have some means to control the amount of air supplied by the
compressor in order to meet the required demand.
Thus there are following three methods are used to controlled the air delivery of the
compressor as,
13.1. Throttle Control Method –
In the throttle control method, the opening of the intake valve is controlled by the
pressure in the receiver.
When receiver pressure is lesser, the intake valve is opened to its maximum possibility,
but as the receiver pressure build up the opening of intake valve decreases accordingly.
Thus, receiver pressure exceeds the normal pressure, the intake valve get partly closed
and the quantity of air sucked by the compressor is reduced.
The limitation of this method is that the temperature of air delivered may rise to
dangerous value due to high pressure ratio.
13.2. Clearance Control Method –
In the clearance control method, the clearance volume pockets are provided in side the
cylinder. When the receiver pressure is lesser then these clearance volume pocket
remain inactive and dose not taking part of compression.
When receiver pressure exceeds the normal value, these clearance volume pockets come
into operation, by which these clearance volume pockets are brought in communication
with cylinder volume with the help of automatically operated valves.
Thus, increase in volume reduces the volumetric efficiency and reduces the rate of
volume of air intake, compressed and delivered to receiver.
13.3. Blow-off Control Method –

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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 27
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In the blow-off control method, a pressure blow-off valve is provided in the high pressure
(HP) cylinder. When the pressure in the receiver exceed the normal value due to decrease
in the demand, the high pressure air is released to the atmosphere by this blow-off valve.
As soon as the receiver pressure falls the blow-off valve automatically get closed and
compressor run normally.
Prob . 11 – A two stage air compressor with perfect inter-cooling takes in air at 1 bar
and 27 ºC. The law of compression in both the stages is PV1.3 = constant. The
compressed air is delivered at 9 bar from the HP cylinder to an air receiver.
Calculate per Kg of air,
i) Minimum work of compression
ii) Heat rejected in intercooler
iii) Work required for single stage compression to the same deliver pressure.
SPPU : May – 18, 7-Marks
Ans. – Two Stage Reciprocating Compressor, Perfect Inter-cooling, K = No. of stages = 2,
P1 = 1 bar = 1x105 N/m2, T1 = 27 ºC = 300 K, PV1.3 = constant, P3 = 9 bar = 9x105 N/m2.

i) Minimum work of compression –

Considering ideal intermediate pressure (P2) and perfect inter-cooling,

𝑃2 = √𝑃1 𝑃3

𝑃2 = √1 𝑥 9
𝑷𝟐 = 𝟑 𝒃𝒂𝒓 = 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐
We know, the minimum work of two stage compression is,
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 =𝐾 (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 ) [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1

1.3−1
1.3 3 1.3
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 =2𝑥 (𝑚 𝑥 287 𝑥 300) [( ) − 1]
1.3 − 1 1

𝑾𝑫𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚_ 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑲𝒈 = 𝟐𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟐𝟒 𝑱 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟐𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟐𝟒 𝑲𝑱 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 … . 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟏

ii) Heat rejected in intercooler –

We know, in polytropic compression process 1-2, the pressure ratio in terms of
temperature is,
𝑛
𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑛−1
=( )
𝑃1 𝑇1
𝑛−1
𝑃2 𝑛 𝑇2
( ) =( )
𝑃1 𝑇1
𝑛−1
𝑃2 𝑛
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑥 ( )
𝑃1
1.3−1
3 1.3
𝑇2 = 300 𝑥 ( )
1
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟑𝟖𝟔. 𝟓𝟕 𝑲
With the perfect inter-cooling, the temperature of air after inter-cooling brought to initial
intake temperature, thus,
𝑻𝟐′ = 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑲
Heat rejected per Kg of air to the inter-cooler is,
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑗 = 𝑚 𝐶𝑝_𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑇2 − 𝑇2′)
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑗
= 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑗_𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑔 = 𝐶𝑝_𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) … . . 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝐶𝑝_𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1 𝐾𝐽⁄𝐾𝑔𝐾
𝑚
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑗_ 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑔 = 1 (386.57 − 300)

𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒋_𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑲𝒈 = 𝟖𝟔. 𝟓𝟕 𝑲𝑱 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒊𝒓 … . 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟐

iii) Work required for single stage compression to the same deliver pressure –
If the compression take place in single stage to the same delivery pressure, then the
work required is,

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 = (𝑚 𝑅 𝑇1 ) [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1

1.3−1
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 1.3 9 1.3
= 𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦_𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑔 = (287 𝑥 300) [( ) − 1]
𝑚 1.3 − 1 1

𝑾𝑫𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚_ 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑲𝒈 = 𝟐𝟒𝟔𝟑𝟗𝟏 𝑱 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟐𝟒𝟔. 𝟑𝟗𝟏 𝑲𝑱 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑲𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 … . 𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟑

Prob . 12 – A reciprocating air compressor has four stage compressions with 2 m3/min
of air being delivered at 150 bar when initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 27
ºC respectively. Compression occur polytropically following polytropic index of 1.25 in
four stages with perfect inter-cooling between stages. For the optimum inter-cooling
conditions determine the intermediate pressures and the work required for driving
compressor. SPPU : Dec.–17, May-17, 7-Marks
Ans. – Four Stage Reciprocating Compressor, 𝑉1̇ = 2 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛., P5 = 150 bar = 150x105
N/m2, P1 = 1 bar = 1x105 N/m2, T1 = 27 ºC = 300 K, 𝑛 = 1.25, Perfect Inter-cooling, K =
No. of stages = 4, PV1.25 = constant.

i) Intermediate Pressures when perfect inter-cooling and ideal intermediate

pressures conditions –
We know, for compression in no. of stages with ideal intermediate pressures with perfect
inter-cooling is,

𝐾 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃5
𝑦= √ = = = =
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4

… . 𝐾 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,

𝑃1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒,
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 30
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𝑃5 = 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

4 150 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃5
𝑦=√ = = = =
1 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4

4 150
𝑦=√
1

𝒚 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟗𝟗𝟔

𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4
𝑦= 𝑦= 𝑦=
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4
3.4996 = 3.4996 = 3.4996 =
1 𝑃2 𝑃3
𝑃3 𝑃4
𝑷𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟗𝟗𝟔 𝒃𝒂𝒓 3.4996 = 3.4996 3.4996 = 12.2472

𝑷𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟒𝟕𝟐 𝒃𝒂𝒓 𝑷𝟒 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟖𝟔𝟎𝟑 𝒃𝒂𝒓

ii) Work required for driving compressor –

We know, work done for K no. of stages when perfect inter-cooling and ideal intermediate
pressure is maintained,
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 =𝐾 (𝑃1 𝑉1̇ ) [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 𝑃1

1.25−1
1.25 2 3.4996 1.25
𝑊𝐷𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦 =4𝑥 (1𝑥105 𝑥 ) [( ) − 1]
1.25 − 1 60 1

𝑾𝑫𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚 = 𝟏𝟖𝟗𝟖𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟖 𝑲𝑾

14. Rotary Compressor :

Rotary compressors are the devices which develop pressure and have a rotor as their
primary element which actually rotates in the casing, as compared to reciprocating
compressor in which piston slides inside the cylinder.
These compressor are used for supplying large volume of air upto 3000 m3/min. but at a
very low pressure upto 10 bar.
The compressor of air follows the law 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, but the index of compression may
be as high as 1.7 if no cooling device are used, if the inter-cooler used in between two
stages then value of index of compression can be reduced which approximates adiabatic
compression. The compressor running speeds are upto 40000 rpm.

14.2. Positive Displacement Compressor :

In positive displacement rotary compressor, the air is trapped in between two sets of
engaging surfaces and change in pressure is either by the back flow of air or both by
squeezing action and back flow of air.
The single stage blowers have pressure ratio upto 2.5 bar with the air handling capacity
ranges from 0.5 m3/min. to 1500 m3/min.
 Root Blower (Lobe Type) Compressor - SPPU : May-18, Dec.-15, May-14, 6-Marks
It consist of two rotors rotating in opposite directions. The lobes of the rotors are of
epicycloids, hypocycloid or involutes profiles because this ensures correct mating.
The high pressure side for all angular positions
of the rotors a small clearance is provided
between the rotors and the cylinder surface to
reduce wear. The leakage through this
clearance increases with increasing pressure
ratio and reduces the efficiency of the
compressor.
The volume of air 𝑉𝑠 at atmospheric pressure
P1 is entrapped between the left hand rotor
and casing the volume of the air once
entrapped does not dreases from entry to exit
and therefore pressure is not developed till the
exit port is uncovered. As the exit port opns
some high pressure air from receiver will rush
back and mix with the air volume ‘Vs’
irreversibly until receiver pressure P2 if the
volume of receiver is assumed large. The air is
then transferred to the receiver. This happens
4 times in one revolution in case of two lobed
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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 32
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rotor and 6 times in case of 3 lobed rotor.
The root blower has a pressure 1 : 2 and capacity around 8.5 m3/min. with speed of 250
rpm.

The work done per revolution of rotor is,

𝑾𝑫 = (𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏) 𝑽𝒔

 Vane Type Blower Compressor -

Vane type blower consists of a rotor located eccentrically in a cylindrical outer casing.
The vane type blower compressor require less
work compared to root blower for the same
capacity and pressure rise. The capacity of air
deliver upto 350 m3/min. at pressure ratio 4 and
speed at rotation is about 250 rpm.
The rotor carries a set of spring loaded vanes in
the slots of the rotor. The volume of air V1 at
atmospheric pressure P1 is entrapped between
two vanes as in root blower.
At the rotation proceeds, the entrapped air is first
compressed irreversibly from condition 1 to d as
compression takes place due to the decrease in
volume provided for the entrapped air. Then the
air is compressed from the pressure Pd to P2
irreversibly. This irreversible compression is just
similar to the compression of root blower.

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Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 33
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 Screw Type Compressor -
The screw type compressor consist of two helical grooved rotors which are mesh with
each other in a housing. The electric motor drives a male rotor shaft and female follows
it but in the some designs the metallic cylindrical rotor.
Suction – voids are created on both male and female side of rotor and gas is drawn in
through the inlet port when the rotor is in unmesh condition. Due to continuous
rotation of rotor inter-lobe space increase in size, and gas flow continuously inside the
compressor, just before to the point at which the inter-lobe space leaves the inlet port,
the entire length of the inter-lobe space completely filled with gas.
Compression – during forward motion of the rotor screw the male rotor lobe mesh with
another female inter-lobe. The air is trapped between the space from suction end and it
moves forward in axial direction causing compression by decreasing the volume of
trapped air in inter-lobe space and hence pressure is gradually increased to the
discharge end.
Discharge – as air reaches to discharge end and discharge port is uncovered, the
compressed air is discharges by further meshing of lobe and inter-lobe space. Due to
overlap cycle of suction and discharge it gives smooth and continuous flow of air without
creating noise.

14.3. Non-Positive Displacement (Steady Flow) Compressor :

In non-positive displacement or steady flow compressor, the fluid is not positively

contained within specified boundaries, but is in a continuous steady flow through out
the machine. There is a transfer of energy from the machine rotor to the fluid and the
rise in pressure is primary due to dynamic effects. Thus these compressor also called as
Dynamic Compressor and Blade Compressor.
 Centrifugal Compressor -
The centrifugal type compressor are used to supply large quantities of air but at a lower
pressure ratio. It consist of a rotating impeller, diffuser and casing. It can produce the
pressure ratio upto 4 : 1 per impeller and with number of impellers pressure ratio can

15. Comparison between Reciprocating and Positive Displacement type Rotary

Compressor : SPPU : May-17, Dec.-17, May–16, 6-Marks

Positive Displacement Positive Displacement

Reciprocating Compressor Rotary Compressor
It can deliver large pressure ratio upto 5
It can deliver pressure ratio upto 2.5, in
in single stage and upto 300 in multi-
some multi-stage application upto 10.
stage compressor.
Compression of air takes place with the
Compression takes place due to rotary
help of piston and cylinder arrangement
motion of blades or rotors.
with reciprocating motion of piston.
These are used to deliver low volume flow These are used to deliver large volume
rate upto 30 m3/min. but at high flow rate upto 1500 m3/min. but at low
pressure ratio. pressure ratio.
The pressure rise is due to either by back
The pressure rise is due to variation in
flow of air as in case of root blower or due
volume of cylinder by means of moving
to decrease in volume and back flow as
boundary formed by piston.
in case of vane blowers.
It has more number of moving parts, It has less number of moving parts, less
more wear and tear, more lubrication and wear and tear therefore less lubrication
maintenance required. and maintenance is required.

Less starting torque required and step-

More starting torque is required.
less capacity control.

Mechanical efficiency is low as compared Mechanical efficiency is high as

to rotary compressor. compared to rotary compressor.

These have suction and delivery valves. These have inlet and outlet ports.

It have relatively high vibrations, thus It have relatively low vibrations, thus
overall installation cost is more. overall installation cost is less.

It required receiver compulsory. It does not required receiver compulsory.

These are run at low speeds. These are runs at high speeds.

These are either air cooled or water

These are not required any type of
cooled to reduced the work of
cooling.
compression.

Exercise

1. Derive an expression for volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor.

2. Define, i) Isothermal Efficiency, ii) Volumetric Efficiency.

3. Explain vane compressor with a neat sketch.

4. Derive an expression for intermediate pressure for two stage compression with
perfect inter-cooling.

5. Explain with a neat sketch, any one capacity control method used for
reciprocating compressors.

6. Explain actual indicator diagram of a single stage reciprocating compressor.

7. Explain the factors which affect volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating air

compressor.

8. Discuss various methods of increasing isothermal efficiency of the compressor.

9. Explain the function of inter-cooler and after-cooler in case of reciprocating air

compressor.

10. Explain with neat sketch any one of rotary compressor.

11. Explain root blower compressor with neat sketch.

12. Define, i) Isothermal Efficiency, ii) Free Air Delivery.

13. Define, i) Pressure Ratio, ii) Clearance Volume Ratio.

15. Differentiate between reciprocating and rotary compressor.

16. Prove the volumetric efficiency of an air compressor is given by 𝜂𝑣 = 1 + 𝐶 −

1⁄𝑛
𝐶 (𝑅𝑝 ) .

17. Explain the screw type rotary compressor.

18. Derive the expression for minimum work of compression in two stage air
compressor.

19. Derive the size of cylinder for a single acting single stage compressor consuming
35 KW. Also calculate mean effective pressure. Intake conditions are 1 bar and 15
ºC and polytropic index is 1.3, speed is 100 rpm and mean piston speed is 152
m/min. delivery pressure is 6 bar. Ans. [L = 0.76 m, D=0.397 m, Pm = 2.2 bar]

20. A single cylinder reciprocating compressor has a bore of 120mm and a stroke of
150 mm and is driving at a speed of 1200 rpm. It is compressing CO2 form a
pressure of 120 KPa and temperature of 25 ºC to a temperature of 215 ºC.
Assuming polytropic compression index as 1.3, no clearance and 100 % volumetric
efficiency, Take R = 0.189 KJ/KgK. Calculate, i) pressure ratio, ii) indicated power,
iii) mass flow rate. Ans. [Rp = 8.47, IP = 11.25 KW, m = 4.33 Kg/min.]

21. A single stage, single acting reciprocating air compressor delivers 0.7 Kg of air per
min. at 6 bar. The suction temperature and pressure are 25 ºC and 1 bar. The bore
and stoke of the compressor are 100 mm and 150 mm respectively. The clearance
is 3% of swept volume. Assuming index of compression and expansion to be 1.3.
Find, i) volumetric efficiency of the compressor, ii) power supplied to drive the
compressor if mechanical efficiency is 85%, iii) speed of the compressor. Ans. [ηv =
91 %, P = 2.6 KW, N = 463 rpm]

22. An ideal reciprocating compressor has a displacement volume of 14 liters and

clearance volume of 0.7 liters. It receivers air at 1 bar and displaces at 5 bar. The
compression is polytropic with index 1.3 and expansion is isentrpic with index 1.4.
Determine the net cycle work. Ans. [WD = 2413.5 Nm]

23. Two stage compressor is used to compress air from 1 bar to 16 bar. The
compression is as per the law PV1.25=C. the temperature of air at inlet of
compressor is 300K. Neglecting the clearance and assuming perfect inter-cooling.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prof. Rahul Krishnaji Bawane
Pimpri Chinchwad College of Engineering & Research, Ravet, Pune.
SE Mechanical, (Sem.-II) : Applied Thermodynamics ( SPPU : 2015 Pattern ) Page : 37
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Find out the indicated power in KW to deliver 5 m3/min. air measured at inlet
conditions and find intermediate pressure also. Ans. [Pintermedicate = 4 bar, IP =
26.63 KW]

24. A single acting, two stage air compressor with perfect inter-cooling delivers 15
m3/min of air at 25 bar pressure. The suction conditions are at 1 bar and 15 ºC.
the compression follows the law PV1.25 = Constant. Calculate, i) indicated power, ii)
FAD, iii) isothermal efficiency. Ans. [IP = 94.93 KW, FAD = 15.32 m3/min., ηiso =
84.7%]

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