What is quantum dot?

A solid, when confined in all three spatial dimensions to length scales comparable to or
smaller than the electron de Broglie wavelength, gives rise to discrete electron energy
levels. As a result of the attendant discrete, ideally δ-function-like density of energy
states, such structures acquire new and unique electronic and optical properties not
found in solid structures confined in only one direction (i.e., quantum wells) or two
directions (i.e., quantum wires). These structures are called quantum dots and are a
particular class of semiconductors. Anupam Madhukar. QDs are the defect-free 3D
islands that can form spontaneously for a deposition amount beyond a critical value
during growth of a compressively strained semiconductor over layer on an appropriate
substrate [1]. The critical value depends on the lattice mismatch and material
combination. A variety of III-V, IV-IV, and II-VI semiconductor combinations exceeding
~2% lattice mismatch exhibit the phenomenon.

The first low dimensional structures QW (Quantum Wells) were developed in 1970. 1D
(quantum wires) and 0D (quantum dots) were subsequently developed. In the quantum
wells density of states is continuous, However in the Quantum Dots the density of states
is discrete.

Quantum dots, also known as nano-crystals, are a special class of semiconductors that
are extremely small in size (2-6 nanometers). These nanometer-sized particles are able
to display any chosen color in the entire ultraviolet-visible spectrum through a simple
change in their size or composition. They have shown great promise in wide-ranging
applications, as solar cells and photodetectors.

A quantum dot is a semiconductor nanostructure that confines the motion of

conduction band electrons, valence band holes, or excitons (pairs of conduction band
electrons and valence band holes) in all three spatial directions. As a result, they have
properties that are between those of bulk semiconductors and those of discrete
molecules. Researchers have studied quantum dots in transistors, solar cells, LEDs,
and diode lasers. They have also investigated quantum dots as agents for medical
imaging and hope to use them as qubits. Some quantum dots are commercially
available

The small size results in new quantum phenomena that yield some extraordinary
bonuses. Material properties change dramatically because quantum effects arise from
the confinement of electrons and "holes" in the material (a hole is the absence of an
electron; the hole behaves as though it were a positively charged particle). Size
changes other material properties such as the electrical and nonlinear optical properties
of a material, making them very different from those of the material's bulk form. If a dot
is excited, the smaller the dot, the higher the energy and intensity of its emitted light.
Hence, these very small, semiconducting quantum dots are gate ways to an enormous
array of possible applications and new technologies.

Other quantum confined semiconductors include:

 1. quantum wires, which confine electrons or holes in two spatial dimensions and
allow free propagation in the third.
2. quantum wells, which confine electrons or holes in one dimension and allow free
propagation in two dimensions.

In general

1. Quantum dots are small devices that contain a tiny droplet of free electrons.
2. Quantum dot is a quasi-zero-dimensional nano -material, which is
composed of a few atoms.
3. Typical dimensions are between nanometers to a few microns. Generally
speaking, Quantum dot is below 100nm in every dimension. It looks like a
very tiny dot.
4. The moving of electrons in it is restrained in all directions. Quantum
confinement effect is severely obvious.

In an unconfined (bulk) semiconductor, an electron-hole pair is typically bound within a

characteristic length called the Bohr exciton radius. If the electron and hole are
constrained further, then the semiconductor's properties change. This effect is a form of
quantum confinement, and it is a key feature in many emerging electronic structures.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

Quantum mechanics determines that only certain discrete energy levels are allowed
within a single atom. If two identical atoms are held at large distances from each other
electrons within each will have the exact same energy. As those two atoms are brought
closer to one another, they interact, and no two electrons with the same spin can have
the same energy. This governing principle is called the Pauli Exclusion Principle. When
a large number of atoms are brought together to form a solid, the discrete allowed
energy levels of the individual atoms becomes a continuous energy band. The generic
energy band structure of conductors, semiconductors, and insulators is shown in the
figure. These are demonstrated in Figure 1.3. This band structure directly impacts
electronic and optical properties. In bulk structures, these properties can only be altered
by adding constituents to create defects, interstitials, or substitutions in the material.
The impressive phenomenon in QDs is that the optical and electronic properties can by
precisely tuned by changing the size of the dots in addition to adding dopants. The
electronic and optical properties that were thought to be inherent to a material was
transformed when the material was formed in a small enough (nanoscale) size.
 Fig. Fermi Energy level for different structure

Pictured are the electronic band gap structures for metals, insulator, and
semiconductors. Ef is the Fermi energy level, the highest energy level at which electrons
collect at absolute temperature

Quantum confinement

Quantum confinement describes the increase in energy which occurs when the motion
of a particle is restricted in one or more dimensions by a potential well. When the
confining dimension is large compared to the wavelength of the particle, the particle
behaves as if it were free. As the confining dimension decreases, the particle's energy
increases. A quantum dot is a well that confines in all three dimensions such as a small
sphere, a quantum wire confines in two dimensions, and a quantum well confines in one
dimension

As the dimensions of a material decrease in size, quantum confinement effects begin to

occur. Quantum confinement is when a material is on the order of or smaller than the
exciton Bohr radius of its constituent compound. This restricts each atoms movement,
resulting in the above mentioned discrete energy levels and differences in material
properties. With QDs quantum confinement effects have a significant impact on the
optical properties of the material.
Generally speaking, the three dimensions of a quantum dot are confined below
100nm and the electrons inside it are confined in all directions, so the quantum
confinement effect is apparent. As the electrons occupy discrete energy states just as
they would do in an atom, so the quantum dot is also called the artificial atom. To strictly
define a quantum dot, quantum mechanics must be applied. The matter wave
characteristics of an electron depends on its Fermi Wavelength

There are several ways to confine excitons in semiconductors, resulting in different

methods to produce quantum dots. Just as in an atom, the energy levels are quantized
due to the confinement of electrons. The 3D spatial confinement is observed in the
quantum dots. In some quantum dots even if one electron leaves the structure there is a
significant change in the properties Unlike atoms however, quantum dots can be easily
connected to electrodes and are therefore excellent tools to study atomic-like
properties.

The confinement can be due to

1. Electrostatic potentials (generated by external electrodes, doping, strain,
impurities),
2. The presence of an interface between different semiconductor materials
3. The presence of the semiconductor surface (e.g. in the case of a
semiconductor nanocrystal).
4. A combination of these.

Fig……..

Electrostatic energy of a quantum dot with N electrons on it

Chemical potential of a quantum dot with N electrons = the energy of the last added
electron

Addition energy for an N-electron dot= Energy needed to add electron number N to an
(N-1) electron dot
Coupled Quantum Dots

Single QD

Double parallel QD

Double serial QD

Triple serial QD

Triangular QD
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the density of states (DOS) in the conduction band
for (a) Bulk, (b) a quantum well, (c) a quantum wire, and (d) a quantum Dot.

Fig. Density of states for charge carriers in structures with different

dimensionalities
 Degree of dN
Structure
Confinement dE
Bulk Material 0D √E
Quantum Well 1D 1
Quantum Wire 2D 1/ √ E
Quantum Dot 3D (E)

Density of states (DoS)

dN dN dk
DoS= =
dE dk dE
– e.g. in 3D:
k space vol
N (k )=
vol per state
4 /3 πk 3
=
(2 π )3 /V
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the density of states (DOS) in the conduction band
(CB) and valence band (VB) for (a) a double heterostructure, (b) a quantum well,
(c) a quantum wire, and (d) a quantum box laser.

A quantum well might be implemented as a thin layer of semiconductor with a given

energy gap is sandwiched between two slabs of another semiconductor with higher
energy gap or it might form at a heterointerface due to a surface electric field

Fig AlGaAS/GaAs quantum well

The thickness of the narrow gap semiconductor must be smaller or atleast on order of
the carrier mean free path between collisions with impurities of phonons. Hence, the
quantum well thickness usually ranges from a fraction of a nanometer to a 10 or 20 nm.
This thickness should be also smaller than the Broglie wavelength

Quantum wire and quantum box

Optical lithography

Optical lithography, the standard pattern transfer technology for microelectronic

fabrication is limited to feature sizes above 100 nm.
This method uses beam of light or electrons to etch patterns designed, but it cannot
produce dots in large quantities because of spending too much time.

MOCVD selective growth technique

Here the GaAs quantum dots were fabricated by the MOCVD selective growth
technique on SiO, patterned (100) GaAs substrates [8]. The masks consist of I00 x 100
nm windows with a period of 140nm. First, A104Ga0.6As plinths are formed on the SiO,
masks. Then, the GaAs is grown on the top of the AIGaAs plinths, followed by the
growth of AlGaAs so that the GaAs quantum dots are embedded by AlGaAs. Figure 8 is
the cross sectional view of the GaAs surrounded by AIGaAs and its illustration. The
photograph indicates that the lateral width of the quantum dots is 25 x 25 nm. We
believe that this lateral width is the smallest so far as for the GaAs quantum dots
embedded by AIGaAs materials

The cross section of the GaAs quantum dot with a lateral width of 25 nm and its
illustration.

Pictures From: L. Jacak, P. Hawrylak, A. Wojs. Quantum dots fig. 2.1. and 2.2.
Schematic representation of the progress of GaN dot formation in droplet epitaxy
(a) deposition of GaN droplets, (b) formation of GaN crystals in the droplets, (c)
extension of Ga droplet by migration of Ga atoms and formation of another GaN
crystals by the annealing under NH3, (d) evaporation of unnitrided portion of the
Ga droplets, inducing the increase in dot density. For comparison, the dots
formed after post annealing under UHV are also shown in (e).

The droplet epitaxy technique has been applied to fabrication of nitride dot structures
Takahiro Maruyama
Droplet epitaxy was carried out in our MBE system with an NH3 gas source. After the
removal of surface oxides and hydrogen termination by buffered HF treatment, Si (1 1
1) substrates were introduced into the MBE system. After thermal cleaning, nitrogen
plasma was radiated onto the Si substrate for 10 min, thereby forming a nitridation layer
on the surface. Nitridation of the Si substrate was carried out with a plasma power of
350W, a nitrogen flow rate of 1.2 sccm, and a substrate temperature of 530 1C.
Subsequently, the substrate was irradiated with a Ga molecular beam at 450 1C to form
Ga droplets, in an amount
corresponding to 1 monolayer (ML) of a GaN epilayer. Next, the obtained sample was
irradiated with NH3 gas for nitridation of the Ga droplets. NH3 flow rate was 8.0 sccm,
and sample temperature during the nitridation was set at 390, 520, and 700 1C in order
to compare the effect of temperature on the nitridation. In addition, post-growth
annealing at 700 1C was carried out for the samples nitrided at 520 1C. In the post-
growth treatments, annealing was performed both under ultra-high vacuum (UHV) and
irradiation with NH3. Size and density of the grown dots and the degree of nitridation
were investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy (XPS), respectively Takahiro Maruyama

The progress of blue laser diodes (IDs) or blue–green light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are
extremely remarkable in recent years. Li Jiawei

There are three different modes in the equilibrium theory of material growth. As
schematically shown in Fig. 1 [9, 10], Frank-Van der Merwe mode represents a layer-
by-layer or 2D growth. Volmer-Weber mode corresponds to island or 3D growth.
Stranski-Krastanov (S-K) mode is 2D growth of a few monolayers, called wetting layer,
followed by 3D island formation. The last mode is the one most relevant to the growth of
semiconductor QDs that include the so-called strain-induced transition due to the large
lattice or the surface energy mismatch between thin 7lms and substrates. In a lattice-
mismatched system, the bulk elastic energy in the epilayer induced by strain plays an
important role. Since it increases with layer thickness, a strain relaxation is expected
when the layer thickness is increased beyond a critical value. In this case, the stress
7eld tends to force the atoms to coalesce. The strain energy can be partially released
by the formation of islands through elastic relaxation, without any dislocations in the
islands. The spontaneous growth of QDs by either 3D or S-K mode is known as the self-
organized or self-assembled growth. Jiawei et al

Schematic diagram of the three possible growth modes: Frank-van der Merwe,
Volmer-Weber, and Stranski-Krastinov

Chemical Colloidal Method

This method can fabricate multilayered quantum dots.

This process is simple and can produce quantum dots in large quantities
Self-Assembly Method

Using the process of molecular-beam epitaxy or chemical vapor deposition and the
theory of lattice mismatch, quantum dots can grow on the surface of given base
materials.

Applications

Quantum dots are particularly significant for optical applications due to their theoretically
high quantum yield. In electronic applications they have been proven to operate like a
single-electron transistor and show the Coulomb blockade effect. Quantum dots have
also been suggested as implementations of qubits for quantum information processing.

The ability to tune the size of quantum dots is advantageous for many applications. For
instance, larger quantum dots have spectra shifted towards the red compared to smaller
dots, and exhibit less pronounced quantum properties. Conversely the smaller particles
allow one to take advantage of quantum properties.

Researchers at Los Alamos National Laboratory have developed a wireless device that
efficiently produces visible light, through energy transfer from thin layers of quantum
wells to crystals above the layers.

Being zero dimensional, quantum dots have a sharper density of states than higher-
dimensional structures. As a result, they have superior transport and optical properties,
and are being researched for use in diode lasers, amplifiers, and biological sensors

QDs have many advantages in optical properties, such as a narrow, tunable, symmetric
emission and photochemical stability. Haibing Li
 sharper density of states
 Superior transport and optical properties, and are being researched for use in
diode lasers, amplifiers, and biological sensors.
 Use in solid-state quantum computation. By applying small voltages to the leads,
one can control the flow of electrons through the quantum dot and thereby make
precise measurements of the spin and other properties
 Another cutting edge application of quantum dots is also being researched as
potential artificial fluorophore for intra-operative detection of tumors using
fluorescence spectroscopy.
 Quantum dots may have the potential to increase the efficiency and reduce the
cost of todays typical silicon photovoltaic cells
 7-fold increase in final output

Optical and optoelectronic devices, quantum computing, and information storage.

Semiconductors with QDs as Material for Cascade Lasers
Semiconductors with QDs as Material for IR Photodetectors
Injection Lasers with QDs
Color Coded Quantum Dots for Fast DNA Testing
3-D Imaging Inside Living Organism, Using Quantum Dots

Photovoltaic devices

Quantum dots may have the potential to increase the efficiency and reduce the cost of
today's typical silicon photovoltaic cells. According to experimental proof from 2006,
quantum dots of lead selenide can produce as many as seven excitons from one high
energy photon of sunlight (7.8 times the bandgap energy). This compares favourably to
today's photovoltaic cells which can only manage one exciton per high-energy photon,
with high kinetic energy carriers losing their energy as heat. This would not result in a 7-
fold increase in final output however, but could boost the maximum theoretical efficiency
from 31% to 42%. Quantum dot photovoltaics would theoretically be cheaper to
manufacture, as they can be made "using simple chemical reactions

Light emitting devices

There are several inquiries into using quantum dots as light-emitting diodes to make
displays and other light sources: "QD-LED" displays, and "QD-WLED" (White LED). In
June, 2006, QD Vision announced technical success in making a proof-of-concept
quantum dot display. Quantum dots are valued for displays, because they emit light in
very specific gaussian distributions. This can result in a display that can more accurately
render the colors that the human eye can perceive. Quantum dots also require very little
power since they are not color filtered. Additionally, since the discovery of "white-light
emitting" QD, general solid-state lighting applications are closer than ever. [13] A liquid
crystal display (LCD), for example, is powered by a single fluorescent lamp that is color
filtered to produce red, green, and blue pixels. Displays that intrinsically produce
monochromatic light can be more efficient, since more of the light produced reaches the
eye