ENVIRONM

ENTAL
PRERNA
DIWAN AND
ANANYA
20
23
STUDIES SINGH
TOMAR

CLIMATE CHANGE
1. Climate Change
1.1 What is climate?
Climate describes what the weather is like over a long period of
time in a specific area, whereas weather refers to short-term changes in the atmosphere.
Different regions can have different climates. To describe the climate of a place, we might
say what the temperatures are like during different seasons, how windy it usually is, or how
much rain or snow typically falls.

When scientists talk about climate, they're often looking at averages of precipitation,
temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind, and other measures of weather that occur over a
long period in a particular place. In some instances, they might look at these averages over
30 years. And, we refer to these three-decade averages of weather observations as Climate
Normal.

Looking at Climate Normal can help us describe whether the summers are hot and humid
and whether the winters are cold and snowy at a particular place. They can also tell us when
we might expect the warmest day of the year or the coldest day of the year at that location.
But, while descriptions of an area’s climate provide a sense of what to expect, they don't
provide any specific details about what the weather will be on any given day.

1.2 How does climate change?

While the weather can change in just a few minutes or hours,
climate changes over longer time frames. Climate events, like El Niño, happen over several
years, with larger fluctuations happening over decades. And, even larger climate changes
happen over hundreds and thousands of years.

Today, climates are changing. Our Earth is warming more quickly than it has in the past
according to the research of scientists. Hot summer days may be quite typical of climates in
many regions of the world, but warming is causing Earth's average global temperature to
increase. The amount of solar radiation, the chemistry of the atmosphere, clouds, and the
biosphere all affect Earth's climate.

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 1.3 Why do we study climate?
Climate, climate change, and their impacts on weather
events affect people all around the world. Rising global temperatures are expected to
further raise sea levels and change precipitation patterns and other local climate conditions.
Changing regional climates could alter forests, crop yields, and water supplies. They could
also affect human health, animals, and many types of ecosystems.

Compared with levels before the Industrial Revolution, the global average temperature has
risen a full degree Celsius. That may not sound like much, but it’s already severely impacted
how our planet functions.

Since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily
due to the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. Burning fossil fuels generates
greenhouse gas emissions that act like a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the
sun’s heat and raising temperatures. The main greenhouse gases that are causing climate
change include carbon dioxide and methane. These come from using gasoline for driving a
car or coal for heating a building, for example. Clearing land and cutting down forests can
also release carbon dioxide. Agriculture, oil and gas operations are major sources of
methane emissions. Energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture and land use are
among the main sectors causing greenhouse gases.

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 1.4 Causes of climate change

1.4.1 Generating power

Generating electricity and heat by burning fossil fuels causes a
large chunk of global emissions. Most electricity is still generated by burning coal, oil, or gas,
which produces carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide – powerful greenhouse gases that blanket
the Earth and trap the sun’s heat. Globally, a bit more than a quarter of electricity comes
from wind, solar and other renewable sources which, as opposed to fossil fuels, emit little to
no greenhouse gases or pollutants into the air.

1.4.2 Manufacturing goods

Manufacturing and industry produce emissions, mostly from
burning fossil fuels to produce energy for making things like cement, iron, steel, electronics,
plastics, clothes, and other goods. Mining and other industrial processes also release gases,
as does the construction industry. Machines used in the manufacturing process often run on
coal, oil, or gas; and some materials, like plastics, are made from chemicals sourced from
fossil fuels. The manufacturing industry is one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas
emissions worldwide.

1.4.3 Cutting down forests

Cutting down forests to create farms or pastures, or for other
reasons, causes emissions, since trees, when they are cut, release the carbon they have
been storing. Each year approximately 12 million hectares of forest are destroyed. Since
forests absorb carbon dioxide, destroying them also limits nature’s ability to keep emissions
out of the atmosphere. Deforestation, together with agriculture and other land use changes,
is responsible for roughly a quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions.

1.4.4 Using transportation

Most cars, trucks, ships, and planes run on fossil fuels. That
makes transportation a major contributor of greenhouse gases, especially carbon-dioxide
emissions. Road vehicles account for the largest part, due to the combustion of petroleum-
based products, like gasoline, in internal combustion engines. But emissions from ships and
planes continue to grow. Transport accounts for nearly one quarter of global energy-related
carbon-dioxide emissions. And trends point to a significant increase in energy use for
transport over the coming years.

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 1.4.5 Producing food
Producing food causes emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, and
other greenhouse gases in various ways, including through deforestation and clearing of
land for agriculture and grazing, digestion by cows and sheep, the production and use of
fertilizers and manure for growing crops, and the use of energy to run farm equipment or
fishing boats, usually with fossil fuels. All this makes food production a major contributor to
climate change. And greenhouse gas emissions also come from packaging and distributing
food.

1.4.6 Powering buildings

Globally, residential and commercial buildings consume over half of all
electricity. As they continue to draw on coal, oil, and natural gas for heating and cooling,
they emit significant quantities of greenhouse gas emissions. Growing energy demand for
heating and cooling, with rising air-conditioner ownership, as well as increased electricity
consumption for lighting, appliances, and connected devices, has contributed to a rise in
energy-related carbon-dioxide emissions from buildings in recent years.

1.4.7 Consuming too much

Your home and use of power, how you move around, what you eat and
how much you throw away all contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. So does the
consumption of goods such as clothing, electronics, and plastics. A large chunk of global
greenhouse gas emissions are linked to private households. Our lifestyles have a profound
impact on our planet. The wealthiest bear the greatest responsibility: the richest 1 per cent
of the global population combined account for more greenhouse gas emissions than the
poorest 50 per cent.

1.5 Effect of climate change

1.5.1 Hotter temperatures

As greenhouse gas concentrations rise, so does the global surface
temperature. The last decade, 2011-2020, is the warmest on record. Since the 1980s, each decade
has been warmer than the previous one. Nearly all land areas are seeing more hot days and heat
waves. Higher temperatures increase heat-related illnesses and make working outdoors more
difficult. Wildfires start more easily and spread more rapidly when conditions are hotter.
Temperatures in the Arctic have warmed at least twice as fast as the global average.

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 1.5.2 More severe storms
Destructive storms have become more intense and more frequent in many
regions. As temperatures rise, more moisture evaporates, which exacerbates extreme rainfall and
flooding, causing more destructive storms. The frequency and extent of tropical storms is also
affected by the warming ocean. Cyclones, hurricanes, and typhoons feed on warm waters at the
ocean surface. Such storms often destroy homes and communities, causing deaths and huge
economic losses.

1.5.3 Increased drought

Climate change is changing water availability, making it scarcer in more
regions. Global warming exacerbates water shortages in already water-stressed regions and is
leading to an increased risk of agricultural droughts affecting crops, and ecological droughts
increasing the vulnerability of ecosystems. Droughts can also stir destructive sand and dust storms
that can move billions of tons of sand across continents. Deserts are expanding, reducing land for
growing food. Many people now face the threat of not having enough water on a regular basis.

1.5.4 A warming, rising ocean

The ocean soaks up most of the heat from global warming. The rate at
which the ocean is warming strongly increased over the past two decades, across all depths of the
ocean. As the ocean warms, its volume increases since water expands as it gets warmer. Melting ice
sheets also cause sea levels to rise, threatening coastal and island communities. In addition, the
ocean absorbs carbon dioxide, keeping it from the atmosphere. But more carbon dioxide makes the
ocean more acidic, which endangers marine life and coral reefs.

1.5.5 Loss of species

Climate change poses risks to the survival of species on land and in the ocean.
These risks increase as temperatures climb. Exacerbated by climate change, the world is losing
species at a rate 1,000 times greater than at any other time in recorded human history. One million
species are at risk of becoming extinct within the next few decades. Forest fires, extreme weather,
and invasive pests and diseases are among many threats related to climate change. Some species
will be able to relocate and survive, but others will not.

1.5.6 Not enough food

Changes in the climate and increases in extreme weather events are among the
reasons behind a global rise in hunger and poor nutrition. Fisheries, crops, and livestock may be
destroyed or become less productive. With the ocean becoming more acidic, marine resources that
feed billions of people are at risk. Changes in snow and ice cover in many Arctic regions have
disrupted food supplies from herding, hunting, and fishing. Heat stress can diminish water and
grasslands for grazing, causing declining crop yields and affecting livestock.

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 1.5.7 More health risks
Climate change is the single biggest health threat facing humanity. Climate
impacts are already harming health, through air pollution, disease, extreme weather events, forced
displacement, pressures on mental health, and increased hunger and poor nutrition in places where
people cannot grow or find sufficient food. Every year, environmental factors take the lives of
around 13 million people. Changing weather patterns are expanding diseases, and extreme weather
events increase deaths and make it difficult for health care systems to keep up.

1.6 We face a huge challenge but already know many

solutions:-
Many climate change solutions can deliver economic benefits while improving our lives and
protecting the environment. We also have global frameworks and agreements to guide progress,
such as the Sustainable
Development Goals, the UN
Framework Convention on Climate
Change and the Paris Agreement.
Three broad categories of action
are: cutting emissions, adapting to
climate impacts and financing
required adjustments.

Switching energy systems from

fossil fuels to renewables like solar
or wind will reduce the emissions
driving climate change. But we
have to act now.

While a growing number of countries is committing to net zero emissions by 2050, emissions must
be cut in half by 2030 to keep warming below 1.5°C. Achieving this means huge declines in the use of
coal, oil and gas: over two-thirds of today’s proven reserves of fossil fuels need to be kept in the
ground by 2050 in order to prevent catastrophic levels of climate change.

Adapting to climate consequences protects people, homes, businesses, livelihoods, infrastructure

and natural ecosystems. It covers current impacts and those likely in the future. Adaptation will be
required everywhere, but must be prioritized now for the most vulnerable people with the fewest
resources to cope with climate hazards. The rate of return can be high. Early warning systems for
disasters, for instance, save lives and property, and can deliver benefits up to 10 times the initial
cost.

Climate action requires significant financial investments by governments and businesses. But climate
inaction is vastly more expensive. One critical step is for industrialized countries to fulfil their

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commitment to provide $100 billion a year to developing countries so they can adapt and move
towards greener economies.

1.7 Concerning effect of climate change on global level

In 31 nations, drought is a top worry. Fully half of Americans name drought as their chief
climate change concern, and this is especially true in drought-plagued Western states
compared with other regions of the country.

1.8 Climate change in India

The annual rankings, released by German Watch, New Climate Institute
and Climate Action Network International, saw India being ranked among the top 5 best performing
countries on climate change.

India rose two spots to rank 8th in this year's CCPI and earns a high rating in the greenhouse gas
emissions and energy use categories. India, the world's third largest energy consumer, has jumped
two positions higher and is now ranked at the eight spot in the Climate Change Performance Index
(CCPI) 2023.

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Singh and Kumar (2013) have shown that a total of 2,443 flood episodes have caused nearly
44,991 deaths in total, with 1,551 deaths every year. The warming trend over the Indian
Ocean has possibly increased moisture amount, thereby resulting in a rise in extreme
rainfall.

The highest temperature recorded in past few decades of Delhi.

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 1.9 Some initiatives

1.9.1 Barcelona trees tempering the Mediterranean city

climate, Spain
Barcelona's main climate change challenges include temperature
rise, a decrease in rainfall and an increase in extreme events such as droughts and
heatwaves. The high urban density of Barcelona can exacerbate the heat island effect.
Barcelona has committed to becoming a global model of a sustainable city in response to
the urban development challenges related to climate change. For many years, Barcelona has
had a focus on planting and managing trees. Trees can moderate the urban climate by
cooling it in two different ways. Reflection of sunlight and transpiration by the leaves lower
the air temperature, and
shade reduces the surface
temperature and protects
people from the sun,
especially during the
hottest months.
Furthermore, trees can
prevent local flooding by
helping to reduce the
amount of storm water
runoff. Besides climate-
related benefits, city trees
can also provide co-
benefits: removing air
pollutants, storing carbon,
reducing noise pollution, regulating humidity and balancing the water cycle, creating
ecological connectivity, providing habitat for urban biodiversity and creating a pleasant
urban landscape.

Barcelona's Green Infrastructure and Biodiversity Plan 2020 (BGIBP) seeks to connect
various areas of the city with green infrastructure. In line with the BGIBP goals, Barcelona’s
Tree Master Plan for 2017-37 identifies a number of actions to expand tree coverage and
improve the climate resilience of the urban trees. These actions include the selection of tree
species that are more resilient to water and heat stresses, diversification of tree species,
increased use of runoff water for watering trees, automatic irrigation and control of water
leaks. While Barcelona has a relatively small amount of green space per inhabitant, it has
more street trees than most European [Link] estimated budget of the Tree Master Plan
is EUR 9.6 million/year, of which EUR 8.3 million/year is already available for tree

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management. The difference of EUR 1.3 million/year relates to investments that will be
needed for improved soil and water management.

1.9.2 Green roofs in Basel, Switzerland: combining mitigation and

adaptation measures
The city of Basel in Switzerland has implemented an incentive programme
to promote green roofs as both a mitigation measure to save energy and hence reduce
emissions, and an adaptation measure, lowering indoor temperatures and absorbing
rainwater, thus reducing flood risk. There are also biodiversity and social aesthetic benefits.
Climate projections suggest that by the 2050s, the temperature in the Basel region could
increase by 2 °C in winter and 2.5 °C in summer. Extreme rainfall events are also likely to
increase in frequency and severity. The green roof initiative aimed to improve the coverage
of green roofs in the city of Basel through the use of a combination of financial incentives
and building regulations. In the
early 1990s, the city of Basel
implemented a law supporting
energy-saving measures. The
green roofs were promoted via
incentive programmes, funded
through the Energy Saving
Fund, which is made up of a
5 % levy on energy bills for all
customers in the canton of
Basel-Stadt. In 2002, an
amendment to the city of
Basel’s building and
construction law was passed,
stating that all new and renovated flat roofs must be greened and designed to improve
biodiversity. The city of Basel now has one of the world’s largest areas of green roofs per
capita. For developers, installing green roofs is now considered routine and they make no
objections to installing them.

Green roofs tend to be 10-14 % more expensive than traditional roofs over their lifespan
because of their initial costs (the cost of maintaining a green roof is similar to that for a
traditional roof). Thus, a 20 % reduction in green-roof construction cost (such as that
achieved through the subsidy scheme) is considered sufficient to equalise the costs of green
and traditional roofs for investors. This means that green roofs are not only a sustainable
solution but also a financially feasible option.

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 2. Global Warming
2.1 What is global warming?
Global warming, the phenomenon of increasing average air
temperatures near the surface of Earth over the past one to two centuries. Climate
scientists have since the mid-20th century gathered detailed observations of various
weather phenomena (such as
temperatures, precipitation, and
storms) and of related influences
on climate (such as ocean
currents and the atmosphere’s
chemical composition). These
data indicate that Earth’s climate
has changed over almost every
conceivable timescale since the
beginning of geologic time and
that human activities since at least the beginning of the Industrial Revolution have a growing
influence over the pace and extent of present-day climate change.

Giving voice to a growing conviction of most of the scientific community, the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).
The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), published in 2021, noted that the best estimate
of the increase in global average surface temperature between 1850 and 2019 was 1.07 °C
(1.9 °F). An IPCC special report produced in 2018 noted that human beings and their
activities have been responsible for a worldwide average temperature increase between 0.8
and 1.2 °C (1.4 and 2.2 °F) since preindustrial times, and most of the warming over the
second half of the 20th century could be attributed to human activities.

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 2.2 What causes global warming?
Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other
air pollutants collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have
bounced off the earth’s surface. Normally this radiation would escape into space, but these
pollutants, which can last for years to centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause
the planet to get hotter. These heat-trapping pollutants—specifically carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and synthetic fluorinated gases—are known as
greenhouse gases, and their impact is called the greenhouse effect.

Though natural cycles and fluctuations have caused the earth’s climate to change several
times over the last 800,000 years, our current era of global warming is directly attributable
to human activity—specifically to our burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gasoline, and
natural gas, which results in the greenhouse effect. In the United States, the largest source
of greenhouse gases is transportation (29 percent), followed closely by electricity
production (28 percent) and industrial activity (22 percent). Learn about the natural and
human causes of climate change.

2.3 Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's
atmosphere trap the Sun's heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be
without an atmosphere. The greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a
comfortable place to live. Greenhouse gases are crucial to keeping our planet at a suitable
temperature for life. Without the natural greenhouse effect, the heat emitted by the Earth
would simply pass outwards from the Earth’s surface into space and the Earth would have
an average temperature of about -20°C.

A greenhouse gas is called that because it absorbs infrared radiation from the Sun in the
form of heat, which is circulated in the atmosphere and eventually lost to space.
Greenhouse gases also increase the rate at which the atmosphere can absorb short-wave
radiation from the Sun, but this has a much weaker effect on global temperatures. The CO2
released from the burning of fossil fuels is accumulating as an insulating blanket around the
Earth, trapping more of the Sun’s heat in our atmosphere. Actions carried out by humans
are called anthropogenic actions; the anthropogenic release of CO2 contributes to the
current enhanced greenhouse effect

2.4 How does greenhouse effect works?

The greenhouse effect works like a greenhouse. A greenhouse is a
building with glass walls and a glass roof. Greenhouses are used to grow plants, such as tomatoes
and tropical flowers. A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter. In the daytime,

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sunlight shines into the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside. At night time, it's colder
outside, but the greenhouse stays pretty warm inside. That's because the glass walls of the
greenhouse trap the Sun's heat.

The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth. Gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon
dioxide, trap heat similar to the glass roof of a greenhouse. These heat-trapping gases are called
greenhouse gases. During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface warms up
in the sunlight. At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat back into the air. But some of the heat
is trapped by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. That's what keeps our Earth a warm and cozy
58 degrees Fahrenheit (14 degrees Celsius), on average.

2.5 Causes of global warming

2.5.1 Deforestation
Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and
release oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for
many domestic and commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance,
thereby giving rise to global warming.

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 2.5.2 Use of Vehicles
The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various
gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide
and other toxins into the atmosphere resulting in a temperature increase.

2.5.3 Chlorofluorocarbon
With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have
been adding CFCs into the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The
ozone layer protects the earth surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun.
The CFCs have led to ozone layer depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby
increasing the temperature of the earth.

2.5.4 Industrial Development

With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has
been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the factories add to the increasing
temperature of the earth. In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change
reported that the increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9
degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared to the pre-industrial
mean temperature.

2.5.5 Agriculture
Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas.
These add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the
earth.

2.5.6 Overpopulation
An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an
increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the
atmosphere.

2.6 Effects of global warming

 Global warming is already taking a toll on the United States. And if we aren’t able to
get a handle on our emissions, here’s just a smattering of what we can look forward
to:
 Disappearing glaciers, early snowmelt, and severe droughts will cause more dramatic
water shortages and continue to increase the risk of wildfires in the American West.
 Rising sea levels will lead to even more coastal flooding on the Eastern Seaboard,
especially in Florida, and in other areas such as the Gulf of Mexico.

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  Forests, farms, and cities will face troublesome new pests, heat waves, heavy
downpours, and increased flooding. All of these can damage or destroy agriculture
and fisheries.
 Disruption of habitats such as coral reefs and alpine meadows could drive many
plant and animal species to extinction.
 Allergies, asthma, and infectious disease outbreaks will become more common due
to increased growth of pollen-producing ragweed, higher levels of air pollution, and
the spread of conditions favorable to pathogens and mosquitoes.

Though everyone is affected by climate change, not everyone is affected equally. Indigenous
people, people of color, and the economically marginalized are typically hit the hardest.
Inequities built into our housing, health care, and labor systems make these communities
more vulnerable to the worst impacts of climate change—even though these same
communities have done the least to contribute to it.

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 2.7 Percentage of glacier mass loss

8%

8% 25%

8%

10%
13%
10%

Alaska Greenland periphery Arctic Canada North

Arctic Canada South Antarctic and Subantarctic High Mountain Asia
Southern Andes

The charts shows that meltwater from Alaska has contributed to one quarter of total
glacier mass loss during this century. Zemp explains that this is because Alaska is
experiencing rapid warming and the region is also densely populated with glaciers.

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 2.8 Observed mass loss from glaciers and ice sheets (Gt/yr)

The study finds that, between 2000 and 2019, mass loss from glaciers was
47% higher than from the Greenland ice sheet (GIS) and more than twice
that of the Antarctic ice sheet (AIS)

While glacier mass loss “distinctly accelerated” over the entire 2000-19
period, the mass loss from ice sheets decelerated since a peak in the mid-
2010s. From this it is inferred that acceleration of sea-level rise since
2000, which is often attributed to the accelerated loss from both the GIS
and AIS, also substantially originates from glaciers.

Mass loss from glaciers and ice sheets (Gt/yr)

325

275

225

175

125

75

25

2000-2004 2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2018

Glaciers 227 257 285 292
Greenland ice sheets 94 206 267 152
Antartic ice sheets 36 93 214 157

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 2.9 Some initiatives to prevent global warming

2.9.1 Paris Agreement

In 2015, 195 countries and the European Union signed the Paris
Agreement. It set the target of preventing global temperatures from rising 2°C above pre-
industrial levels, with a further goal of limiting the rise to 1.5°C if possible. The World Wide
Fund for Nature (WWF)called it ‘the first truly global commitment to fight the climate crisis’.
Countries must set their own targets and dates for when they will fulfil them. For example,
France plans to ban all petrol and diesel vehicles by 2040. Every five years, countries have to
report back with their progress. However, there have been some criticisms of the agreement. A
2017 UN report discussed the ‘emissions gap’ -
the gap between the targets set out in the Paris
agreement and what countries are actually doing
to meet those targets.

2.9.2 India and The Paris

Agreement
The Indian government has three main
goals to tackle climate change:

1. Generate 40% of India’s electricity using renewables by 2030. India currently invests
more in renewables than in fossil fuels, and in 2018 the Environment Minister
announced it was due to meet its 2030 targets ahead of schedule.

2. Create a ‘carbon sink’ by replanting trees that have been lost to deforestation. The aim is
to create enough tree cover to remove 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2 from the atmosphere.
So far, 15,000km2 of tree cover has been created under this plan - that’s an area just
larger than Northern Ireland.

3. Cut down the emission intensity of the economy (the amount of greenhouse gases
created for every pound or dollar of a nation’s GDP). India has so far reduced its
emission intensity by 25% since 2005, and it aims for a further 8-10% reduction by
2030.

However, Carbon Action Tracker calculates that India’s strategy will only be compatible
with a 1.5°C temperature rise if the country abandons its plans to build new coal-fired
power plants.

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 3. Acid rain
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of
precipitation with acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to
the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain,
snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.

3.1 Causes of acid rain

Acid rain results when sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are
emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react
with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with
water and other materials before falling to the ground.

While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as
volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources of SO2 and NOX
in the atmosphere are:

• Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX
in the atmosphere come from electric power generators.

• Vehicles and heavy equipment.

• Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

The phenomenon of acid rain can be summarized in four steps:

1. Compounds like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are produced by anthropogenic
sources (mainly burning fossil fuels) or natural sources (volcanic emissions).

2. These gases rise into the atmosphere, where they mix and react with water vapor,
oxygen, and other chemical substances, leading to the creation of acids.
3. Acids like sulfuric and nitric acids dissolve easily in small particles of water. This
way, they’re carried by the wind to very distant places.
4. Acid precipitation (rain, fog, snow, or sediment) falls over vast expanses, impacting
the environment.

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 3.2 Agents of acid rain
The precursor compounds of acid rain are primarily sulfur oxides (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx); however, substances like chlorine, ammonia, volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), and others also play a role in this phenomenon.

When they rise to the atmosphere, these agents are oxidized and hydrolyzed, producing strong
acids like sulfuric acid and nitric acid.

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 3.3 Measuring acid rain
Acidity and alkalinity are measured using a pH scale for which 7.0 is neutral.
The lower a substance's pH (less than 7), the more acidic it is; the higher a substance's pH
(greater than 7), the more alkaline it is. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; it is slightly acidic
because carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves into it forming weak carbonic acid. Acid rain usually has
a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.

When acid deposition is washed into lakes and streams, it can cause some to turn acidic.

3.4 Effects of acid rain

•Acid rain is very harmful to agriculture, plants, and animals. It washes away all nutrients which are
required for the growth and survival of plants. Acid rain affects agriculture by the way it alters the
composition of the soil.

•It causes respiratory issues in animals and humans.

•When acid rain falls down and flows into the rivers and ponds it affects the aquatic ecosystem. It
alters the chemical composition of the water, to a form which is actually harmful to the aquatic
ecosystem to survive and causes water pollution.

•Acid rain also causes the corrosion of water pipes, which

further results in leaching of heavy metals such as iron,
lead and copper into drinking water.

•It damages the buildings and monuments made up of

stones and metals.

3.5 Effects of Acid Rain on

Fish and Wildlife
The
ecological effects of acid rain are
most clearly seen in aquatic
environments, such as streams,
lakes, and marshes where it can
be harmful to fish and other
wildlife. As it flows through the
soil, acidic rain water can leach
aluminium from soil clay particles
and then flow into streams and
lakes.

At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die. Some acidic lakes have
no fish. Even if a species of fish or animal can tolerate moderately acidic water, the animals or plants

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it eats might not. For example, frogs have a critical pH around 4, but the mayflies they eat are more
sensitive and may not survive pH below 5.5.

This figure illustrates the pH level at which key organisms may be lost as their environment becomes
more acidic. Not all fish, shellfish, or the insects that they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid.

Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters and moderate amounts of
aluminium. Others, however, are acid-sensitive and will be lost as the pH declines. Generally, the
young of most species are more sensitive to environmental conditions than adults.

3.6 Effects of Acid Rain on Plants and Trees

Dead or dying trees are a common sight in areas effected by acid rain. Acid rain
leaches aluminium from the soil. That aluminium may be harmful to plants as well as animals. Acid
rain also removes minerals and nutrients from the soil that trees need to grow.

At high elevations, acidic fog and clouds might strip nutrients from trees’ foliage, leaving them with
brown or dead leaves and needles. The trees are then less able to absorb sunlight, which makes
them weak and less able to withstand freezing temperatures.

22
 3.7 Rainwater pH value in different regions of world

3.8 Rainwater pH range in different parts of India

3.9 Acid ran on Taj Mahal

The “Taj Mahal” is located in the city of “Agra”. Sulphur and nitrogen oxides
are released in significant amounts by a number of nearby enterprises. Acidic gases like
SO2, SO3, and NO2 react with atmospheric water vapour or rainwater, to produce
sulphuric and nitric acids. The Taj Mahal's marble reacts with these acids to produce
calcium sulphate and calcium nitrate.

The Taj Mahal in Agra is a magnificent historical building made entirely of white marble.
Experts have warned that the Taj Mahal's white marble is gradually corroding and
changing colour, due to air pollution in the area. This puts the Taj Mahal's beauty at
peril!
The numerous businesses in Agra discharge gaseous pollutants into the atmosphere.
These gases contribute to the acid rain. Thus, the Taj Mahal monument's marble
(calcium carbonate) corrodes with time, as a result of acid rain's acids reacting with it.

pH range
7.5

6.5

5.5

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5
USA Europe Mexico UK India China Japan Spain Italy
pH range 4.9 4.75 4.35 4.1 6.75 4.5 3.95 5.17 5.18

Numerous factories in Agra emit nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide into the
atmosphere. The problem is made worse by the continued use of poor-quality coal and

23
firewood as domestic fuel.
Marble (calcium
carbonate) reacts with
acid rain in the following
ways:

CaSO4 + H2O + CO2 =

H2SO4 + CaCO3
Acid rain-induced marble
cancer is the progressive
degradation (or eating
away) of marble
monuments. The pure
white marble of the Taj
Mahal turns yellow from
the suspended particulate
matter, such as soot particles, emitted in the smoke from different oil refineries.
The only preventive action we can take to stop acid rain is to lower emissions of sulphur
and nitrogen oxides.
We have already seen the specifics of acid rain and how it harms wildlife, vegetation,
and historical sites. As responsible citizens, we should be aware of the negative effects
they cause, as well as the businesses that unethically dispose of nitrogen and sulphur
compounds.
The environment is seriously endangered by acid rain. In 1995, the Indian government
unveiled an action plan to safeguard the Taj Mahal. The strategy tries to improve the
atmosphere in "Taj Trapezium."
The Taj Trapezium is the collective name for the cities of Agra, Mathura, Bharatpur, and
Firozabad. This initiative led to the substitution of liquefied petroleum gas or natural
gas for coal or oil, in more than 2000 companies located inside the trapezium.

24
 4. Ozone layer depletion
The ozone layer is a region in the earth’s stratosphere that contains high
concentrations of ozone and protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet
radiations of the sun.

The stratosphere is the mass of protective gases clinging to our planet. Ozone is only a
trace gas in the atmosphere—only about three molecules for every 10 million molecules
of air. But it does a very important job. Like a sponge, the ozone layer absorbs bits
of radiation hitting Earth from the sun. Even though we need some of the sun's radiation
to live, too much of it can damage living things. The ozone layer acts as a shield for life
on Earth.

Ozone is good at trapping a type of radiation called ultraviolet radiation, or UV light,

which can penetrate organisms’ protective layers, like skin. This then may damage DNA
molecules in plants and animals. There are two major types of UV light: UVB and UVA.

UVB is the cause of skin conditions like sunburns, and cancers like basal cell carcinoma
and squamous cell carcinoma. People used to think that UVA light, the radiation used in
tanning beds, is harmless because it doesn’t cause burns. However, scientists now know
that UVA light is even more harmful than UVB, penetrating more deeply and causing a
deadly skin cancer, melanoma, and premature aging. The ozone layer, Earth’s
sunscreen, absorbs about 98 percent of this devastating UV light.

25
 4.1 What is ozone depletion?
Ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth’s ozone layer in
the upper atmosphere caused by the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous chlorine or
bromine from industry and other human activities. The thinning is most pronounced in the polar
regions, especially over Antarctica. Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem because it
increases the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth’s surface, which increases the
rate of skin cancer, eye cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage. The Montreal Protocol,
ratified in 1987, was the first of several comprehensive international agreements enacted to halt the
production and use of ozone-depleting chemicals. As a result of continued international cooperation
on this issue, the ozone layer is expected to recover over time.

4.2 History of ozone layer depletion

In 1969 Dutch chemist Paul Crutzen published a paper that described the
major nitrogen oxide catalytic cycle affecting ozone levels. Crutzen
demonstrated that nitrogen oxides can react with free oxygen atoms, thus
slowing the creation of ozone (O3), and can also decompose ozone into nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) and oxygen gas (O2). Some scientists and environmentalists in the
1970s used Crutzen’s research to assist their argument against the creation of
a fleet of American supersonic transports (SSTs). They feared that the potential
emission of nitrogen oxides and water vapour from these aircraft would damage
the ozone layer. (SSTs were designed to fly at altitudes coincident with the
ozone layer, some 15 to 35 km [9 to 22 miles] above Earth’s surface.) In reality,
the American SST program was canceled, and only a small number of French-
British Concordes and Soviet Tu-144s went into service, so that the effects of
SSTs on the ozone layer were found to be negligible for the number of aircraft
in operation.

In 1974, however, American chemists Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland of the University of
California at Irvine recognized that human-produced chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—molecules
containing only carbon, fluorine, and chlorine atoms—could be a major source of chlorine in the
stratosphere. They also noted that chlorine could destroy extensive amounts of ozone after it was
liberated from CFCs by UV radiation. Free chlorine atoms and chlorine-containing gases, such as
chlorine monoxide (ClO), could then break ozone molecules apart by stripping away one of the three
oxygen atoms. Later research revealed that bromine and certain bromine-containing compounds,
such as bromine monoxide (BrO), were even more effective at destroying ozone than were chlorine
and its reactive compounds. Subsequent laboratory measurements, atmospheric measurements,
and atmospheric- modeling studies soon substantiated the importance of their findings. Crutzen,
Molina, and Rowland received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1995 for their efforts.

Human activities have had a significant effect on the global concentration and distribution of
stratospheric ozone since before the 1980s. In addition, scientists have noted that large annual
decreases in average ozone concentrations began to occur by at least 1980. Measurements from
satellites, aircraft, ground-based sensors, and other instruments indicate that total integrated
column levels of ozone (that is, the number of ozone molecules occurring per square metre in
sampled columns of air) decreased globally by roughly 5 percent between 1970 and the mid-1990s,
with little change afterward.

26
The largest decreases in ozone took
place in the high latitudes (toward the
poles), and the smallest decreases
occurred in the lower latitudes (the
tropics). In addition, atmospheric
measurements show that the
depletion of the ozone layer increased
the amount of UV radiation reaching
Earth’s surface.

4.3 Causes of ozone depletion

Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with
a number of factors. The main causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are listed
below:

4.3.1 Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer
depletion. These are released by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.

The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by ultraviolet

radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.

4.3.2 Unregulated Rocket Launches

Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets results in
much more depletion of the ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this might result in a
huge loss of the ozone layer by the year 2050.

4.3.3 Nitrogenous Compounds

The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly
responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.

4.3.4 Natural Causes

The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural
processes such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But it does not cause more than 1-2% of
the ozone layer depletion.

27
 4.4 Ozone depleting substances
Ozone-depleting substances are the substances such as
chlorofluorocarbons, halons, carbon tetrachloride, hydrofluorocarbons, etc. that are responsible
for the depletion of the ozone layer.

Ozone-Depleting Substances Sources

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Refrigerators, air-conditioners,

solvents, dry-cleaning agents, etc.
Halons Fire-extinguishers

Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguishers, solvents

Methyl chloroform Adhesives, aerosols

Hydrofluorocarbons fire extinguishers, air-conditioners,

solvents

28
 4.5 Effects of ozone layer depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the environment. Let us see the
major effects of ozone layer depletion on man and environment.

4.5.1 Effects on Human Health

Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun due to the
depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues among humans, such as
skin diseases, cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune system.

4.5.2 Effects on Animals

Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.

4.5.3 Effects on the Environment

Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in plants. The
forests also have to bear the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.

4.5.4 Effects on Marine Life

Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are higher in
the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed, the organisms present in the food chain
are also affected.

4.6 Hole in ozone layer

A significant reduction in the consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) has been
achieved globally since 1986. This reduction has largely been driven by the 1987 United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) Montreal Protocol. The largest historical extent of the ozone
hole — 28.4 million km² — occurred in September 2000. This area is equivalent to almost seven
times the territory of the EU.

In late September 2022, the Antarctic ozone hole reached its maximum area of 24.5
million km². Up until early November 2022, the Antarctic ozone hole has been similarly large
and long-lasting to the ones recorded in 2021 and 2020.

29
Depletion of stratospheric ozone occurs over both hemispheres of the Earth. However, this
phenomenon is more pronounced in the Southern Hemisphere (Antarctica) than in the
Northern Hemisphere (Arctic). This is the case because the formation of the ozone hole is
directly linked to the stratosphere's temperature. Once temperatures drop below -78°C, polar
stratospheric clouds tend to form, which exacerbate ozone depletion. In the Antarctic, long
presence of low temperatures in the stratosphere is stimulating their formation, whereas the
Arctic is characterised by larger year-to-year meteorological variability.

Generally, the ozone hole is defined as the area in which ozone column values amount to 220
Dobson Units (DU) or less, marked by the thick contour line and represented in blue colours in
Figure 1. This is only apparent in the Southern Hemisphere. Here, the largest historical extent of
the ozone hole 28.4 million km² occurred in September 2000. This area is equivalent to more
than six times the territory of the EU.

In 2000, the ozone hole reached its maximum extent since 1979 and has stopped increasing in
size in subsequent years, which is attributable to the phasing out of ozone-depleting substances
under the Montreal Protocol. Since 2001, with ODS emissions in check, the ozone layer is
showing signs of healing with variations in size between years that are strongly driven by
stratospheric temperature, with warmer temperatures leading to a smaller ozone hole, such as
in 2019.

This year's ozone hole over the Southern Hemisphere showed a maximum area of 24.5 million
km² on 26 September and resembles the one from 2021 (24.8 million km²). The 2022 ozone
hole has been similar in size and persistence to the ones in 2021 and 2020, due to a strong and
long-lasting polar vortex in those years, according to researchers from the Copernicus

30
Atmosphere Monitoring Service. Moreover, the size in 2022 was larger than the average over
the last five and ten years (21.3 and 21.9 million km², respectively). In the Northern
Hemisphere, ozone depletion is usually much more limited compared to the Southern
Hemisphere. In Artic spring 2020, however, ozone-sonde measurements indicated ozone
depletion that occurred due to unusually strong, long-lasting cold temperatures in the
stratosphere.

The 2019 ozone hole has been very small and short-lived, which was mostly driven by unusual
meteorological conditions. In particular, August and September 2019 showed exceptionally high
temperatures at altitudes between 20 and 30 km above the Antarctic, stopping the formation of
icy clouds that usually trap ozone-depleting molecules that, when released during springtime in
the Southern Hemisphere, trigger ozone destruction. Taken together, the mitigation of ozone
depletion is still very fragile and scientific evidence suggests that more action is still required to
remove pressure on the ozone layer caused by ozone-depleting substances (ODS).

Maximum ozone layer area in sq. km.

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
79 981 983 985 987 989 991 993 995 997 999 001 003 005 007 009 011 013 015 017 019 021
19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Maximum ozone layer area in sq. km.

4.7 Emission of Ozone depleting substances

31
 Chlorofluorocarbons in tones
1100000
900000
700000
500000
Tones

300000
100000
1986 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2021
Chlorofluo- 1080000 732449 285590 146952 44174 209 1493 848
rocarbons
in tones

Carbon tetrachloride in tones

65000
45000
25000
5000
1886 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2021
Carbon tetrachlo- 52 60715 10809 22959 955 1378 1850 1321
rideTitle
Axis in tones

32
 Methyl Bromide in tones
32500
22500
12500
2500 Tones 1986 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2021
Methyl Bromide in 12 426 37348 27316 12587 4565 323 242
tones

4.8 Solution to ozone layer depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various
programmes have been launched by the government of various countries to prevent it.
However, steps should be taken at the individual level as well to prevent the depletion of the
ozone layer.

Following are some points that would help in preventing this problem at a global level:

4.8.1 Avoid Using ODS

Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use of CFCs in refrigerators and air
conditioners, replacing the halon based fire extinguishers, etc.

4.8.2 Minimise the Use of Vehicles

The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming as well as
ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of vehicles should be minimised as much as possible.

4.8.3 Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products

Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing chemicals that find a way
into the atmosphere and affect the ozone layer. These should be substituted with natural
products to protect the environment.

33
 4.8.4 Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited
The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide that is
adversely affecting the ozone layer. People should be made aware of the harmful effects of
nitrous oxide and the products emitting the gas so that its use is minimised at the individual
level as well.

4.9 Montreal protocol

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is the landmark multilateral
environmental agreement that regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100 man-
made chemicals referred to as ozone depleting substances (ODS). When released into the
atmosphere, those chemicals damage the stratospheric ozone layer, Earth’s protective shield
that protects humans and the environment from harmful levels of ultraviolet radiation from the
sun. Adopted on 16 September 1987, the Protocol is to date one of the rare treaties to achieve
universal ratification.

The Montreal Protocol phases down the consumption and production of the different ODS in a
step-wise manner, with different timetables for developed and developing countries (referred
to as “Article 5 countries”). Under this treaty, all parties have specific responsibilities related to
the phase out of the different groups of ODS, control of ODS trade, annual reporting of data,
national licensing systems to control ODS imports and exports, and other matters. Developing
and developed countries have equal but differentiated responsibilities, but most importantly,
both groups of countries have binding, time-targeted, and measurable commitments.

The Protocol includes provisions related to Control Measures (Article 2), Calculation of control
levels (Article 3), Control of trade with non-Parties (Article 4), Special situation of developing
countries (Article 5), Reporting of data (Article 7), Non-compliance (Article 8), Technical
assistance (Article 10), as well as other topics. The substances controlled by the treaty are listed
in Annexes A (CFCs, halons), B (other fully halogenated CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl
chloroform), C (HCFCs), E (methyl bromide), and F (HFCs).

The treaty evolves over time in light of new scientific, technical, and economic developments,
and it continues to be amended and adjusted. The Meeting of the Parties is the governance body
for the treaty, with technical support provided by an Open-ended Working Group, both of which
meet on an annual basis. The Parties are assisted by the Ozone Secretariat, which is based at UN
Environment Programme headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya.

34
 4.9.1 The multilateral fund

The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol was established in 1991
under Article 10 of the treaty. The Fund's objective is to provide financial and technical
assistance to developing country parties to the Montreal Protocol whose annual per capita
consumption and production of ODS is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of
the Protocol.

The Multilateral Fund’s activities are implemented by four international agencies - UN

Environment Programme (UNEP) , UN Development Programme (UNDP), UN Industrial
Development Organisation (UNIDO) and the World Bank - as well as bilateral agencies of non-
Article 5 countries.

Responsibility for overseeing the operation of the Fund rests with the Executive Committee,
which
comprises seven
members each
from Article 5
countries and
non-Article 5
countries. The
Committee is
assisted by the
Multilateral
Fund
Secretariat,
which is based
in Montreal.
Since its
inception, the
Multilateral Fund has supported over 8,600 projects including industrial conversion, technical
assistance, training and capacity building worth over US$3.9 billion.

Throughout the implementation of the Montreal Protocol, developing countries have

demonstrated that, with the right kind of assistance, they are willing, ready, and able to be full
partners in global efforts to protect the environment. In fact, many developing countries have
exceeded the reduction targets for phasing out ODS, with the support of the Multilateral Fund.

4.9.2 Success achieved to date and the job ahead

With the full and sustained implementation of the Montreal Protocol, the ozone layer is
projected to recover by the middle of this century. Without this treaty, ozone depletion would
have increased tenfold by 2050 compared to current levels, and resulted in millions of
additional cases of melanoma, other cancers and eye cataracts. It has been estimated, for

35
example, that the Montreal Protocol is saving an estimated two million people each year by
2030 from skin cancer.

To date, the Parties to the Protocol have phased out 98% of ODS globally compared to 1990
levels. Because most of these substances are potent greenhouse gases, the Montreal Protocol is
also contributing significantly to the protection of the global climate system. From 1990 to
2010, the treaty’s control measures are estimated to have reduced greenhouse gas emissions by
the equivalent of 135 gigatons of CO2, the equivalent of 11 gigatons a year.

Under the Kigali Amendment, actions to limit the use of HFCs under the Montreal Protocol are
expected to prevent the emissions of up to 105 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent of
greenhouse gases, helping to avoid up to 0.5 degree Celsius of global temperature rise by 2100 –
a truly unparalleled contribution to climate mitigation efforts, and the single largest
contribution the world has made towards keeping the global temperature rise "well below" 2
degrees Celsius, a target agreed at the Paris climate conference.

The Montreal Protocol also makes important contributions to the realization of the UN
Sustainable Development Goals.

36
 5. Nuclear accidents
A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy
Agency as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the
environment or the facility.

Examples include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to the

environment, reactor core melt."

The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in which a reactor core
is damaged and significant amounts of radioactive isotopes are released, such
as in the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011.

5.1 What is nuclear energy

Nuclear energy is a form of energy released from the nucleus,
the core of atoms, made up of protons and neutrons. This source of energy can be produced in two
ways: fission – when nuclei of atoms split into several parts – or fusion – when nuclei fuse together.
The nuclear energy harnessed around the world today to produce electricity is through nuclear
fission, while technology to generate electricity from fusion is at the R&D phase.

37
 5.2 What is nuclear fission?
Nuclear fission is a reaction where the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei,
while releasing energy.

For instance, when hit by a neutron, the nucleus of an atom of uranium-235 splits into two
smaller nuclei, for example a barium nucleus and a krypton nucleus and two or three neutrons.
These extra neutrons will hit other surrounding uranium-235 atoms, which will also split and
generate additional neutrons in a multiplying effect, thus generating a chain reaction in a
fraction of a second.

Each time the reaction occurs, there is a release of energy in the form of heat and radiation. The
heat can be converted into electricity in a nuclear power plant, similarly to how heat from fossil
fuels such as coal, gas and oil is used to generate electricity.

Nuclear fission

5.3 Difference between nuclear fission and fusion

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
When the nucleus of an atom splits into Nuclear fusion is a reaction through which two
lighter nuclei through a nuclear reaction, the or more light nuclei collide with each other to
process is termed nuclear fission. form a heavier nucleus.
When each atom splits, a tremendous amount The energy released during nuclear fusion is
of energy is released several times greater than the energy released
during nuclear fission.
Fission reactions do not occur in nature Fusion reactions occur in stars and the sun
naturally
Comparatively, less energy is needed to split High energy is needed to fuse two or more
an atom in a fission reaction atoms together in a fusion reaction

Atomic bomb works on the principle of Hydrogen bomb works on the principle of
nuclear fission nuclear fusion.

38
 Nuclear fusion

5.4 A brief history of nuclear disaster

Serious nuclear accidents have been few and far between—but their stories will help
prevent future catastrophes.

5.4.1 Fukushima Daiichi

On March 11th 2011 a huge earthquake (14h46 local time) and the following tsunami (15h35 local
time) caused the cooling of the reactors and the cooling of the spent fuel pools of the Fukushima
Daiichi nuclear plants to fail. A non-stoppable nuclear disaster unveiled.

The release of radioactive material occurred through pressure relief, uncontrolled release of
radioactive steam, fires, explosions and leakage and seepage of hundreds of thousands of litres of
contaminated water. This disaster happened in multiple reactors at once – and it is still ongoing.

39
 [Link] Reactor 1:
Immediately after the earthquake radio-active gases (xenon) are measured: the reactor
is leaking. Within hours, the fuel – due to the failure of the cooling systems and the
evaporation of cooling water - melts completely.

The molten nuclear fuel first accumulates at the bottom of the reactor pressure vessel.
More and more holes are forming and the bottom melts. The steam of the evaporated
water forms hydrogen and oxygen, a highly volatile mix which reacts with the zirconium
alloy of the fuel rods. On March 12, at 15h25 local time, a hydrogen explosion tears the
building apart.

In an attempt to solve the problem, 8000 litres of water are pumped into the reactor per
hour, but it completely evaporates or runs away, through the wrecked vessel into the
basement.

[Link] Reactor 2:
Also a complete meltdown. At 06h10 local time on March 14th an explosion and a leak
occurred in the containment building. A plume of radioactive white steam is seen
outside the buildings. More than 10.000 litre of water per hour are pumped into the
reactor.

Months after the disaster it becomes crystal clear that the molten cores in the reactors
1, 2 and 3, lie as lava on the floors of the reactor buildings and that further meltdowns
can only be prohibited by constantly, 24/7, pumping large amounts of water into the
buildings.

[Link] Reactor 3:
This reactor also faces a full-meltdown due to loss of coolant. On March 14, at 11h01
local time, an enormous explosion disseminates large amounts of radioactive fission
products. The wind distributes them mainly in a northwest direction.

There are strong scientific indications that a partial nuclear explosion of the nuclear fuel
takes place at this moment in the spent fuel pool, caused primarily by an hydrogen
explosion. This could explain the much bigger explosion than the one that took place in
reactor 1. Until today the Japanese authorities have not released the data of the
measurements that could shine a light on this issue (as one can identify specific isotopes
that only occur in spent fuel).

[Link] Reactor 4:
This reactor was turned off for maintenance work at the time of the earthquake. But
without cooling the pond, where 1331 spent fuel rods were stored, it also heated up, the
cooling water evaporated and a hydrogen explosion occurred. At 06h12 local time the
building disintegrated, the rooftop was blown away and the pond started to leak.

Up to 210.000 litres of water had to be injected every day to cool the pond – which is an
open air basin without any protection. The water evaporated and leaked away.

40
In the years after the reactor building was more-or-less stabilised by an overarching
structure and in December 2014 all fuel rods were recovered and transferred to a
central interim storage facility.

At first the authorities used helicopters to throw water into the fuel pond. However, just
as in Chernobyl, this failed. Then water cannons of the army and the fire brigades were
used. More and more so-called concrete-pumps were added, first pumping seawater,
and later fresh water into the boiling spent fuel ponds, to prevent the fuel rods from
melting further.

[Link] Reactor 2:
The authorities then discover that at reactor 2 highly radioactive water is running
uncontrolled from the reactor through a manhole into the ocean. The water has a
radiation level of 1000 mSv per hour. One hour exposure to this amount is enough to
develop severe radiation sickness.

The leak is stopped on April 6 but the water subsequently passes through several
smaller leaks and keeps flowing into the Pacific.

To make room for even more highly radioactive water TEPCO decides to dump
11.500.000 litres of water – which contained 150 billion becquerels - from a central
water treatment tank directly into the ocean.

Neighbouring countries such as South Korea and China strongly protest against this act
of desperation, which is only a temporary measure as long as millions of litres of water
have to be pumped into the highly contaminated buildings – and contaminated water
keeps running out of those buildings into the ground and the ocean.

41
 [Link] Reactor 1:
Remote-controlled robots are sent into the reactor. On April 26 they measure
radioactivity up to 1120 mSv/hour. To illustrate: the limit for German workers in the
nuclear industry is 20 mSv /year.

At the end of April TEPCO workers enter the destroyed reactor building and try to lower
the radioactivity in the building by installing air filters. After reviewing the inspection
instruments and the results of intensive measurements the conclusion is made that
there was a total meltdown of the fuel, and that there are too many holes and leakages
in the building and that it does not make any sense anymore to keep flooding the
reactor.

[Link] Local distribution

The radioactive materials were first blown towards the
Pacific by the wind. After the explosion of reactor 3 the wind direction changed and
regions more to the northwest of the accident got contaminated. Particularly high levels
of radiation are measured in the soil outside the 30-km (evacuation) zone. Large parts
of Japan are contaminated for at least 300 years) with caesium, mainly in the northeast.
Parts of this region will remain uninhabitable and unusable for agriculture.

[Link] Global distribution

After a few days the effects of the nuclear disaster could
be seen worldwide, although of course extremely diluted: the global system of measure
points registered radioactive iodine and caesium in the atmosphere.

The release of medium and highly radioactive contaminated water (directly and
through the groundwater) into the Pacific has already resulted in measurable exposure
of marine organisms: fishing of sand eels near the affected coast has been forbidden, but
the radioactive particles are also spread and absorbed by algae, mussels, fish and crabs.

[Link] Contamination
The area around the nuclear power plants contains highly
contaminated solid. The map shows the cumulative load. As an example: the maximum
accepted value of 1 millisievert per year (mSv/y) was exceeded 427 times in the village
of Namie (until February 2015).

An area of 600 km² around the nuclear power plants were contaminated with about
600 kBq/m² -the limit for permanent resettlement by the Russian authorities after the
Chernobyl disaster. The Japanese government has decided to scrape off the top layer of
soil (5 cm depth), in order to reduce the radiation exposure to a maximum of 1 mSv/y.
This must be done in an area of 2000 square kilometres, therefore 100 million cubic
meters of radioactive soil has to be removed – and safely stored.

42
 [Link] Evacuation
Already on the second day of the disaster all people were evacuated from a 20-km radius
around the nuclear power plants. On day 5 it was decided that everyone in the area between 20
and 30 kilometres around the plant were to stay inside. On March 25, a ‘voluntary evacuation’ of
the zone up till 30 kilometres was advised.

Unfortunately most of the people were evacuated to regions north-west of Fukushima- the area
with the highest contamination.

Around 164.000 people were evacuated from the area around the damaged reactors. Some of
them were able to stay with relatives or in hotels, but by far most of them have – for several
months – lived in major sports and exhibition halls, where they slept on the ground. In the
meantime 72.000 container units have been built for the evacuees. Even about 5 years after the
disaster 118.000 people are still evacuated - with a very unclear future.

[Link] Effects /diseases/health

Compared to the deaths caused by the natural disaster (earthquake and tsunami) the
direct cases of deaths by the man-made reactor disaster in Fukushima have been very
low.

During the explosion at reactor 1 four workers were injured, and at the explosion at
reactor 3 eleven workers. One clean-up worker died of circulatory failure.

Of the tested workers nearly 2000 were found to be contaminated with a radiation dose
above 100 mSv – a dose which causes radiation related diseases. Six workers were
contaminated with doses from 309 mSv to 678 mSv.

The information policy of

Tepco and the Japanese
authorities were very similar
to what we have seen from
the Soviet authorities in the
aftermath of the Chernobyl
disaster. The true
consequences of the
Fukushima disaster are yet to
be recognised.

43
 Fukushima disaster effect

5.4.2 Chernobyl disaster

Chernobyl disaster, accident in 1986 at the Chernobyl nuclear
power station in the Soviet Union, the worst disaster in the history of nuclear power generation.
The Chernobyl power station was situated at the settlement of Pryp’yat, 10 miles (16 km)
northwest of the city of Chernobyl (Ukrainian: Chornobyl) and 65 miles (104 km) north of Kyiv,
Ukraine. The station consisted of four reactors, each capable of producing 1,000 megawatts of
electric power.

Chernobyl nuclear power plant

44
 [Link] Explosion at reactor 4
The disaster occurred on April 25–26, 1986, when technicians at
reactor Unit 4 attempted a poorly designed experiment. Workers shut down the reactor’s
power-regulating system and its emergency safety systems, and they withdrew most of the
control rods from its core while allowing the reactor to continue running at 7 percent power.
These mistakes were compounded by others, and at 1:23 AM on April 26 the chain reaction in
the core went out of control. Several explosions triggered a large fireball and blew off the heavy
steel and concrete lid of the reactor. This and the ensuing fire in the graphite reactor core
released large amounts of radioactive material into the atmosphere, where it was carried great
distances by air currents. A partial meltdown of the core also occurred.

The city of Pripyat was built to house workers of the nuclear power plant in the 1970s. It has
been an abandoned ghost town since the accident, and is now used as a laboratory to study
fallout patterns. On April 27 the 30,000 inhabitants of Pryp’yat began to be evacuated. A cover-
up was attempted, but on April 28 Swedish monitoring stations reported abnormally high levels
of wind-transported radioactivity and pressed for an explanation. The Soviet government
admitted there had been an accident at Chernobyl, thus setting off an international outcry over
the dangers posed by the radioactive emissions. By May 4 both the heat and the radioactivity
leaking from the reactor core were being contained, albeit at great risk to workers. Radioactive
debris was buried at some 800 temporary sites, and later in the year the highly radioactive
reactor core was enclosed in a concrete-and-steel sarcophagus (which was later deemed
structurally unsound).

[Link] Death and radioactivity

Some sources state that two people were killed in the initial
explosions, whereas others report that the figure was closer to 50. Dozens more people
contracted serious radiation sickness; some of them later died. Between 50 and 185 million
curies of radionuclides (radioactive forms of chemical elements) escaped into the atmosphere—
several times more radioactivity than that created by the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, Japan.

45
This radioactivity was spread by the wind
over Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine and soon
reached as far west as France and Italy.

Millions of acres of forest and farmland

were contaminated, and, although many
thousands of people were evacuated,
hundreds of thousands more remained in
contaminated areas. In addition, in
subsequent years many livestock were born
deformed, and among humans several
thousand radiation-induced illnesses and
cancer deaths were expected in the long term. Chernobyl nuclear plant after disaster

Chernobyl Unit 2 was shut down after a 1991 fire, and Unit 1 remained on-line until 1996.
Chernobyl Unit 3 continued to operate until 2000, when the nuclear power station was officially
decommissioned.

[Link] Exclusive zone

The Soviet Union created a circle-shaped exclusion zone with a
radius of about 18.6 miles (30 km) centred on the nuclear power plant. The exclusion zone
covered an area of about 1,017 square miles (2,634 square km) around the plant. However, it
was later expanded to 1,600 square miles (4,143 square km) to include heavily radiated areas
outside the initial zone. Although no people actually live in the exclusion zone, scientists,
scavengers, and others may file for permits that allow them to enter for limited amounts of time.
With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, control of the site passed to Ukraine. In 2011
the Ukrainian government opened parts of the exclusion zone to organized tour groups, and
Chernobyl and the abandoned city of Pryp’yat became popular destinations for so-called “dark
tourists.” During the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Russian forces attacking from Belarus
captured Chernobyl after a brief but pitched battle. Combat at the site of the world’s worst
nuclear disaster led to concerns about damage to the containment structure and the possibility
of widespread radioactive contamination.

46
 [Link] Conclusion

On April 25, 1986, routine maintenance was scheduled at V.I. Lenin

Nuclear Power Station’s fourth reactor, and workers planned to use the downtime to test whether
the reactor could still be cooled if the plant lost power. During the test, however, workers violated
safety protocols and power surged inside the plant. Despite attempts to shut down the reactor
entirely, another power surge caused a chain reaction of explosions inside. Finally, the nuclear core
itself was exposed, spewing radioactive material into the atmosphere.

Firefighters attempted to put out a series of blazes at the plant, and eventually helicopters dumped
sand and other materials in an attempt to squelch the fires and contain the contamination. Despite
the death of two people in the explosions, the hospitalization of workers and firefighters, and the
danger from fallout and fire, no one in the
surrounding areas—including the nearby city of
Pripyat, which was built in the 1970s to house
workers at the plant—was evacuated until
about 36 hours after the disaster began.

The impact of the disaster on the surrounding

forest and wildlife also remains an area of
active research. In the immediate aftermath of
the accident, an area of about four square
miles became known as the “Red Forest”
because so many trees turned reddish-brown
and died after absorbing high levels of
radiation.

[Link] 30 YEARS AFTER CHERNOBYL, NATURE IS THRIVING

Today, the exclusion zone is eerily quiet, yet full of life. Though
many trees have regrown, scientists have found evidence of elevated levels of cataracts and
albinism, and lower rates of beneficial bacteria, among some wildlife species in the area in recent
years. Yet, due to the exclusion of human activity around the shuttered power plant, the numbers of
some wildlife, from lynxes to elk, have increased. In 2015, scientists estimated there were seven
times more wolves in the exclusion zone than in nearby comparable reserves, thanks to humans’
absence.

The Chernobyl disaster had other fallout: The economic and political toll hastened the end of the
USSR and fueled a global anti-nuclear movement. The disaster has been estimated to cost some
$235 billion in damages. What is now Belarus, which saw 23 percent of its territory contaminated by
the accident, lost about a fifth of its agricultural land. At the height of disaster response efforts, in
1991, Belarus spent 22 percent of its total budget dealing with Chernobyl.

47
Today, Chernobyl beckons to tourists who are intrigued by its history and its danger. But though
Chernobyl symbolizes the potential devastation of nuclear power, Russia never quite moved beyond
its legacy—or its technology. As of 2019, there are still 11 operational RBMK reactors in Russia.

Chernobyl’s current situation

[Link] Facts about Chernobyl

 Sweden actually sent the first alert. Sweden sent out the first alert that something was
happening. It wasn’t until the world pointed their satellites towards what is now northern
Ukraine, that we realized what had happened.
 Radioactive Iodine is the first Killer. The real killers come in the form of radioactive isotopes-
transmitted by dust particles floating in the air and falling to the ground. Radioactive iodine
is one of the most dangerous because it can quickly be accumulated in the thyroid gland,
leading to thyroid cancer and death.
 Strontium-90 and Cesium-137 are the long term killers. Probably the most serious threat is
cesium-137 and strontium-90. They have half lives of 30 and 28 years respectively. The real
threat with these two is in their ingestion.
 You can still die from radiation in Chernobyl. There are some pretty hot spots. These hot
spots are usually found in cracks in and around Pripyat where the radioactive particles
accumulated. They’re also in areas of the red forest where a lot of the main fallout
happened as was buried.
 The animals are radioactive but doing well. The radiation causes odd growths and birth
defects in the animals there. We as humans wouldn’t stand for even a 1% rate of
abnormality in our own species. Yet, for the animals here, this seems a small price to pay for
living a place that is relatively free of humans.
 Chernobyl is an amazing experiment. While you’d never be able to subject animals or
humans to these levels of radiation in a designed experiment, you can study the effects of
the animals here and compare them to those outside the zone.

48
 6. Holocaust
The Holocaust was the genocide of European Jews during World War II. Between
1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some
six million Jews across German-occupied Europe, around two-thirds of Europe's
Jewish population. The Germans called this “the final solution to the Jewish
question.”

6.1 What was holocaust?

The Holocaust (1933–1945) was the systematic, state-sponsored
persecution and murder of six million European Jews by the Nazi German regime and its allies
and collaborators. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum defines the years of the
Holocaust as 1933–1945. The Holocaust era began in January 1933 when Adolf Hitler and the
Nazi Party came to power in Germany. It ended in May 1945, when the Allied Powers defeated
Nazi Germany in World War II. The Holocaust is also sometimes referred to as “the Shoah,” the
Hebrew word for “catastrophe.” When they came to power in Germany, the Nazis did not
immediately start to carry out mass murder. However, they quickly began using the government
to target and exclude Jews from German society. Among other antisemitic measures, the Nazi
German regime enacted discriminatory laws and organized violence targeting Germany’s Jews.
The Nazi persecution of Jews became increasingly radical between 1933 and 1945. This
radicalization culminated in a plan that Nazi leaders referred to as the “Final Solution to the
Jewish Question.” The “Final Solution” was the organized and systematic mass murder of
European Jews. The Nazi German regime implemented this genocide between 1941 and 1945.

Figure 1: Members of
the Storm Troopers
(SA), with boycott signs,
block the entrance to a
Jewish-owned shop. One
of the signs exhorts:
"Germans! Defend
yourselves! Don't buy
from Jews!" Berlin,
Germany, April 1, 1933.

49
 6.2 Why Nazis targeted Jews?
The Nazis targeted Jews because the Nazis were radically
antisemitic. This means that they were prejudiced against and hated Jews. In fact, antisemitism
was a basic tenet of their ideology and at the foundation of their worldview.

The Nazis falsely accused Jews of causing Germany’s social, economic, political, and cultural
problems. In particular, they blamed them for Germany’s defeat in World War I (1914–1918).
Some Germans were receptive to these Nazi claims. Anger over the loss of the war and the
economic and political crises that followed contributed to increasing antisemitism in German
society. The instability of Germany under the Weimar Republic (1918–1933), the fear of
communism, and the economic shocks of the Great Depression also made many Germans more
open to Nazi ideas, including antisemitism.

6.3 Antisemitism
Antisemitism is prejudice against or hatred of Jews. However, the
Nazis did not invent antisemitism. Antisemitism is an old and widespread prejudice that has
taken many forms throughout history. In Europe, it dates back to ancient times. In the Middle
Ages (500–1400), prejudices against Jews were primarily based in early Christian belief and
thought, particularly the myth that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus. Suspicion and
discrimination rooted in religious prejudices continued in early modern Europe (1400–1800).
At that time, leaders in much of Christian Europe isolated Jews from most aspects of economic,
social, and political life. This exclusion contributed to stereotypes of Jews as outsiders. As
Europe became more secular, many places lifted most legal restrictions on Jews. This, however,
did not mean the end of antisemitism. In addition to religious antisemitism, other types of
antisemitism took hold in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. These new forms included
economic, nationalist, and racial antisemitism. In the 19th century, antisemities falsely claimed
that Jews were responsible for many social and political ills in modern, industrial society.
Theories of race, eugenics, and Social Darwinism falsely justified these hatreds. Nazi prejudice
against Jews drew upon all of these elements, but especially racial antisemitism. Racial
antisemitism is the discriminatory idea that Jews are a separate and inferior race.

The Nazi Party promoted a particularly virulent form of racial antisemitism. It was central to the
party’s race-based worldview. The Nazis believed that the world was divided into distinct races
and that some of these races were superior to others. They considered Germans to be members
of the supposedly superior “Aryan” race. They asserted that “Aryans” were locked in a struggle
for existence with other, inferior races. Further, the Nazis believed that the so-called “Jewish
race” was the most inferior and dangerous of all. According to the Nazis, Jews were a threat that
needed to be removed from German society. Otherwise, the Nazis insisted, the “Jewish race”
would permanently corrupt and destroy the German people. The Nazis’ race-based definition of
Jews included many persons who identified as Christians or did not practice Judaism.

50
 6.3.1 Die Nurnberger Gesetze
Chart with the title "Die Nürnberger Gesetze" [Nuremberg Race Laws]. In the fall of 1935,
German Jews lost their citizenship according to the definitions posed in these new regulations.
Only "full" Germans were entitled to the full protection of the law. This chart was used to aid
Germans in understanding the laws. White circles represent "Aryan" Germans, black circles
represent Jews, and partially shaded circles represent “mixed raced” individuals. The chart has
columns explaining the "Deutschbluetiger" [German-bloods], "Mischling 2. Grades" [Half-breeds
2. Grade], "Mischling 1. Grades" [Half-breeds 1. Grade], and "Jude" [Jew].

6.4 What conditions made the holocaust possible?

The Holocaust was not a single event. It did not happen all at once. It was the result of
circumstances and events, as well as individual decisions, played out over years.

6.4.1 Impact of World War I

The mass destruction and loss of life caused by World War I (1914-1918) ushered in a new era of
instability. In the wake of this instability, extremist movements such as Communism, Fascism, and
National Socialism emerged.

Centuries-old monarchies dissolved in the face of widespread social unrest. The Russian Revolution
of 1917 that led to the downfall of the Russian tsar stoked fears of communist revolution in middle-
and upper-class circles in western societies. The Russian communist rulers abolished private
property and banned religious worship. They also aimed to start revolutions all over the world,
especially.

In Germany, people of all political leanings were traumatized by war, the nation’s humiliating
defeat, and the harsh terms of the peace settlement, the Treaty of Versailles. The Weimar
Republic, which replaced Germany’s monarchy and signed the Treaty of Versailles, struggled to
gain support. Many Germans blamed the Weimar Republic for their nation’s fall from greatness.

51
Its leaders were unable to control street violence waged by armed groups of Germans on both
the extreme left and right. Leaders of the republic were forced to put down coup attempts, while
no political party was able to win a majority after 1919. The country also faced severe economic
crises.

The worldwide economic Depression, starting in 1929, hit Germany particularly hard. The
inability of the old political parties to give the unemployed, hungry, and desperate Germans
hope gave the Nazi Party its chance. The leader of this young, extremist, and openly anti-
democratic party, Adolf Hitler, skillfully played on the fears and grievances of Germans to win
popular support. In 1933, leading conservatives, who supported authoritarian or non-
democratic rule, lobbied for Hitler’s appointment as head of government (Chancellor). They
wrongly assumed they could control him.

Having lost faith in the ability of democratic institutions to improve their lives, many Germans
went along when the Nazis suspended the constitution, replaced the German republic with a
dictatorship, and allowed Hitler alone to become the highest law of the land. In exchange for a
loss of individual rights and freedoms, they hoped that Hitler would improve the economy, put
an end to the Communist threat, and make Germany a powerful and proud nation again.

6.4.2 The Nazis

The Holocaust could not have happened without the Nazis’ rise
to power and their destruction of German democracy. When Adolf Hitler took power in January
1933, Germany was a republic with democratic institutions. Its constitution recognized and
protected the equal rights of all individuals, including Jews. The Nazis established a dictatorship
that limited basic rights and freedoms. They promoted the ideal of a “national community” made
up of “German-blooded” people. Excluded from this community and viewed as threats to it were
Jews, Roma, individuals with physical and mental disabilities, and others seen as racially
inferior or whose beliefs or behavior were not tolerated by the Nazis.

The Nazi regime sought to remove Jews from Germany’s political, social, economic and cultural
life. Many Germans assisted or accepted the regime’s efforts. Active Nazis, including Hitler
Youth, used intimidation against Jews and non-Jews to enforce the new social and cultural
norms. Members of Nazi professional organizations participated in excluding Jews from most
professions. Government employees, lawyers, and judges drafted and enforced laws and
decrees that deprived German Jews of their citizenship, rights, businesses, livelihoods, and
property, and excluded them from public life.

Before World War II, the ultimate aim of the Nazi regime’s persecution of the Jews was to drive
them to emigrate. Many Jews looked for safe havens abroad, including the United States. But
emigration was difficult, costly, and complicated, and few countries even offered chances to
relocate. However, World War II all but cut off the possibility of flight. And, under the cover of
war, the Nazis' ideological hatred of Jews became genocidal.

52
 6.4.3 How antisemitism established in Germany
Once the Nazis were in power, however, antisemitism
became public, official government policy. Beliefs that Jews were a dangerous threat were
spread through propaganda that pervaded daily life: radio, schools, police, military, and Hitler
Youth training, and all forms of popular culture. The Nazis’ abolition of freedom of speech and a
free press ensured that Germans heard no voices advocating tolerance.

The constant barrage of antisemitic propaganda had its intended effect. It contributed to a
climate of indifference toward the persecution of Jews in Germany. German Jews, who had been
granted equal rights in Germany in 1871 and who had seen those rights protected by the state
until 1933, were quickly transformed from citizens into outcasts. During the war, the Nazis used
propaganda and other means to stir up existing anti-Jewish prejudices in countries that came
under their rule. These actions helped them when they needed local support in persecuting
Jews.

Figure 3 : A poster advertising the antisemitic propaganda film "Der ewige Jude"
(The Eternal Jew)

53
 6.4.4 Ideology of Nazis
Nazi beliefs or ideology were based on extreme forms of
racism and antisemitism. The Nazis claimed that humankind is divided into groups, and the
members of each group share the same “blood” or racial characteristics. “German-blooded”
people were “superior” to the other groups, while some groups were so “inferior” as to be
“subhuman.” According to the Nazis, “the Jews” (people of Jewish descent, regardless of whether
they practiced Judaism) made up a group that was not only “subhuman” but also “the most
dangerous enemy of the German people.” Without these beliefs, the Nazis’ development of a
program of genocide could not have happened.

The Nazi drive to develop the Germans into a “master race” that would dominate Europe for
generations to come involved several requirements. One was to ensure that the Germans were
racially “pure” and healthy. This meant barring Germans from marrying persons viewed as
inferior, especially Jews, or as defective, such as persons with physical or mental disabilities.
Another requirement was to conquer territory that would serve as “living space” for the German
master race. The results were persecution and, during wartime, the murder of civilians seen as
threats to this quest for long-term survival and domination.

6.4.5 Impact of World War II

The genocide of Europe’s Jews and murder of other targeted
groups could not have happened without World War II and German military successes. The war,
which Hitler declared was for the survival of the Germans, provided the Nazi regime with the
motive as well as the opportunity to commit systematic mass murder. This began with disabled
patients living in mental health facilities and other care institutions in Germany, whom Nazis
considered to be a drain on resources and "life unworthy of life."

Because the Nazis believed the Jews were the Germans’ most dangerous enemy, the Nazis
undertook efforts to destroy them entirely. Germany’s military victories extended its reach to
almost all the Jews in Europe. There were fewer than 300,000 Jews in Germany when the war
began; the vast majority of the almost six million Jews who were killed lived in territory
Germany conquered

Fig 4: The cost of victory in the world war II. Destruction in New Orleans, France.

54
 6.4.6 Role of leaders and ordinary people
Nazi leaders received the active help of countless
officials and ordinary people in Germany and the 17 other countries where the victims lived.

Reasons for the help of non-Germans included self-interest and involved political and personal
calculations. Foreign leaders, officials, and ordinary people were more cooperative when it
looked like Germany would win the war and be the master of Europe for the future. Most people
stood by as Jews were rounded up to be shot or transported “to the East.” They witnessed the
suffering of their neighbors. Sometimes, they benefited, as they looted property and took over
homes after the owners were gone. A few tried to help the victims.

6.5 Major camps for Jewish displacement system

Following World War II, several hundred thousand Jewish survivors remained in
camps for displaced persons. The Allies established such camps in Allied-occupied
Germany, Austria, and Italy for refugees waiting to leave Europe. Most Jewish DPs
preferred to emigrate to Palestine but many also sought entry into the United
States. At the end of 1946 the number of Jewish DPs was estimated at 250,000, of
whom 185,000 were in Germany, 45,000 in Austria, and 20,000 in Italy.

55
 6.6 Number of Jewish murdered with different
methods

No. of Jewish killed (approx.)

2750000

2250000
No. of Jewish killed (approx.)

1750000

1250000

750000

250000

Murdered at killing Mass shooting op- Ghettos, labour Other acts of vio-
centers eration camp and concentra- lence
tion camps

No. of Jewish 2700000 2000000 1000000 250000

killed (ap-
prox.)

6.7 Number of Jewish murdered at killing centers

No. of Jewish murdered (approx.)

1100000

900000
No. of Jewish murdered (approx.)

700000

500000

300000

100000
Chelmno Belzec Sobibor Treblinka Auschwitz
No. of Jewish murdered (ap- 167000 435000 167000 925000 1000000
prox.)

56
 6.8 Number of non-Jewish people murdered by Nazi
Germany and its allies

No. of non- Jewish killed by Germany and its al-

lies (approx.)

Soviet prisoner of war

Non- Jewish poles
Gypsies
Serb civilians
People with disabilities
German political opponents
Professional criminals and
asocials
Jehovah's witnesses
Homosexual men
Black people

Non-Jewish groups persecuted by the Number of non-Jewish victims

Nazi German regime and its allies and
collaborators
Soviet prisoner of war around 3.3 million
Non- Jewish poles around 1.8 million
Gypsies at least 250,000, but possibly as high as
500,000
Serb civilians more than 310,000
People with disabilities 250,000–300,000, including at least
10,000 children
German political opponents tens of thousands
Professional criminals and asocials about 35,000
Jehovah's witnesses about 1,700
Homosexual men hundreds, possibly thousands
Black people unknown, perhaps hundreds

57
 6.9 Who knew about the holocaust?
It is difficult to determine how many people knew that the
Jews were being murdered during the war. Few will have realised the full extent of the
Nazi crimes. Yet in many cases, the population was aware of what was going on, at least
to some extent. In Germany, the plan to murder all Jews was officially a secret, but due
to the enormous number of people involved, rumours started circulating before long.
Soldiers stationed in the east wrote about the executions in their letters home and took
photographs. Many others were involved in processing the Jewish possessions that
were left behind after the deportations.

The Germans did not know as much about the extermination camps. Their existence
was deliberately kept secret from the outside world. Still, the local population near
places of execution, ghettos, and camps knew what was happening. In the rest of the
occupied territories, this knowledge was less public, although it was clear that
deportation to the so-called 'labour camps’ did not bode well for the Jews. Reports on
the murder of Jews reached the Allied countries from 1942 onwards, but the effect was
limited, partly because they were often based on ‘hearsay’ and they reached the other
side of the ocean with great delay. Besides, the Nazi crimes were so inconceivable that
few could believe that the reports were not exaggerated. Only when the Allies liberated
the concentration and extermination camps did the world fully realise the extent of the
crime that had taken place.

58
 6.10 Anne Frank and the holocaust
Anne Frank was born in the German city of Frankfurt am Main
in 1929. Anne’s sister Margot was three years her senior. The hatred of Jews and the poor economic
situation made Anne's parents, Otto and Edith Frank, decide to move to Amsterdam. There, Otto
founded a company that traded in pectin, a gelling
agent for making jam.

On 1 September 1939, when Anne was 10 years old,

Nazi Germany invaded Poland, and so the Second
World War began. Not long after, on 10 May 1940,
the Nazis also invaded the Netherlands. Five days
later, the Dutch army surrendered. Slowly but
surely, the Nazis introduced more and more laws
and regulations that made the lives of Jews more
difficult.

When Margot received a call-up to report for a so-called ‘labour camp’ in Nazi Germany on 5 July
1942, her parents were suspicious. They did not believe the call-up was about work and decided to
go into hiding the next day in order to escape persecution.

In the spring of 1942, Anne’s father had started furnishing a hiding place in the annex of his business
premises at Prinsengracht 263. He received help from his former colleagues. Before long, they were
joined by four more people. The hiding place was cramped. Anne had to keep very quiet and was
often afraid.

On her thirteenth birthday, just before they

went into hiding, Anne was presented with a
diary. During the two years in hiding, Anne
wrote about events in the Secret Annex, but also
about her feelings and thoughts. In addition, she
wrote short stories, started on a novel and
copied passages from the books she read in her
Book of Beautiful Sentences. Writing helped her
pass the time.

When the Minister of Education of the Dutch

government in England made an appeal on
Radio Orange to hold on to war diaries and documents, Anne was inspired to rewrite her individual
diaries into one running story, titled Het Achterhuis (The Secret Annex).

Anne started rewriting her diary, but before she was done, she and the other people in hiding were
discovered and arrested by police officers on 4 August 1944. The police also arrested two of the
helpers. To this day, we do not know the reason for the police raid. Despite the raid, part of Anne’s
writing was preserved: two other helpers took the documents before the Secret Annex was emptied
by order of the Nazis.

59
The Secret Annex were put on transport to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration and extermination
camp. The train journey took three days, during which Anne and over a thousand others were
packed closely together in cattle wagons. There was little food and water and only a barrel for a
toilet.

Upon arrival at Auschwitz, Anne, Margot and their mother were sent to the labour camp for women.
Otto ended up in a camp for men. In early November 1944, Anne was put on transport again. She
was deported to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp with Margot. Their parents stayed behind in
Auschwitz. The conditions in Bergen-Belsen were horrible too. There was a lack of food, it was cold,
wet and there were contagious diseases. Anne and Margot contracted typhus. In February 1945 they
both died owing to its effects, Margot first, Anne shortly afterwards.

Anne’s father Otto was the only one of the people from the Secret Annex to survive the war. He was
liberated from Auschwitz by the Russians and during his long journey back to the Netherlands he
learned that his wife Edith had died. Once in the Netherlands, he heard that Anne and Margot were
no longer alive either.

Anne's writing made a deep impression on Otto. He read

that Anne had wanted to become a writer or a journalist
and that she had intended to publish her stories about life
in the Secret Annex. Friends convinced Otto to publish the
diary and in June 1947, 3,000 copies of Het Achterhuis (The
Secret Annex) were printed.

And that was not all: the book was later translated into around 70 languages and adapted for stage
and screen. People all over the world were introduced to Anne's story and in 1960 the hiding place
became a museum: the Anne Frank House. Until his death in 1980, Otto remained closely involved
with the Anne Frank House and the museum: he hoped that readers of the diary would become
aware of the dangers of discrimination, racism, and hatred of Jews.

60
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