CELL THEORY

Key developments in Cell Theory:

－ The first compound microscope (circa 1595) was invented by Zacharias Janssen
together with Hans Janssen in 1590.

Year Scientist Discovery/Contribution Significance

Robert Hooke (1635

- 1703)
[English scientist] Observed a slice of cork This was the first recorded
[Mr. Royal Society [Oak tree bark] under a observation of cells, though
in England] [crude] microscope and Hooke was looking at the cell
[English noticed small, box-like walls of dead plant tissue
1665
philosopher] structures that he described rather than live cells. His
as “cells” because they work laid the foundation for
－ Published reminded him of monks' studying cells as the basic
Micrographia in 1665, cells in a monastery. units of life.
coining ‘cell’ “cellula”
or small room.

Using a self-made
microscope with superior
Leeuwenhoek’s work
magnification [300 x],
expanded cell observation
became the first person to
beyond dead plant material,
observe living cells. He
revealing that cells are
Anton van described single-celled
present in various living
Leeuwenhoek (1632 organisms, which he called
organisms [He claimed that
- 1723) "animalcules," [Because
motility is a quality of life (In
1674 － 1683 [Dutch scientist] they look like little animals
letter to the Royal Society)
“Father of for him] and observed
after discovering a tiny
Microscopy and prozotoa, bacteria, blood
‘Motile’ objects]. His
Microbiology” cells, and sperm cells.
findings paved the way for
microbiology and emphasized
－ Discovered bacteria by
that life could be composed of
looking at dental scrapings
single cells.
[Teeth gunk] and pound
water (Vorticella).

Brown’s identification of the

nucleus was a crucial step in
Observed a small, dense
understanding cellular
structure in plant cells,
organization. Although the
which he named the
Robert Brown function of the nucleus
1831 "nucleus." He noted that
[Scottish botanist] wasn’t yet clear, this
this nucleus appeared to be
discovery hinted that the
present in a wide variety of
nucleus might be central to
plant cells.
cell function, which later
research confirmed.
 Proposed that all plants are
composed of cells and that
Schleiden’s work laid the
these cells are the basic
foundation for the idea that
building blocks of plant
Matthias Jakob cells are the structural unit
structure. Schleiden
Schleiden (1804 - of living organisms.
1838 suggested that cells form
1881) Although his theory of cell
through a process he called
[German botanist] formation was incorrect, his
"crystallization,"
observations about plant
[Spontaneous generation
composition were accurate.
theory] which was later
disproven.

Influenced by Schleiden’s
work on plant cells,
Schwann’s findings extended
concluded that all animals
the concept of cells to both
are also made of cells. He
plants and animals, unifying
and Schleiden formulated
Theodor Schwann the idea that cells are a
1839 the first two principles of
[German physiologist] universal structural unit of
Unified Cell Theory: (1) All
all life. This marked the
organisms are composed of
formal beginning of Cell
one or more cells, and (2)
Theory.
the cell is the basic unit of
life in all living things.

Rudolf Ludwig Karl

Virchow Rudolf Virchow advanced
[German physician] cell pathology by proposing
that diseases are caused by
－ Although Virchow is abnormal changes or damage Virchow’s addition became
credited with to cells, shifting medical the third fundamental
popularizing the thinking. principle of Cell Theory: (3)
concept, evidence
All cells arise from pre-
suggests he may have
borrowed the idea from Proposed the concept of existing cells. This concept
1855 Robert Remak, who Omnis cellula e cellula, challenged the previously
observed cell division meaning “all cells come accepted theory of
in the 1840s. from pre-existing cells.” spontaneous generation and
This idea was based on his established the basis for
Robert Remack observations of cell division, understanding cell
[Jewish scie ntist] where one cell divides to reproduction and growth.
produce two new cells.

Aristotle [Father of Philosophy]

－ First to record spontaneous theory back
400 years ago.
 Louis Pasteur Provided experimental
evidence against Pasteur’s experiment directly
－ While Virchow spontaneous generation with disproved spontaneous
challenged spontaneous his swan-neck flask generation, proving that life
generation conceptually, experiment in the 1860s. He does not arise from non-
1860s it was Louis Pasteur’s
boiled nutrient broth in living matter. This supported
swan-neck flask
experiment that flasks with long, curved the concept that life
provided definitive necks to allow air in while originates from pre-existing
experimental evidence trapping dust and life.
against it. microorganisms.

Scientists developed various

These advancements allowed
staining techniques to
scientists to distinguish
better visualize cells and
different parts of the cell,
their components. Advances
such as the nucleus, cell
Various scientists in microscope technology,
Late 1800s membrane, and other
including improvements in
organelles. This led to a more
lenses and magnification,
detailed understanding of cell
allowed for clearer and
structure and function, further
more detailed views of cells
supporting Cell Theory.
and cellular structures.

The invention of the electron Electron microscopy

microscope, which uses provided unparalleled insight
electrons instead of light to into the cell’s internal
create images, allowed structures and functions,
scientists to observe supporting the idea that cells
Development of
1930’s － 1950s structures at a molecular are highly organized and
electron microscopy
level. For the first time, complex. It expanded Cell
organelles like Theory by showing the
mitochondria, the complexity within individual
endoplasmic reticulum, and cells, not just among groups
lysosomes became visible. of cells.
 Modern cell theory includes
the original principles as well
as additional concepts:

 Cells contain
hereditary
Over time, Cell Theory was information (DNA)
refined to include new that is passed during
scientific knowledge from cell division.
molecular biology,  Energy flow
Various genetics, and biochemistry. (metabolism) occurs
Modern Cell contributions from Scientists discovered that within cells.
Theory the 20th century cells contain DNA, which is  Cells are essentially
onward passed from one cell the same in chemical
generation to the next during composition in
cell division, and that cells similar species.
carry out metabolic
processes essential to life. These additions help explain
how cells are not only
structural units of life but
also functional units
essential for maintaining life,
growth, and reproduction.

Key Principles of Cell Theory

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Principles of Modern Cell Theory

1. Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) that is passed on during cell

division.
2. All cells are similar in chemical composition and metabolic processes.
3. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
4. Multicellular organisms depend on the total activity of every cell.

－ Striated Muscle Fibres challenge the idea that cells are autonomous units, as they are
formed by the fusion of multiple cells. This fusion forms long fibres that consist of a
single plasma membrane, but have multiple nuclei.

－Aseptate Fungal Hyphae are very large filamentous structures. This challenge the
idea that the cell is composed of discrete cells, this is because they are long and have
incomplete separation of the cells, creating a continous cytoplasm with multiple nuclei
along the hyphae.

－ Acetabularia, they have root like rhizoid bottom, a long stalk, and a series of branches
that appear umbrella called the cap. This algae challenges the idea that larger organisms
are made up of many much smaller cells, because it is basically a larger organism (up to
10 cm) while still being a single cell.
CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

NUCLEUS

NUCLEAR
ENVELOPE& RIBOSOMES
NUCLEOLUS

ROUGH SMOOTH
CELL
ENSOPLASMIC ENDOPLASMIC MITOCHONDRIA
RETICULUM RETICULUM MEMBRANE

CELL WALL FLAGELLA &

LYSOSOMES &
CYTOPLASM PEROXISOMES [PLANT CILIA [SOME
CELLS] CELLS]

Endosymbiotic Theory

 Endosymbiotic Theory suggests that eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic

cells.
 This theory proposes that billions of years ago, certain prokaryotic cells (like
bacteria capable of photosynthesis or oxygen respiration) were engulfed by
larger host cells.
 Instead of being digested, these smaller cells formed a mutualistic relationship
with the host: the smaller cells provided the host with specialized functions (like
energy production), and the host cell provided protection.
 Over millions of years, these engulfed bacteria evolved into organelles (like
mitochondria and chloroplasts) that we find in eukaryotic cells today.

Endosymbiosis

 The theory suggests mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from symbiotic

relationships between ancient prokaryotic cells.
 Dr. Margulis supported the theory of endosymbiosis by pointing out similarities
between these organelles and bacteria. For instance, mitochondria and
chloroplasts have their own DNA, which is circular like bacterial DNA, and they
replicate independently of the cell. They also have double membranes, a feature
consistent with the idea that they were engulfed by another cell. Additionally,
their ribosomes are more similar to those found in bacteria than to the ribosomes
in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
 Developed by Dr. Lynn Margulis in the 1960s, this idea explains how complex
eukaryotic cells evolved.
Cell
 Cells are the smallest living units of an organism.
 All cells have a cell membrane, which separates the inside of the cell from its
environment, cytoplasm, which is a jelly-like fluid, and DNA, which is the cell's
genetic material.

Challenges of Cell Size

 Cells are small due to the surface-to-volume ratio. Larger cells can't efficiently
manage processes.
 Exceptions like Caulerpa taxifolia, a large single-celled organism, manage size
by unique shapes and multiple nuclei.

There are two broad categories of cells:

Eukaryotic cells
 They have organelles, which include the nucleus and other special parts.
 Eukaryotic cells are more advanced, complex cells, such as those found in plants
and animals.
Prokaryotic cells
 They don't have a nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles. They do have
genetic material, but it's not contained within a nucleus.
 Prokaryotic cells are always one-celled or unicellular organisms. Such as
bacteria.

Organelle
 Means little organ.
 Organelles are the specialized parts of a cell that have unique jobs to perform.

Nucleus [Nuclei]
 The nucleus is the control[the cell’s activity] center of the cell. Inside it, there is
what we called DNA or genetic material.

－ The nucleus also contains a nucleolus.

DNA
 DNA provides the instructions for all cellular activities. When proteins need to
be made, the DNA in the nucleus is transcribed/copied into messenger RNA
(mRNA) in a process called transcription.

 DNA can make numerous DNA, this is called DNA replication.

 DNA can make RNA, this is called transcription.

Types of RNA
i. tRNA (transfer RNA)
 Transfers specific amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.
 Has an "L" shape, with an anticodon region that pairs with mRNA
codons.

ii. mRNA

 Carries the genetic code from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome for
protein synthesis.
 Single-stranded, and contains codons that correspond to amino acids.

iii. rRNA

 Forms the core of the ribosome and catalyzes protein synthesis.

  Combines with proteins to form ribosomes, facilitating the translation of
mRNA into proteins.

－ Transcription is the process by which a segment of DNA is copied into

messenger RNA (mRNA). During transcription, an enzyme [Enzymes (naturally
produced) are proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions in
our bodies.] called RNA polymerase reads the DNA sequence of a gene and creates
a complementary strand of mRNA. This mRNA then carries the genetic instructions
from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where it directs protein
synthesis.

Chromosomes
 Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA and proteins that
carry genetic information. Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells,
chromosomes contain genes that determine traits. When a cell is ready to
divide, DNA condenses/organized into structures known as chromosomes.
During cell division, chromosomes ensure that DNA is accurately copied
and distributed to new cells. In humans, for example, there are 46
chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.

Nuclear Envelope
 The nuclear envelope, which surrounds the nucleus, creating a boundary
between the nuclear contents (like DNA) and the rest of the cell.
 Composed of a double membrane (two lipid bilayers) with pores that
regulate the movement of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Protects DNA, maintains the nuclear environment, and selectively allows
RNA and proteins to pass through nuclear pores.

Outside layer
 Have lots of ribosomes.
 As in actual nucleus, DNA is taken from nucleus, converted to a
structure called mRNA, mRNA then move out via the nuclear pores and
bind onto ribosomes on the outer membrane － which then get moved to
the RER.

Inner layer
 Has important protein structure that binds to the DNA and histone
protein, and controls a lot of cell division － it’s the green protein that
lines the inner membrane called lamins.
－ The inner membrane is supported by a network called the nuclear lamina,
made of proteins called lamins. This provides structural stability and helps
maintain the shape of the nucleus. Subsequently, fundamental in cell
division.
 The inner layer also interacts with chromatin (DNA-protein complexes),
helping to organize DNA within the nucleus and regulate gene
expression.
 Mutations in the nuclear lamina's structural proteins can cause
laminopathies, a group of diseases affecting the nuclear envelope's inner
layer.

Nuclear pores/Nucleopore
 Red protein.
 Allow for transportation of substances such as ions, proteins, and so on
between the cytoplasm to the nucleus, or nucleus to the cytoplasm.

Nucleolus
 Inside the nucleus, the nucleolus produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which
combines with proteins to form ribosomes. Once formed, ribosomal
subunits exit the nucleus through nuclear pores in the envelope and enter the
cytoplasm.
 － So, ang ‘subunits’ ay hindi grupo. It refers to the already formed ribosomes
with two distinct parts/function, that makes up the ribosomes.
 Small Subunit: Responsible for reading the mRNA (messenger RNA)
sequence during protein synthesis.
 Large Subunit: Joins amino acids together to form a protein, based on
the mRNA instructions.
In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes have a 40S small subunit and a 60S large subunit,
forming an 80S ribosome. In prokaryotic cells, ribosomes have a 30S small
subunit and a 50S large subunit, forming a 70S ribosome ("S" indicates size and
density).
－ These subunits are then transported from the nucleolus to the cytoplasm,
where they come together to form a functional ribosome and carry out protein
synthesis.

Chromatin
 Blue structure dispersed inside nucleus.
 Made up of DNA and protein (Histones proteins), make up our genetic
material.
 Is the tangled, spread-out form of DNA found inside the nuclear membrane.

Two Important Form:

Euchromatin
 Euchromatin is loosely packed.
 Allow for more expression of DNA/gene, to transcribe the DNA, and
make different types of mRNA.
 Contains regions of DNA that are actively involved in transcription and
protein production.
 Helps maintain the structure of chromosomes while allowing access to
the genetic code.
 Undergo replication, more in the center of actual nucleus.
Heterochromatin
 Tight chromatin, close towards the inner membrane of nuclear
envelope.

 Gene Silencing: Compacts DNA to prevent unwanted gene

expression.
 Genome Stability: Protects repetitive sequences and structural
regions like telomeres and centromeres.
 Chromosome Organization: Helps maintain nuclear structure and
chromosome integrity.

Ribosomes
 Robert E Palade discovered the ribosomes in the animal cell. They are the
smallest, membraneless organelle and are also called ribonucleoprotein particles.
 Eukaryotic ribosomes found in animal cells are the 80S type, composed of 60S
and 40 S subunits.
 Made up of/from rRNA synthesis with protein.
 Ribosomes, either free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), are essential for protein synthesis/making. When mRNA arrives
at the ribosomes, they use the code to assemble amino acids into specific
proteins.
 Transcription: In the nucleus, where DNA is transcribed into mRNA,
creating the instructions[genetic] for the protein.
 Translation: Where ribosomes use the mRNA instructions to assemble
amino acids into a protein.
 This is the making phase, where ribosomes link amino acids together in the order
specified by mRNA, forming the protein chain.

Types of proteins:
 i. Cytosolic Proteins: These are found within the cytosol and function in
metabolic processes, signal transduction, and structural support.
Examples: Glycolytic enzymes, signaling proteins.

ii. Organelle Proteins: These are directed to specific organelles, where they
play roles tailored to that organelle's function.
Examples: Mitochondrial enzymes, lysosomal enzymes, and ribosomal
proteins.

iii. Membrane Proteins: These are embedded within cell membranes and are
involved in transport, signaling, and structural support.
Examples: Ion channels, receptors, transporters.

iv. Secretory Proteins: Synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum, these

proteins are transported outside the cell for various functions, such as
hormones and enzymes.
Examples: Insulin (hormone), digestive enzymes (like amylase).

 Ribosomes are vital cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis, a

process known as translation. Structurally, ribosomes consist of two subunits: a
large subunit (60S in eukaryotic cells) and a small subunit (40S in eukaryotic
cells). These subunits are measured in Svedberg units (S), a measure of their
sedimentation rate during centrifugation. Ribosomes are composed of ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and proteins, forming the machinery that translates messenger
RNA (mRNA) into functional proteins with the help of transfer RNA (tRNA).
 Ribosomes can be found in two main locations within the cell. When bound to
the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), they are referred to as membrane-bound
ribosomes. These ribosomes synthesize proteins destined for incorporation into
membranes (integral or peripheral proteins), packaging into lysosomes, or
secretion out of the cell. Conversely, ribosomes located freely in the cytosol are
known as cytosolic ribosomes or free ribosomes. These ribosomes produce
proteins that function within the cytosol, such as enzymes involved in metabolic
pathways.
 The distinction between membrane-bound and free ribosomes highlights their
specific roles in cellular protein distribution. Membrane-bound ribosomes
contribute to the cell's interaction with its environment through secreted or
membrane-associated proteins. In contrast, free ribosomes primarily support
intracellular processes by synthesizing enzymes critical for metabolic functions.
This versatility underscores the importance of ribosomes in maintaining cellular
function and homeostasis.

ER [Endoplasmic Reticulum]
 Found in eukaryotic cells.
 It is a series of folded membranes in the cell that moves material.
 Helps materials get around the cell.
 Processes molecules.
 More than one type.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

 Site of protein synthesis.
 Some ribosomes attach to the rough ER, which has a network of membranes
studded with ribosomes. Here, the proteins are not only synthesized but also
folded and modified. The RER helps in transporting these proteins through its
membrane channels to their next destination such as the Golgi apparatus for
further processing.

Protein
 Proteins that will become lysosomes.
 Proteins that can be incorporated into the different organelles like cell
membrane.
 Proteins that will be discreted.
 Glycosylation (In-type) is a biochemical process in which sugar [enzyme]
molecules, called glycans, are attached to proteins or lipids.
 After folding it, glycosylatiom takes place for it to activate and do its
functions, such as transportation

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

 Unlike the RER, the smooth ER lacks ribosomes and specializes in lipid [fatty
acids, phopholipids, and cholesterol] synthesis [enzyme] and detoxifying certain
chemicals, and storage of calcium ions. The lipids produced here are critical for
building cellular membranes and other functions within the cell.
 The product can be send to golgi appratus or cell membrane. Wherein from cell
membrane, we can release cholesterol, and maybe release fatty acids.

 Detoxification: CYP450[Cytochrome P450 enzymes help detoxify

foreign substances (like drugs, toxins, and pollutants) by making them
more water-soluble, which allows the body to more easily eliminate
them.
 Biotransformation: They play a key role in converting lipophilic (fat-
soluble) substances into more polar (water-soluble) forms. This
chemical modification is essential for the safe elimination of drugs and
metabolic waste products from the body.

 In the smooth ER of liver cells, glucose-6-phosphate plays a key role in

gluconeogenesis, where it is converted to glucose by the enzyme glucose-6-
phosphatase, helping maintain blood glucose levels, especially during
fasting. During glycogenolysis, glucose-6-phosphate is produced from
glycogen breakdown, and the smooth ER converts it into glucose for energy
or to regulate blood sugar. Additionally, glucose-6-phosphate is crucial in
various metabolic pathways, ensuring efficient energy production and
storage, depending on the body's needs.
 The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is a specialized type of smooth
endoplasmic reticulum found in muscle cells. It stores calcium ions (Ca² ⁺)
in its lumen, using calcium ATPase pumps to actively transport calcium into
the SR. When a muscle cell is stimulated, calcium is released into the
cytoplasm through channels like ryanodine receptors. This calcium release
triggers muscle contraction. After contraction, calcium is pumped back into
the SR for storage, allowing the muscle to relax and be ready for the next
contraction.

Golgi Apparatus
－ Golgi Apparatus was first discovered in the nerve cell of an owl by Camillo
Golgi with the help of the metallic impregnation method.
 The Golgi apparatus consists of a series of flattened membrane sacs called
cisternae, and it plays a crucial role in modifying, sorting, and packaging
proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles. The Golgi can be
broken down into different parts:
 Receiving vesicles from RER and SER.
 Cis face: The "receiving" side of the Golgi, facing the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER). It receives newly synthesized proteins and lipids from the
ER in vesicles.
 Medial cisternae: The middle region, where further processing of proteins
and lipids occurs, including glycosylation (addition of sugar molecules) and
other modifications.
 Modification:
－ In the Golgi apparatus, several modifications occur to proteins and lipids as
they pass through the different cisternae. These modifications include:
1) Glycosylation:
 N-linked glycosylation: The attachment of carbohydrate groups to the
nitrogen atom of an asparagine residue in a protein. This occurs primarily in
the endoplasmic reticulum and is further processed in the Golgi.
  O-linked glycosylation: The attachment of carbohydrate groups to the
oxygen atom of serine or threonine residues in a protein. This process
mainly occurs in the Golgi apparatus.
2) Phosphorylation:
 The addition of phosphate groups to proteins, typically on serine, threonine,
or tyrosine residues. This modification often regulates protein activity,
interactions, and localization.

 Modifies proteins and some lipid molecules through these glycosylation and
phosphorylation reactions.
 Trans face: The "shipping" side, where processed proteins and lipids are
packaged into vesicles for transport to their final destination (other
organelles, plasma membrane, or secretion outside the cell).

 Proteins and lipids from the ER are sent to the Golgi apparatus for further
processing, packaging, and sorting. The Golgi apparatus modifies proteins,
adding any final touches needed, and then sorts and packages them into vesicles.
These vesicles transport proteins and lipids either to different areas within the
cell or outside the cell through exocytosis.

－ Exocytosis is the process by which cells transport substances (such as

proteins, waste, or other molecules) out of the cell. In this process, vesicles
containing the substances fuse with the cell membrane, releasing their
contents to the outside of the cell. This is an essential process for functions
like secreting hormones, expelling waste, or releasing neurotransmitters.

－ As proteins move through the Golgi body, they're customized into forms that
the cell can use. The Golgi body does this by folding the proteins into usable
shapes or adding other materials onto them, such as lipids, or carbohydrates to
form glycoproteins or glycolipids. These modifications help lipids perform
specific functions, such as cell signaling or membrane structure. These
modifications ensure that both proteins and lipids are in their proper forms to
perform specific cellular functions.

Vacuoles
 Are sac-like structures in cells that store materials such as water, nutrients, and
waste products. In plant cells, the central vacuole stores water, also it helps
maintain cell structure. Going back to the animal cell, you will see an organelle
called a lysosome.

Lysosomes
 Are the garbage collectors that take in damaged or worn-out cell parts. They are
filled with enzymes called hydrolytic enzymes that break down cellular debris
[molecules]. They act as the cell's clean-up crew.
 They break down macromolecules.
 They are involved in autophagy (breaking down worn-out cell parts) and
phagocytosis (digesting external food particles).
 Animal cells can contain between 50 - 1000 lysosomes per cell and each
lysosome contains around 50 different digestive enzymes.

 Hydrolytic enzymes
 Proteases, they break down proteins.
 Nucleases, they break down nucleic acid.
 Lipaes, they break down lipids.
 Glucosidases, they break down carbohydrates.

－ Autophagy in lysosomes is the process where cells degrade and recycle damaged
or unnecessary components. It begins with the identification of damaged materials,
which are then enclosed by an autophagosome. The autophagosome fuses with a
lysosome, where its enzymes break down the materials into basic molecules like
 amino acids and sugars. These molecules are recycled for use in building new cell
structures or generating energy, helping maintain cellular health and adaptability.

－Autolysis is the self-digestion or breakdown of a cell's own components, typically

occurring after cell death. It happens when lysosomal enzymes, which are normally
contained within lysosomes, are released into the cell after its membranes rupture.
These enzymes then digest the cell's own structures, leading to the degradation of
cellular components. This process can occur in both living and dying cells, often as
part of tissue remodeling or during the final stages of cell death.

－ Animal cells have both vacuoles (for storage) and lysosomes (for breaking
down and recycling damaged cell parts).

－ Plant cells have large vacuoles that perform multiple functions, including storage,
waste disposal, and maintaining cell structure. While plant cells don't typically have
traditional lysosomes, they do have lytic vacuoles, which can perform similar
functions to lysosomes in terms of breaking down waste and recycling materials.

Mitochondria [Mitochondrion]
 Mitochondria; It was discovered by Kolliker in striated muscles of insects, and
Carl Benda gave the present name.
 The mitochondrian is an organelle that is the powerhouse for both animal and
plant cells. It break down sugar [from the chloroplast] into energy that the cell
can use.
 Mitochondria provide/makes energy (ATP - energy currency) required for all
cellular processes, including protein synthesis, transport, and cellular
maintenance. Without mitochondria supplying ATP, these activities couldn’t
occur efficiently.
 [Cellular] respiration site.
 Cells that need more energy have more mitochondria.

Structures of Mitochondria
- Cristae
- Matrix
- Inner membrane
- Oouter membrane
- Peri-mitochondrial space

 The mitochondria is a fascinating organelle often referred to as the "powerhouse

of the cell" due to its critical role in ATP synthesis, which provides energy for
various cellular processes. Structurally, the mitochondria consist of an outer
membrane that is smooth and highly permeable, allowing transport proteins to
facilitate the movement of molecules. Inside is the inner membrane, which is
folded into structures called cristae. This membrane has low permeability and
houses many proteins essential for ATP production. Enclosed within the inner
membrane is the mitochondrial matrix, where key metabolic reactions occur and
where mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is found. Notably, this DNA is maternally
inherited and encodes proteins involved in mitochondrial functions.

 Functionally, mitochondria produce ATP primarily through oxidative

phosphorylation, a process dependent on the electron transport chain (ETC)
located on the inner membrane. This is distinct from substrate-level
phosphorylation, another ATP-producing mechanism. The ETC drives oxidative
phosphorylation by creating a proton gradient that powers ATP synthase, the
enzyme responsible for ATP generation.

 The mitochondria are also a hub for various metabolic processes. The Krebs
cycle (or citric acid cycle), occurring in the matrix, processes acetyl-CoA to
generate electron carriers for the ETC. Additional reactions include heme
synthesis, which contributes to the production of hemoglobin and electron
transport proteins; the urea cycle, which converts ammonia into urea for
 excretion; gluconeogenesis, the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate
precursors like amino acids and glycerol; and ketogenesis, where acetyl-CoA is
converted into ketone bodies during periods of low carbohydrate availability.

 Overall, mitochondria are indispensable for cellular energy production and

metabolic regulation. Their unique possession of mtDNA enables the synthesis
of specific proteins critical to these functions, highlighting their autonomy and
importance within the cell.

Plant Cells
 Some organisms, such as plants, that are photoautotrophic, meaning they
capture sunlight for energy, have cells with an organelle called a chloroplast.

Chloroplast
 The chloroplast is where photosynthesis happens.
 Makes sugar[glucose] through photosynthesis.
 It's green because it has a green pigment called chlorophyll.

Cell Membrane
 All cells have this, external.
 The cell membrane [amphipathic, i.e. they contain both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic regions] encloses the cell, maintaining a controlled environment by
regulating the entry and exit of substances. Thus, maintaining homeostasis. It
also plays a crucial role in cell signaling and interactions with the external
environment. Proteins processed by the Golgi and ER may be embedded in or
transported through the cell membrane for functions like signaling, transport,
and maintaining cell structure.
 Made of a single lipid bilayer embedded with proteins and carbohydrates.
 Contains protein channels.

Microbodies
 Many membrane-bound vesicles are called microbodies containing various
enzymes present in both plant and animal cells. These are also known as
cytostomes. They include sphaerosome, peroxisomes and glyoxysomes.
They actively take part in the metabolic activities of the cells via their
enzymes.
 In a non-dividing phase cell there is a pair of centrioles called diplosomes.
They are inside a specialised cytoplasm called centrospheres or kinoplasm.
The complex form of centriole and centrospheres is called the centrosome.
The centrioles are arranged perpendicularly to each other.

Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm, a gel-like substance, fills the cell and contains organelles. It
provides a medium for molecular movement and biochemical reactions and
supports the distribution of organelles throughout the cell.
 Cytoplasm contains both the cytosol and the cytoskeleton.

Cytosol
 The fluid portion of the cytoplasm, excluding organelles. It’s a water-based
solution with dissolved ions, small molecules, and macromolecules like
proteins.
 Acts as a medium for molecular transport and chemical reactions.

Cytoskeletons
 The cytoskeleton plays a key role in maintaining cell shape, supporting
organelles, enabling cell movement, and facilitating intracellular transport.
 The cytoskeleton includes the thread-like microfilaments, which are made of
protein, and microtubular modules, which are thin, hollow tubes.

Cytoskeletal fibers:
 Microtunules
 Largest of the 3 fibers
  Made up of tubulin
 Structural support % transportation
 Form the spindle fibers during cell division, guiding chromosome
separation.
 Made of alpha-tubulin and beta-tubulin, forming 13 filaments in a
cylindrical arrangement.
 Key Functions:

1. Intracellular Transport: Acts as a railway for motor proteins (dynein

and kinesin) to move vesicles and organelles, powered by ATP.
2. Cell Division:

 Forms spindle fibers during mitosis.

 Attaches to the kinetochore to separate chromatids.

3. Cellular Extensions:

 Cilia: Found in the respiratory tract and fallopian tubes; creates

movement to clear mucus or transport the ovum.
 Flagella: Enables sperm motility via a whipping motion.

Cilia and Flagella

 These are a hair-like outgrowth of the cell membrane. Their core is called the
axoneme, which is covered by a plasma membrane. The shaft or axoneme
consists of nine microtubule doublets arranged in a circle around two central
tubules. This is a 9+2 pattern of microtubules. The cilia are shorter and fewer in
number and are present all over the periphery of the cell. The flagella are
generally longer and fewer in number. Both of these organelles help in
locomotion of the cell.
 Ciliated cells are found in the airways. They have tiny hairs on their tops called
cilia which beat in a rhythm. These hairs move mucus containing dust and other
particles upwards and out of the airways. Ciliated cells are also found in the
oviducts. Here the tiny hairs beat to move the egg from the ovaries to the uterus.
 Villi are needle-like growths that extend from the plasma membrane of a cell.
For some cells, such as the cells along the wall of intestines, it is important to be
able to rapidly exchange substances with their surrounding environment. Villi
increase the rate of exchange of materials between cells and their environment
by increasing the surface area of the plasma membrane. This increases the space
available for material to move in and out of the cell.
 Villi are structures about one millimetre long in the small and large intestines.
Millions of them poke out to absorb digested food and water into the blood.
They are well suited to this function because:
 They have a large surface area.
 The cells of the lining have tiny hairs to absorb more food and water.

 Microfilaments
 Smallest of the 3 network fibers
 Made up of action
 Elongation and contraction
 Support cell shape and may be involved in pinching the cell membrane
during the final separation of the two new cells (cytokinesis).
 Made of actin monomers that polymerize into long filaments.
 Key Functions:

 Muscle Contraction and Relaxation: Actin works with myosin

for contractile activity, crucial in muscle cells.
 Cytokinesis: Forms the constriction ring during mitosis, splitting
one cell into two.
 Cell Shape and Movement: Facilitates processes like:
  Diapedesis: Helps white blood cells squeeze through
capillaries.
 Phagocytosis: Extends pseudopods to engulf pathogens.

 Intermediate Filaments
 Provide mechanical support.
 Provide structural stability to the cell and nucleus, although they are not
directly involved in chromosome separation.
 Tough, durable, and high tensile strength fibers.
 Provides mechanical support and maintains cellular integrity.
 Key Functions:

1. Anchorage:

 Cell-to-Cell: Connects adjacent cells.

 Cell-to-Extracellular Matrix: Links cells to the extracellular
protein network (e.g., collagen).
 Organelles-to-Cell: Secures organelles like the nucleus within the
cytoplasm.

－ Thus, the cytoskeleton’s fibers work together to support cell shape and division
processes, with microtubules directly assisting in chromosome separation during
division.

－ It provides structural support throughout the cell, ensuring that organelles like the
nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and Golgi apparatus stay in place and
maintain their positions.

－ During cell division, the cytoskeleton forms structures like the spindle fibers
that help in the separation of chromosomes.

－ It also aids in the movement of vesicles and other materials within the cell,
including during processes like exocytosis and endocytosis.

－ The cytoskeleton is embedded within the cytosol in the cytoplasm, creating a

supportive framework throughout the cell.

This detailed explanation highlights the cytoskeleton and its three major components:
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, emphasizing their
structures, functions, and significance.

Significance of the Cytoskeleton

 The cytoskeleton is dynamic, pervasive throughout the cell, and critical for:

 Structural support.
 Cell shape maintenance.
 Intracellular transport and motility.
 Cell division and replication.

 Its components operate synergistically, allowing cells to adapt to diverse

functions and environments.

 The cytoplasm is the entire cell interior (excluding the nucleus), cytosol is the fluid
part of the cytoplasm, and the cytoskeleton is the supportive framework within the
cytosol. Together, they form the cellular environment that maintains cell shape,
supports organelles, and enables cellular processes.

 Centrioles
 Cell division - mitotic support consist of microtubules
 Pulls apart chromosomes [split]
 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes (in some cells)
 Vesicles from the Golgi also form lysosomes and peroxisomes, which digest
unwanted materials or break down toxic substances, keeping the cell clean and
functional.
 Peroxisomes contain enzymes that perform oxidative reactions, producing
hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct.
 They break down fatty acids into smaller units that can be used in cellular
respiration.
 Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells
that are involved in a variety of metabolic functions, particularly in the
breakdown of fatty acids and the detoxification of harmful substances. They also
play a crucial role in the production and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
(H₂O₂).

1) Catalase is an enzyme found within peroxisomes that breaks down hydrogen

peroxide into water and oxygen, protecting the cell from oxidative damage caused by
excess hydrogen peroxide.

Fatty acid oxidation

2) Oxidase refers to enzymes in peroxisomes that catalyze oxidation reactions, often

involving the transfer of electrons from substrates to oxygen molecules. These enzymes
are important in metabolic pathways like the breakdown of fatty acids and the
detoxification of certain compounds.

When oxygen enters a cell, it participates in essential metabolic processes, such as the
electron transport chain in mitochondria. However, some oxygen molecules may be
incompletely reduced, leading to the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These
include the superoxide anion (O₂⁻), a harmful free radical that can further be converted
into hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). While hydrogen peroxide is not a radical itself, it can
react to form hydroxyl radicals (•OH), one of the most damaging free radicals capable of
causing significant harm to DNA, lipids, and proteins. If the body's antioxidant defenses,
such as catalase and glutathione, are overwhelmed, these free radicals can accumulate
and cause oxidative stress.

Hydrogen peroxide, in particular, can build up in cells due to impaired enzymatic activity
or mitochondrial dysfunction. This accumulation is dangerous, as hydrogen peroxide can
damage cellular components directly or react with transition metals through the Fenton
reaction, producing highly reactive hydroxyl radicals.

Additionally, the metabolism of fatty acids contributes to cellular energy production. Two
processes, alpha-oxidation and beta-oxidation, play roles in breaking down fatty acids.
Beta-oxidation is the primary pathway, converting fatty acids into acetyl-CoA, a
molecule that enters the citric acid cycle to produce energy. Alpha-oxidation, on the
other hand, is a less common process that handles certain branched-chain fatty acids,
such as phytanic acid. Together, these pathways illustrate the intricate balance of
metabolic processes within the cell and the potential risks posed by oxidative byproducts.

 Peroxisomes play a crucial role in cellular metabolism, particularly in the synthesis

and breakdown of lipids. One key lipid synthesized by peroxisomes is plasmalogen,
which is an essential component of the white matter in the brain. Plasmalogen is a
specialized lipid integral to the formation and maintenance of myelin, the protective
sheath surrounding nerve fibers. When peroxisomes are unable to synthesize
plasmalogen effectively, it can result in a decrease in white matter production. This
deficiency may lead to disruptions in the nervous system, as white matter is critical
for proper nerve signal transmission.

In addition to lipid metabolism, peroxisomes also play a minor role in alcohol

metabolism. They contain a small amount of the enzyme catalase, which not only breaks
down fatty acids but also participates in the breakdown of ethanol. Although this function
is relatively minor compared to other metabolic processes, it highlights the versatility of
peroxisomes as important organelles within the cell. These varied functions underscore
the significance of peroxisomes in maintaining cellular and neurological health.

Cell Wall (in plant cells)

 External, part of most prokaryotic cells & some eukaryotic cells.
 In plant cells, the cell wall provides additional structural support outside the cell
membrane. It allows the cell to maintain shape and resist external pressure.

－ Animal cells never have a cell wall.

Centrioles
 Found in eukaryotic cells [Animal cells], but not all.
 Come from the centrosome (two per centrosome).
 Involved with cell division.
 Spindle fibers involved.

Centrosomes are structures that are required for the cellular process of cell division. They
are also known as microtubule organisers, or microtubule organising centres (MTOC);
this means that they are responsible for cell mobility, polarity and adhesion. They also
play a critical role in the movement of microtubules during cell division. It is thought that
irregular or extra centrosomes may play a role in abnormal cell division and therefore
some cancers.

Flagella and Cilia (in some cells)

 Some cells have flagella or cilia for movement. They help transport the cell itself
or substances along the surface of the cell.
 Made up of microtubules.

Cilia
 In humans, for example, the respiratory tract is lined with cells that have cilia.
 These are microscopic hair-like projections that can move in waves.
 This feature helps trap inhaled particles in the air and expels them when you
cough.

Flagella
 Another unique feature in some cells is flagella.
 Some bacteria have flagella.
 A flagellum is like a little tail that can help a cell move or propel itself.
 The only human cell that has a flagellum is a sperm cell.

Amyloplast
It serves as starch storage for plants.

A type of plastid (like chloroplasts but without pigments) found in plant cells.
Stores starch, which plants use as an energy reserve. When needed, amyloplasts can
convert stored starch into sugar to supply energy for the cell.
Important for energy storage, especially in roots and tubers (e.g., potatoes), where starch
is commonly stored.

Druse Crystal
It stores excess calcium, called calcium oxalate, in plants. High amounts of this calcium
makes a plant poisonous to human.

A form of calcium oxalate crystal that accumulates in plant cells.

Acts as a defense mechanism. The crystals store excess calcium and can make plants
toxic to herbivores, preventing them from being eaten.
Helps regulate calcium balance within the cell and protects the plant from predation.
Druse crystals are often found in vacuoles within plant cells, serving both storage and
protective roles.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Different types of cells in our bodies:
 Bone cells
 Cartilage cells
 Blood cells
 Muscle cells
 Nerve cells

Endomembrane System
－ The endomembrane system is a network of interconnected membrane-bound
organelles within eukaryotic cells that work together to modify, package, and transport
lipids and proteins.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
 Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes

Classification of cells
1. Eukaryotic
 Have a double membrane bound nucleus which conatins the cell’s DNA [DNA
is organized in multiple linear strands].
 The term “eukaryote” means "true nucleus," reflecting the presence of a defined
nucleus.
 In eukaryotic cells, DNA forms organized chromosomes in the nucleus.
 Have other large complex membrane bound organelles.
 Organism with eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes.
 Generally larger than prokaryotic. Larger (10–100 micrometers).
 Cellular functions are compartmentalized within these organelles.
 are mostly multicellular (including animals, plants, fungi, and protozoa), though
some are unicellular.
 Eukaryotic cells have larger and more complex ribosomes, which are
membrane-bound.
 Larger ribosomes, about 22 nanometers in diameter, often attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
 Can be unicellular (e.g., phytoplankton, protozoa) or multicellular (e.g.,
animals, plants, fungi).
 Eukaryotes mainly reproduce sexually, leading to offspring with a mix of both
parents' genetic material.
 Eukaryota: Includes all eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and
protists).
2. Prokaryotic
 Do not have a nucleus, only a nucleoid which is the central open part of the cell
wehre the DNA is found.
 The term “prokaryote” means "before nucleus," indicating that these cells do
not have a defined nucleus.
 Prokaryotic cells contain a single loop of DNA [genetic material is in the form
of a loop or small rings (Circular) of DNA, which are free-floating in the
cytoplasm] stored in the nucleoid, not organized into chromosomes.
 Lack membrane bound organelles, including mitochondria, rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, and the golgi complex. In case of plant cells,
chloroplasts.
 Prokaryotic cells typically have a cell wall that surrounds the plasma membrane,
providing structural support and protection. The composition of the cell wall
differs between bacteria and archaea. In bacteria, the cell wall is primarily
made of peptidoglycan, a complex polymer consisting of sugars and amino
acids. In contrast, archaea have cell walls composed of different compounds,
often made up of complex polysaccharides or proteins, not peptidoglycan. The
variation in cell wall composition plays a key role in the classification and
survival of prokaryotic organisms in different environments.
 Organisms with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes.
 Are smaller and simpler. Small (1–10 micrometers).
 Prokaryotic cells are the smallest and simplest living organisms, estimated
to have existed for 3.5 billion years.
 are unicellular organisms (like bacteria and archaea).
 Kingdoms: Eukaryotic organisms include Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and
Animalia.
 Prokaryotic cells have smaller ribosomes.
 Smaller ribosomes, about 18 nanometers in diameter (18S).
 Prokaryotes reproduce asexually through binary fission, resulting in offspring
that are clones of the parent.
 Prokaryotic cells have a larger surface area to volume ratio, which leads to a
higher metabolic rate, faster growth, and shorter generation times compared to
eukaryotic cells.
 Smaller cells, like prokaryotes, generally have a larger surface area relative
to their volume. This large surface area allows for more efficient exchange
of materials (e.g., nutrients and waste) across the cell membrane.
 Prokaryotic cells are much smaller and simpler in structure compared to
eukaryotic cells.
 Prokaryotic cells are indeed smaller and simpler. They lack membrane-
bound organelles, and their genetic material is typically in a single, circular
DNA molecule located in the nucleoid region, rather than a defined nucleus.
 Many prokaryotes possess one or more flagella, which they use for movement.
 Prokaryotes can be found in a variety of environments such as soil, water, and
even the human body.
 The capsule is a gel-like outer layer found in many prokaryotic cells, particularly
bacteria. Made of polysaccharides or proteins, it provides protection by shielding
the cell from desiccation, toxins, and the immune system's defenses, including
phagocytosis. The capsule also helps the cell attach to surfaces and form
biofilms, which are important for colonization and infection. Its sticky nature
aids in evading immune responses, making it a crucial feature for bacterial
survival and pathogenicity.
 Pili, also known as fimbriae, are short, hair-like structures found on the surface
of many prokaryotic cells. They play a crucial role in helping the cell attach to
surfaces or other cells. This attachment is important for processes such as
colonization, biofilm formation, and infection, especially in bacteria that cause
diseases.
 The genome of a prokaryotic cell consists of a nucleoid, which is a region in the
cell containing a single, circular DNA molecule. Unlike eukaryotic cells, the
nucleoid is not surrounded by a membrane. This DNA carries the genetic
information necessary for the cell’s functions, growth, and reproduction.
Prokaryotes may also have plasmids, which are small, circular pieces of DNA
 that exist separately from the nucleoid. Plasmids can carry additional genetic
traits, such as antibiotic resistance, and can be transferred between cells, aiding
in genetic diversity and adaptation.
 A genome is the complete set of genetic material in an organism,
containing all the information necessary for growth, development, and
reproduction. In organisms with DNA, like humans and bacteria, the
genome includes all the genes and non-coding DNA sequences. In
prokaryotes, the genome is usually a single circular DNA molecule
found in the nucleoid region. Some prokaryotes may also have
plasmids, which are small DNA pieces that can be transferred between
cells, carrying additional genetic traits. The genome is passed from one
generation to the next, determining the organism's inherited
characteristics.

Similarities:
 Both types of cells have a cell membrane composed of phospholipids and
proteins that regulate material movement in and out of the cell.
 Both contain DNA, which carries the genetic information regulating cell
function and is passed on to offspring.
 Both have cytoplasm, although in eukaryotic cells, it refers to everything outside
the nucleus, while in prokaryotic cells, it includes everything inside the cell
membrane.
 The cytoplasm contains cytosol, a gel-like substance where many metabolic
processes, such as protein synthesis, take place.
 Both have ribosomes for protein synthesis.
 Both types of cells carry out essential life processes such as reproduction, energy
utilization, and responding to their environment.
CELL TYPES

Plant Tissue System

－ A tissue is a cluster of cells, that are alike in configuration and work together to attain a
specific function. Different types of plant tissues include permanent and meristematic
tissues.

1. Meristematic Tissue
 Comes from the greek word ‘Meristos’ meaning ‘Divided’.
 Composed of meristematic cells, responsible for growth.
 Meristematic tissue is responsible for the growth of plants, as it consists of
actively dividing cells that can differentiate into various types of plant cells.
Meristems are the regions where this division occurs. The Meristematic cells are
cubical, living cells with a big nucleus. These cells are meticulously crammed
with no intercellular spaces. Depending on the section where the meristematic
tissues are existing, they are categorized as intercalary, lateral and apical
meristems.

Key Characteristics of Meristematic Tissue:

 Small, undifferentiated cells that divide actively through mitosis.

 No specific functions until they start differentiating into specialized tissues.
 Presence of thin cell walls, large central vacuole, and a prominent nucleus.
 There are three main types of meristematic tissue, classified based on their
location and function:

Three types of Meristematic Tissue

1) Apical Meristem
2) Lateral Meristem
3) Intercalary Meristem

i. Apical Meristem

 Lateral means ‘side to side’.

 Found at the tips of roots and shoots.
 Responsible for the primary growth of plants, leading to an increase in
length (vertical growth).
 In roots, they help the plant grow deeper into the soil.
 In shoots, they help the plant grow taller and develop leaves and flowers.
  For instances, the growth of the root tip that penetrates the soil.
Subsequently, the shoot tip that produces new leaves and buds.

ii. Lateral Meristem

 Found along the sides of stems and roots.

 Responsible for secondary growth, which increases the girth (width) of the
plant.
 Lateral meristems produce tissues such as vascular cambium (producing
secondary xylem and phloem) and cork cambium (producing bark and
cork).
 Lateral growth increases the diameter of stems and roots, which is crucial
for the plant's support and transport of water and nutrients.
 Exapmle: The thickening of woody plants (trees and shrubs). And growth in
girth in the trunk of a tree.

 Located at girth (Cambium)

iii. Intercalary Meristem

 Found at the internodes (regions between the nodes) of monocots (like

grasses).
 Contributes to the growth of internodes and helps in the regeneration of
parts like leaves or branches.
 It allows for rapid elongation of certain plant parts, especially in monocots,
which helps them grow quickly.

 They are involved in the growth of monocots, where the plant can
elongate rapidly after being grazed or cut.
 Help to grow twigs into branches.

 This meristem can also regenerate damaged parts of the plant.

 Filled with cytoplasm.
 Examples are, the growth of grass leaves or the regrowth of shoots after
cutting. Furthermore, some types of grasses can grow back from the
intercalary meristem even after being grazed by animals.

2. Permanent Cells
－ Non-dividing

Classifucation of Permanent tissues

1) Simple Tissues
 Simple structure.
 Cells are similar.
2) Complex Tissues

Types of Simple Permanent Tissue

i. Parenchyma:
 Composed of parenchyma cells, this tissue is the most common and versatile
in plants. It primarily serves functions such as storage, photosynthesis, and
secretion.
 Found in the soft parts of plants, such as leaves, fruits, and flowers.
 Specialized forms:
 Guard cells: Control the opening and closing of stomata for gas
exchange and transpiration.
 Chlorenchyma: Parenchyma cells containing chloroplasts that aid in
photosynthesis.
 Aerenchyma: Parenchyma cells with air spaces to facilitate buoyancy in
aquatic plants.

ii. Collenchyma:
  Made of collenchyma cells, this tissue provides mechanical support to
young growing parts of the plant.
 Found in leaf stalks (petioles), stems, and leaf veins.
 Cells have unevenly thickened walls made of cellulose and pectin, allowing
for flexibility while maintaining strength.
 Provides tensile strength without restricting growth.
 Helps plants withstand mechanical stress.

iii. Sclerenchyma:
 Composed of sclerenchyma cells, this tissue is the main structural tissue
in mature plants. It provides rigidity and protection due to its thick,
lignified walls.
 Cells in sclerenchyma tissue are dead at maturity.
 Types of cells in sclerenchyma tissue:
 Fibers: Long, narrow cells with tapering ends, found in stems,
roots, and leaves. Fibers provide tensile strength and are used
commercially (e.g., in ropes and textiles).
 Sclereids: Short, irregular cells that provide hardness to structures
like seed coats, nutshells, and the gritty texture in pears.

Types of Complex Permanent Tissues

i. Xylem
i. Transports the water and minerals from roots to different parts of
the plant.
b) Tracheids
c) Vessels
i. Both tracheids and vessels are tubular structures with thick cell
walls.
ii. Mature tracheids and vessels are dead cells, contributing to
efficient water conduction.
d) Xylem parenchyma
i. Stores the food and helps in the lateral conduction of water.
e) Xylem fibers
i. Provide structural support to the plant.

ii. Phloem
i. Transports food produced in leaves (via photosynthesis) to other
parts of the plant.
ii. Components:
a) Sieve Cells
b) Companion Cells
c) Sieve Tubes
d) Phloem Fibers
a) Sieve cells and sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls to
facilitate food transport.
b) Provide mechanical support; these are the only dead cells in the
phloem.
e) Phloem Parenchyma
iii. Assists in food storage and lateral transport.

 Xylem and phloem tissues combine to form vascular bundles,

collectively known as conducting tissues.
 They facilitate the simultaneous transport of water, minerals, and food
throughout the plant.

3. Dermal Tissue

－ Dermal tissue forms the outermost layer of a plant, known as the epidermis,
and is responsible for protecting the plant from water loss and environmental
damage. In leaves and stems, it is covered by a waxy cuticle that prevents
 excessive water loss through transpiration. Stomata, tiny openings in the cuticle,
facilitate gas exchange, while guard cells regulate their opening and closing. In
roots, dermal tissue forms root hairs that increase surface area for water
absorption. In woody plants, the epidermis is replaced by a periderm (or bark) as
the plant undergoes secondary growth, providing additional protection from
injury, dehydration, and pathogens.

Epidermis
 Single layer of cells covering plant body.
 Modified according to habitat and need.
 For example, a plants in a dry place. Water is fundamental for
them, thus, the epidermis of this forms a thicker layer.
 Cutin (Water resistance) in epidermis cell, prevents water loss
at the extend.
 Epidermal cells (Screte Waxy secretions)
 Protects from: Parasitic infection, mechanical injuries, and water
loss.
 No intercellular spaces.
 Cells are flat.
 Thicker outer cell wall.
 Pores(Stomata) of epidermis.
 Spots where epidermis cells form pits or openings.
 And are guarded by the kidney-shaped guard, named ‘Guard cells’.
 Regulates exchange of gases and water vapor from the stomata.
 In the context of STEM, they do not possess a proper epidermal layer.
 Tree having old epidermis, is replaced by secondary meristem
which we ususally referred to as the thick cork or simple ‘Bark
cells’.
 Dead.
 Compactly arranged.
 No intercellular Spaces.
 Suberin [water resistant], regulates gaseous exchange and
water loss.

Plant cells
－ All plant cells are either meristematic (cells that can divide and form other cell types)
or permanent (specialized for specific functions).
－ Characteristics of tissue change at maturity.

Types of Plant Cells

1) Meristematic Cells
2) Parenchyma Cells
a) Chlorenchyma
b) Guard Cells
3) Collenchyma Cells
4) Sclerenchyma Cells
a) Fibers
b) Sclereids

1. Meristematic Cells:

 These are stem cell-like cells responsible for plant growth. Meristematic cells are
undifferentiated, meaning they don't have a specific function initially. They
divide to form various other plant cell types and can continue to divide
indefinitely, allowing the plant to grow.
 These cells are found at the tips of roots and shoots, where they help the plant
grow deeper into the soil and taller into the air [ giving rise to any plant cell
type].
 Small, undifferentiated cells with dense cytoplasm and large nuclei.
 Active cell division (mitosis).
 Absence of large vacuoles, and thin, flexible cell walls.
Ground Tissue
├── Parenchyma
├── Collenchyma
└── Sclerenchyma
├── Fibers
└── Sclereids
2. Parenchyma:
 Parenchyma cells are general-purpose cells involved in various functions,
including photosynthesis, energy and nutrient storage, and nutrient transport.
 They are thin-walled (due to the absence of a secondary wall deposition)
and remain alive at maturity) and come in different shapes to support their
diverse roles.
 In leaves, they form the mesophyll layers, where photosynthesis occurs,
while in roots and seeds, they store starch, fat, and water.
 Large central vacuole and plastids for storing nutrients or performing
photosynthesis.
 They occur in vascular bundles, leaves, and epidermis.
 Specialized Types:
a) Chlorenchyma Cells: Parenchyma cells involved in photosynthesis.
b) Guard Cells: Specialized for regulating stomatal opening and gas
exchange.

3. Collenchyma:
 Collenchyma cells provide flexible support to the plant.
 They have thickened cell walls [ lack a secondary cell wall, and alive at
maturity] and help maintain the plant's structural integrity, especially in
areas that experience bending, such as in celery. These cells allow the plant
to stretch and flex without breaking. Collenchyma cells are particularly
important in young plants and are replaced by sclerenchyma cells in mature,
woody plants.
 They differ, however, from parenchyma cells in having thicker primary cell
walls albeit the wall thickenings are irregular. Collenchyma cells are
typically found in the growing shoots and leaves where they provide
structural support.

4. Sclerenchyma:
 Sclerenchyma cells have thick cell walls[secondary walls and lignin
deposition] and are typically dead when fully developed. They provide
strong structural support to the plant by forming woody tissues, such as
those found in stems and trunks. These cells contain cellulose and lignin,
which make them difficult to break down. Sclerenchyma cells are found in
two forms:
a) Sclerenchyma fibers provide strength in plant stems and are used to
make materials like rope and fabric.
b) Sclereids are found in hard plant structures like nut shells and seed
coats, providing additional protection.

i. Ground Tissue

－ Ground tissue comprises much of the interior of a plant and helps in

metabolism, storage, and support. Depending on location and function, ground
tissues are made of three cell types:

1) Parenchyma:

 Made up of thin-walled cells, which can be spherical or elongated.

 Responsible for photosynthesis (in leaves), storage (in roots, stems, and
fruits), and nutrient transport.
 Mesophyll cells in leaves (for photosynthesis), parenchyma in roots (for
starch storage).
  They are the main component of young plant organs. They are found in
almost all cell types, such as in mesophyll cells, stem cortex, and pith,
and as a component of vascular tissues

2) Collenchyma:

 Cells with thickened walls, especially at the corners, providing

structural support.
 Provides flexible support to growing parts of the plant, like young
stems, petioles (leaf stalks), and leaves.
 Collenchyma cells in the stalks of celery or young stems.

3) Sclerenchyma:

 Cells with thickened walls that are often lignified (wood-like), making
them rigid and strong. Sclerenchyma cells can be either dead at maturity
or non-living.
 Provides structural support and rigidity to the plant, especially in
mature, non-growing parts.
 Fibers in wood and the hard shells of nuts or seeds.

ii. Vascular Tissue

－ It includes two types of conducting tissues: xylem and phloem.

1) Xylem:

 Composed of different cell types, including tracheids, vessel elements,

fibers, and parenchyma cells. The vessel elements are long and tubular,
with thick walls and lignin.
 Responsible for the transport of water and minerals from the roots to the
rest of the plant.
 Xylem tissue in the stems and roots of plants.
 Cells are dead at functional maturity, forming a vein-like structure for
efficient water transport.

2) Phloem:

 Made up of sieve tube elements, companion cells, fibers, and

parenchyma cells.
 Transports the products of photosynthesis (mainly sugars) from the
leaves to other parts of the plant for growth, storage, and energy.
 Phloem tissue in the stems, leaves, and roots.
 The cells are alive at functional maturity, which is crucial for sugar
transport.

Animal Cell
 An animal cell is the fundamental unit of all animal organisms. It is often
described as the basic building block of life. They are found in all living
organisms that are classified in the Kingdom Animalia.
 Animal cells can contain between 50 - 1000 lysosomes per cell and each
lysosome contains around 50 different digestive enzymes.
 Fully-grown humans have over 40 trillion animal cells
 Some stem cells, a specialised animal cell, are totipotent, meaning they can
become any type of other animal cell.
 The largest known animal cell is the ostrich egg, which can stretch over 5.1
inches across and weighs about 1.4 kilograms. This is in stark contrast to the
neuron in the human body, which is just 100 microns across.
 The shape of animal cells also varies, with some being flat, others oval or rod-
shaped. There are also more intriguing shapes such as curved, spherical, concave
 and rectangular. Most of the cells are microscopic in size and can only be seen
under the microscope.

Types of animal cell

Examples of common animal cells include:

1. Epithelial Cells
－ Epithelial cells form protective layers or linings on the surfaces of organs, body
cavities, and other structures. They are tightly packed cells that protect, secrete, absorb,
and excrete various substances. Epithelial cells are classified based on the number of
layers and the shape of the cells.

Types of Epithelial Cells

i. Squamous Epithelium
 These cells are flat and thin. They allow for the efficient exchange of
materials such as gases and nutrients.
 Found in areas where diffusion is important, such as the lungs (alveoli),
blood vessels (endothelium), and kidney (glomeruli).
 Primarily for diffusion, filtration, and protection.

ii. Cuboidal Epithelium

 These cells are cube-shaped, with roughly equal height, width, and depth.
They often have a centrally located nucleus.
 Found in glandular tissues (e.g., salivary glands, thyroid glands) and ducts
(e.g., kidney tubules).
 Primarily involved in secretion and absorption.

iii. Columnar Epithelium

 These cells are taller than they are wide, resembling columns. The nuclei are
usually located near the base of the cells.
 Found in the digestive tract (e.g., small intestine, stomach) and parts of the
respiratory system.
 Involved in secretion and absorption, and in some cases, they are ciliated
(with tiny hair-like structures) to move substances over the surface.

2. Muscle cells
－Myocyte, Myosatellite cells, Tendon cells, Cardiac muscle cells
 Muscle cells, commonly known as myocytes, are the cells that make up muscle
tissue.
 These cells are able to contract (get shorter) and relax (return to original length).
 Myocytes, muscle fibers or muscle cells are long tubular cells responsible for
moving an organism’s limbs and organs.
 Muscle cells in the human body can be either skeletal muscle cells, cardiac
muscle cells or smooth muscle cells

1) Cardiac cells
 Cardiac and skeletal myocytes are sometimes referred to as muscle
fibers due to their long and fibrous shape.
 Cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes are the muscle fiber that
comprises the myocardium, the middle muscular layer, of the Heart. It
control contractions of heart by generating electrical impulse [contract
and relax to pump blood around our bodies for our entire lives. They
never get tired].
2) Skeletal muscle cells
 Skeletal muscle is joined to bones. Its cells contract to make bones
move and joints bend.
 Skeletal muscle cells are the most common type of muscle cells and are
responsible for making general, conscious movements of the body.
3) Smooth muscle dells
  These are of three kinds, smooth muscle tissue found in internal linings
of organs, skeletal muscle tissue- assists in body development, and
cardiac muscle with covering tracked down in the heart.

 Smooth muscle cells make up thin sheets of muscle, such as the

stomach lining. They can also be arranged in bundles, or rings, like that
in the anus.
 Smooth muscle cells control subconscious movements of tissues such as
blood vessels, the uterus, and the stomach.
 They are also known as muscle fibers and perform contraction and
movement of muscles.

3. Nerve cells
－ Schwann cell, glial cells etc.
 Sensory tissues are composed of specialized nerve cells (neurons) that detect and
transmit sensory information throughout the body.
 In the central nervous system (CNS), these neurons are found in the brain and
spinal cord, processing incoming sensory signals.
 In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), sensory tissues make up the cranial and
spinal nerves, where sensory neurons transmit signals from sensory receptors
(like those in the skin, eyes, and ears) to the CNS. The main capacity of the
nerve tissues is to communicate and convey nerve driving forces in different
pieces of the body.
 Nerve cells transmit electrical signals in the nervous system. They are well
suited to their function because:
 They are thin, and can be more than one metre long in your spinal cord. This
means they can carry messages up and down the body over large distances
very quickly.
 Nerve cells have branched connections at each end. These join to other
nerve cells, allowing them to pass messages around the body.
 They have a fatty (myelin) sheath that surrounds them. The fatty sheath
increases the speed at which the message can travel.
 Nerve cells can be of three kinds: tactile neurons, engine neurons, and
interneurons.
 Nerve cells, also called neurons, are the main cells of the nervous system.
 The human brain alone has around 100 billion nerve cells. It is divided into
different parts as cell body, dendrites, and an axon.
 They are the message carriers of animal cells and deliver and receive signals
using dendrites and axons.
 Dendrites and axons are extensions from the cell that receive and export
signals to and from the cell, respectively.

4. Connective Tissue Cells

－ Connective tissue is one of the four primary tissue types in animals, and it provides
support, binds together, and protects tissues and organs in the body. It is composed of
various types of cells and an extracellular matrix made up of fibers and ground
substance. The cells of connective tissue perform specific roles depending on their type,
and they are categorized based on their function and location.

Types of Connective Tissue Cells

i. Fibroblasts
 Fibroblasts are the most common type of cell in connective tissue. They
are responsible for producing and maintaining the extracellular matrix
(ECM) by synthesizing collagen, elastin, and other fibers. These cells
also produce the ground substance, which provides structural support
and elasticity to connective tissue.
 Function:
 Secretion of ECM proteins (collagen, elastin).
 Fibroblasts are critical in the repair of damaged tissues.
  Found in most connective tissues, including skin, tendons, and
ligaments.

ii. Adipocytes (Fat Cells)

 Adipocytes are specialized for the storage of fat (lipids). They store
energy, insulate the body, and provide cushioning to organs.
 Function:
 Energy storage (as triglycerides).
 Helps maintain body temperature.
 Provides cushioning to organs and tissues.
 Found in adipose tissue, which is found beneath the skin, around
internal organs, and in bone marrow.

iii. Chondrocytes (Cartilage Cells)

 Chondrocytes are the cells found in cartilage. They produce and
maintain the cartilage matrix, which is rich in collagen and
proteoglycans.
 Function:
 Chondrocytes secrete components of the extracellular matrix to
maintain the structure and function of cartilage.
 Cartilage provides support in areas such as joints and the
respiratory system.
 Found in cartilage (e.g., articular cartilage of joints, tracheal rings,
and intervertebral discs).

iv. Osteocytes (Bone Cells)

 Osteocytes are mature bone cells that originate from osteoblasts. They
maintain the bone matrix and help in the process of bone remodeling.
 Function:
 Osteocytes help maintain bone tissue by exchanging nutrients and
waste through tiny channels (canaliculi).
 They regulate the activity of osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) and
osteoclasts (bone-resorbing cells).
 Found within bone tissue, specifically embedded in lacunae (spaces
within the bone matrix).

iv. Blood Cells

－ Blood is a type of connective tissue that consists of different types of
blood cells suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma.

a) Red Blood Cells (RBCs) / Erythrocytes

 These are the most abundant cells in the blood and are responsible
for oxygen transport. They have a biconcave shape that increases
their surface area for gas exchange.
 Function:
 Carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide
from the tissues to the lungs.
 Found in the blood vessels (circulating in the bloodstream).

b) White Blood Cells (WBCs) / Leukocytes

 WBCs are involved in the body's immune response. They protect
the body from pathogens and foreign invaders.
 Types: Include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils,
and basophils.
 Function:
 Combat infections, fight off diseases, and remove dead or
damaged cells.
 Found in blood vessels and tissues, especially in areas of
infection or inflammation.

c) Platelets / Thrombocytes
 Platelets are small, cell fragments that help with blood clotting.
  Function:
 Form blood clots to prevent excessive bleeding after an injury.
 Found in the blood vessels.

v. Macrophages
 Macrophages are large, specialized cells of the immune system that
engulf and digest pathogens, dead cells, and other debris.
 Function:
 Engulf and digest foreign particles, pathogens, and dead cells.
 Act as antigen-presenting cells that stimulate other immune cells.
 Found in almost all tissues but concentrated in areas such as the
liver (Kupffer cells), lungs (alveolar macrophages), and lymph
nodes.

Other Classifications of Connective Tissue

1) Loose Connective Tissue

 This type of tissue is characterized by a loose arrangement of fibers and
cells in the extracellular matrix. It serves as a filler and provides
structural support to organs and other tissues.
 Includes fibroblasts, collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and ground
substance.
 Function:
 Supports the internal organs.
 Allows tissues to stretch and move.
 Areolar tissue, adipose tissue.

2) Dense Connective Tissue

 This tissue has a higher concentration of collagen fibers, which makes it
stronger and less flexible than loose connective tissue.
 Includes fibroblasts and collagen fibers.
 Function:
 Provides tensile strength to tissues and organs.
 Tendons, ligaments.

3) Cartilage
 Cartilage is a flexible, semi-rigid connective tissue that provides
structural support and cushioning.
 Includes chondrocytes and a matrix made of collagen and
proteoglycans.
 Function:
 Support: Provides structural support to body parts like the ears,
nose, and joints.
 Types:
 Hyaline cartilage (e.g., articular cartilage).
 Fibrocartilage (e.g., intervertebral discs).
 Elastic cartilage (e.g., ear).

4) Bone
 Bone is a rigid connective tissue that provides structural support and
protection to the body.
 Includes osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts embedded in a matrix
of collagen and mineralized calcium phosphate.
 Function:
 Provides a rigid framework for the body.
 Protects internal organs like the brain and heart.
 Femur, humerus, vertebrae.

1. Skin cells
 Skin is the layer of normally delicate, adaptable external tissue covering the
body of a vertebrate creature, with three fundamental capacities: security,
guideline, and sensation.
  The animal cell that forms the epidermis is referred to as “skin cells.” These are
the Langerhans cells, Merkel cells, keratinocytes, and melanocytes.
 The cells can be squamous, columnar, or cuboidal in shape. It performs the
specific functions like protection, absorption, and secretion.
 The skin cells of animals mostly consist of keratinocytes and melanocytes –
‘cyte’ meaning cell.
 Keratinocytes make up around 90% of all skin cells and produce a protein
called ‘keratin’.
 The keratin in skin cells helps to make skin an effective layer of
protection for the body. Keratin also makes hair and nails.
 Melanocytes are the second main type of skin cell. They produce a
compound called ‘melanin’ which gives skin its color.
 Melanocytes sit underneath keratinocytes in a lower layer of skin cells and
the melanin they produce is transported up to the surface layers of cells.
 The more melanocytes you have in your skin, the darker your skin is.

2. Reproductive cells [Sex cells, also known as gametes]

－ Sperms and ovum.
－ In plants, the process of reproduction involves an alternation of generations
between the sporophyte and gametophyte phases. The diploid sporophyte produces
haploid spores, which develop into haploid gametophytes. The gametophyte generates
gametes—egg cells (female) and sperm cells (male). These haploid sex cells fuse to form
a diploid zygote, which then develops into a new sporophyte, continuing the reproductive
cycle.

I. Sperm cells
 Sperm are the male sex cell.
 They are made in the testes after puberty.
 They join with an egg cell during fertilisation to form an embryo which can
then develop into a new life.
 A tail moves them towards an egg cell.
 Many mitochondria release energy for movement.
 Part of the tip of the head of the sperm, called the acrosome, releases
enzymes to digest the egg membrane to allow fertilisation to take place.
 The haploid nucleus contains the genetic material for fertilisation.
 Sperm are produced in large numbers to increase the chance of fertilisation.

II. Egg cell

 Eggs are the female sex cell.
 They are made in the ovaries before birth.
 Usually, one egg is released each month during the menstrual cycle, but
sometimes this number may be higher.
 They join with a sperm cell during fertilisation to form an embryo
which can then develop into a new life.
 The egg cell’s cytoplasm contains nutrients for the growth of the early
embryo.
 The cell membrane changes after fertilisation by a single sperm so that no
more sperm can enter.

Animal tissue

 Animal tissues are classified into epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
tissues, each specialized for distinct functions.
 These tissues combine to form organs—like the skin or kidney—that have
specific, specialized functions within the body.
 Organs are organized into organ systems to perform functions;
 Examples include the circulatory system, which consists of the heart and blood
vessels, and the digestive system, consisting of several organs, including the
stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas. Organ systems come together to create
an entire organism.
Types of Animal Tissues

a) Epithelial Tissue [Protection]

b) Connective Tissue [Connection]
c) Muscular Tissue [Movement and Locomotion]
d) Nervous Tissue [Transmission of Signals]

1. Epi [above]thelial Tissue

 Epithelial tissues [closely-packed cells] cover the outside of organs and

structures in the body and line the lumens of organs in a single layer [flat
sheets]or multiple layers of cells.

Basement Membrane
 Cells resting on a thin, fibrous, supportive membrane like structure.
 Apart from supporting, helps to hold the cells together in a single line, to form a
uniform and coonsistent layer.

 The epithelium of the skin protects the underlying tissues from mechanical
damage, ultraviolet light, dehydration and invasion by bacteria
 The columnar epithelium of the intestine secretes digestive enzymes into the
intestine and absorbs the products of digestion from it.
 An epithelium also lines our air passages and the alveoli of the lungs. It
secretes mucus which keeps it from drying out and traps inhaled dust
particles. Most of its cells have cilia on their apical surface that propel the
mucus with its load of foreign matter back up to the throat.
 The tissues have the power to regenerate.
 These are held together by gap junctions, tight junctions, zonula adheren,
desmosomes, or interdigitation.
 The plasma membrane of these cells is specialized into flagella, cilia, and
microvilli.
 These tissues were the first to evolve during evolution and were first formed
during embryonic development. They develop from the ectoderm, mesoderm
and endoderm of the embryo.
 Skin as well as the lining of the mouth and nasal cavity. These are derived
from ectoderm.
 Inner lining of the GI tract, lungs, urinary bladder, exocrine glands, vagina
and more. These are derived from endoderm.
 The types of epithelia are classified by the shapes of cells present and the
number of layers of cells.
 Epithelia composed of a single layer of cells are called simple epithelia;
 Epithelial tissue composed of multiple layers is called stratified epithelia.
 The apical surface of these epithelial cells is exposed to the "external
environment", the lumen of the organ or the air.
 Mesothelia. These are derived from mesoderm.
 pleura — the outer covering of the lungs and the inner lining of the
thoracic (chest) cavity.
 peritoneum — the outer covering of all the abdominal organs and the
inner lining of the abdominal cavity.
 pericardium — the outer lining of the heart.
 Endothelia. These are derived from mesoderm. The inner lining of the
heart, all blood and lymphatic vessels.
 The basolateral surface of all epithelia is exposed to the internal environment -
extracellular fluid (ECF).
 The entire sheet of epithelial cells is attached to a layer of extracellular
matrix that is called the basement membrane or, better (because it is not a
membrane in the biological sense), the basal lamina.

Classification Function
 To perceive stimuli
Sensory epithelium

Glandular epithelium
Secretes chemicals

Imparts colour in retina

Pigmented epithelium

Absorptive epithelium
For absorption

1) Simple Epithelium
－ Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells and is specialized for absorption,
secretion, and filtration.

i. Simple Squamous Epithelium:

a) Also known as pavement epithelium.
b) Single, thin layer of flat cells.
c) Allows diffusion and filtration.
d) Lining of blood capillaries, alveoli of lungs, and glomeruli of kidneys.

i. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium:

a) Single layer of cube-shaped cells.

b) Invert folds.
c) Secretionof important substances in the body and absorption.
d) Glands, ducts, kidney tubules, and thyroid follicles. Skin.

ii. Simple Columnar Epithelium:

a) Single layer of tall, column-like cells, often with microvilli or cilia.

b) Absorption, secretion of mucus, and movement [cilia, to move the
immovable] of materials.
c) Digestive tract (non-ciliated), fallopian tubes, and bronchioles (ciliated).
d) Strength.

iii. Ciliated Columnar Epithelium (Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium):

a) Appears stratified but is a single layer with nuclei at varying levels; has cilia
and goblet cells.
b) Moves [Throw out the foreign particles in mucus, which enter the
respiratory tract] mucus and trapped particles.
c) Respiratory tract, including the trachea and bronchi. Fallopian tube, female
reproductive system [Helped to propel the ovum in the forward direction].
d) Some aggressive particles can went through this, therefore, cuboidal then
enter its role.

2) Stratified Epithelium:

i. Stratified Squamous

a. Multiple layers; top layers are flat, while deeper layers are cuboidal or
columnar.
b. Prevents wear and tear of the upper surface of the skin.
c. Skin (keratinized), mouth, esophagus, and vagina (non-keratinized).

ii. Stratified Cuboidal

a. Two or more layers of cube-shaped cells.

b. Protection and secretion.
c. Ducts of sweat glands, salivary glands, and mammary gland
 iii. Stratified Columnar

a. Multiple layers; surface layer is columnar, and deeper layers are cuboidal.
b. Protection and secretion.
c. Male urethra and ducts of some glands.

3) Glandular Epithelium

a. Composed of cells specialized in secretion.

b. Forms glands to produce and release substances like enzymes, hormones, and
mucus.
c. Endocrine glands (hormones) and exocrine glands (sweat, saliva).
d. Invert folds in cell context is gland cells, and in tissue, glandular epithelium.

4) Transitional Epithelium

a. Specialized stratified epithelium that transitions between thick and thin states.
b. Allows stretching and recoiling.
c. Urinary bladder, ureters, and part of the urethra.

2. Connective Tissue

－ Connective tissue supports, binds together, and provides structural and metabolic
support to other tissues and organs. It consists of specialized cells and an extracellular
matrix made of fibers and ground substance. Connective tissue is highly varied in
structure and function, classified into loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue,
cartilage, bone, and blood.

－ Connective tissues consist of living cells and a non-living matrix [secreted by cells]
called the ground substance, which is made up of protein (organic) and minerals or
water (inorganic). [It consists of protein fibers embedded in an amorphous mixture of
protein-polysaccharide ("proteoglycan") molecules.]

 The principal cell is the fibroblast, responsible for producing fibers and capable
of mitosis. Other cells like macrophages, lymphocytes, and leukocytes may also
be present.
 The matrix determines tissue density, influenced by the concentration of cells or
fibers.
 Supporting connective tissue gives strength, support, and protection to the soft
parts of the body.
 They attach organs and tissues together.
 They store fat in the form of adipose tissues.
 They help in repairing tissues.
 They prevent the organs from mechanical shocks.
 The organs also help in defence.

 Intercellular Matrix: It is made up of mucopolysaccharide, specifically

hyaluronic acid.
 Cells: The major cells include fibroblasts, adipocytes, plasma cells and mast
cells.
 Fibres: Connective tissues are made up of three types of fibres, namely,
collagen fibre, elastic fibre, reticular fibre.

 Collagen fibers provide strength and prevent tearing.

 Elastic fibers (made of elastin) offer flexibility, stretching up to 1.5 times
their length and returning to their original shape.
 Reticular fibers are thin collagen strands forming networks to support
tissues and organs.

Classification Function
 Provides support and protection to the body
Connective Tissue Proper

Vascular Tissue
Transport of materials in the body

Skeletal Tissue It supports the body and gives it proper shape and form

i. Loose Connective Tissue

－ Loose connective tissue provides flexibility and support, and it often acts as a
"filler" tissue between other tissues and organs.

－ Is a type of connective tissue with a mix of all connective tissue components.

 It contains fibroblasts, macrophages, collagen fibers (wide, light pink), and

elastic fibers (thin, dark blue/black).
 The matrix fills the spaces, giving the tissue a loose, cotton ball-like
consistency.
 Found around blood vessels to secure them in place.
 Present around and between most body organs.
 Tough yet flexible, forming part of membranes.
 Loose connective tissue is distributed throughout the body. It serves as a
packing and binding material for most of our organs. Sheets of loose
connective tissue that bind muscles and other structures together are called
fascia. Collagen, elastin, and other proteins are found in the matrix of loose
connective tissue. Both dense and loose connective tissue are derived from
cells called fibroblasts, which secrete the extracellular matrix.

a) Areolar Tissue

 Areolar tissue is the most widespread type of loose connective tissue,

consisting of a loose arrangement of collagen and elastic fibers along
with a variety of cells, including fibroblasts.
 Provides elasticity, flexibility, and support to nearby tissues. It plays a
key Found beneath the epithelial layers and surrounding blood vessels
and nerves.

b) Adipose Tissue

 Adipose tissue is composed of specialized cells called adipocytes,

which store fat.
 Serves as an energy reservoir, insulates the body, and cushions organs.
 Found under the skin, around internal organs (visceral fat), and in bone
marrow.

Adipose Tissue (Fat Tissue)

－ Is considered a type of connective tissue, even though it lacks fibroblasts and a true
matrix, and contains few fibers.

 There are two kinds found in mammals: white adipose tissue (WAT) and
brown adipose tissue (BAT).

 The WAT in which the cells, called adipocytes, have become almost filled
with oil, which is confined within a single membrane-enclosed droplet. As
well as many mitochondria.
 It consists primarily of adipocytes, cells that store fat in the form of
triglycerides for energy metabolism.
  Virtually all of the "fat" in adult humans is white adipose tissue

 Adipose tissue helps to maintain body temperature, enabling animals to be

endothermic (able to regulate their body temperature).
 It acts as a cushion, protecting internal organs from physical damage.

 Under a microscope, adipose tissue cells appear empty because the fat is
extracted during preparation for viewing. The cell membranes are represented
by thin lines, and the nuclei appear as small, dark dots at the edges of the cells.

c) Reticular Tissue

 Composed of a network of reticular fibers and reticular cells that

support the structure of soft organs.
 Forms a supportive framework for organs like the liver, spleen, and
lymph nodes.
 Found in the liver, spleen, bone marrow, and lymphoid organs.

ii. Dense Connective Tissue

－ Dense connective tissue has a high density of collagen fibers that provide tensile
strength and durability.

a) Tendons

 Tendons are tough bands of fibrous tissue that attach muscles to bones.
 Transmit the force generated by muscle contraction to the bones,
enabling movement.
 Found connecting muscles to bones.

b) Ligaments

 Ligaments are similar to tendons but primarily connect bones to other

bones at joints.
 Stabilize joints and allow movement within a specific range.
 Found at joints throughout the body.

iii. Cartilage

－ Cartilage is a flexible, semi-rigid tissue that provides support and elasticity.

a) Hyaline Cartilage

 Hyaline cartilage is the most common type of cartilage, with a smooth,

glassy appearance and a matrix rich in collagen fibers.
 Provides support with some flexibility, reduces friction between bones.
 Found in the nose, trachea, larynx, and articular cartilage of joints.

b) Elastic Cartilage

 Contains abundant elastic fibers, allowing it to return to its original

shape after deformation.
 Provides flexible support.
 Found in the external ear (auricle) and epiglottis.

c) Fibrocartilage

 Contains dense bundles of collagen fibers, making it highly durable and

capable of resisting tension.
 Provides strength and absorbs compressive forces.
 Found in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and menisci of the
knee.
 iv. Bone (Osseous Tissue)

－ Bone is a hard, mineralized connective tissue that provides structural support,

protection for organs, and facilitates movement.

a) Compact Bone

 Compact bone is dense and forms the outer layer of bones. It consists of
osteons (Haversian systems) that house blood vessels and nerves.
 Provides strength, support, and protection to internal organs and
structures.
 Found in the outer layer of bones such as the femur and humerus.

1) Bone (Osseous Tissue)

－ Is a connective tissue composed of two distinct types of matrix material: an organic

matrix and an inorganic matrix.

a) Organic Matrix: Contains collagen and elastic fibers, providing strength and
flexibility.
b) Inorganic Matrix: Composed mainly of calcium salts, which give the tissue its
hardness. Adequate organic material prevents breakage, while adequate inorganic
material prevents bending.

Bone Cells

 Osteoblasts: Involved in bone formation during growth and remodeling by

depositing bone material into the matrix. Once surrounded by the matrix,
osteoblasts become osteocytes.
 Osteocytes: Mature bone cells located in lacunae, maintaining bone tissue.
 Osteoclasts: Break down bone tissue during remodeling and release calcium
stored in the bone.

Types of Bone:

 Compact Bone: Found in the shaft (diaphysis) of long bones and the outer
surface of flat bones. Organized into osteons, each consisting of a Haversian
canal with a blood vessel and nerve at its center, surrounded by lamellae
(concentric rings of lacunae). Canaliculi are microchannels connecting lacunae
for cell diffusion.
 Spongy Bone: Found at the ends (epiphysis) of long bones. Made up of
trabeculae (tiny plates), which provide strength but can break over time, reducing
bone resilience.

 Bone tissue forms the internal skeleton of vertebrates, providing structural support
and serving as attachment points for tendons.

v. Blood (Liquid Connective Tissue)

－ Blood is a liquid connective tissue involved in transporting oxygen, nutrients,

hormones, and waste products.

－ Is classified as a connective tissue due to its matrix, which is the plasma (the fluid
portion of blood). The living components of blood include red blood cells (RBCs),
white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets. Here's a breakdown of the key components and
their functions:

 Delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells and removes waste.

 Protects the body from infections and foreign invaders.
 Helps regulate body temperature and fluid balance.

a) Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells - RBCs)

  RBCs are biconcave, anucleate cells responsible for oxygen transport.
 Transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carry carbon dioxide
back to the lungs.
 Found in the blood vessels.
 RBCs are the most numerous blood cells. In primates, there are 4.7 to
5.5 million RBCs per microliter of blood.
 They lack nuclei and mitochondria in mammals but retain them in
fish, amphibians, and birds.
 Varies by species (e.g., 7.5 µl in primates, 4.6 µl in sheep).

b) Leukocytes (White Blood Cells - WBCs)

 WBCs are involved in immune defense and pathogen elimination.

 Types: Include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils,
and basophils.

 Types:

1. Lymphocytes: Play a key role in the immune system by making antibodies

and controlling antibody production.
2. Neutrophils: Phagocytic cells that defend against bacterial infections.
3. Monocytes: Develop into macrophages to clear dead or damaged cells.
4. Eosinophils and Basophils: Facilitate inflammation and allergic
responses.

 Defense against infection and diseases.

 Found in blood and lymphatic tissue.

c) Platelets

 Platelets are cell fragments that assist in blood clotting.

 Prevent bleeding by forming blood clots in response to injury.
 Found in blood vessels.

d) Plasma (Matrix of Blood)

 Plasma is the pale-yellow component of blood that allows the rest of the
components of blood to float in suspension. It makes up about 55% of
total blood volume. It contains dissolved proteins, hormones, urea and
carbon dioxide. Its main functions are to transport nutrients, cells and
metabolic waste products and maintain blood volume.

3. Muscle Tissue

－ Muscle tissue is responsible for contraction and movement in the body. It is

classified into three types based on structure and function.

i. Skeletal Muscle Tissue

 Composed of spindle-shaped cells that are non-striated.

 Absent, as the actin and myosin filaments are not arranged in a regular
pattern like in skeletal or cardiac muscle.
 Function:
 Responsible for involuntary movements such as constriction and
relaxation in hollow organs and blood vessels.
 Involved in functions like regulating blood flow, digestion, and other
autonomic processes.
 Found in the walls of hollow structures such as the intestine, urinary
bladder, uterus, and blood vessels.
 Single, centrally located nucleus in each cell.
 Controlled by the autonomic nervous system, making it involuntary (cannot
be consciously controlled).
  Smooth muscle does not present the regular bending patterns seen in striated
muscle types, allowing for gradual, sustained contractions.

ii. Cardiac Muscle Tissue

 Striated, branched, and connected by intercalated discs.

 Present due to the specific arrangement of actin and myosin filaments,
similar to skeletal muscle.
 Function:
 Responsible for the involuntary contraction of the heart to pump blood
throughout the body.
 Contractions are rhythmic and coordinated to ensure continuous blood
flow.
 Found only in the heart.
 Single, centrally located nucleus in each cell.
 Intercalated Discs: Specialized junctions that:
 Facilitate the transmission of electrical impulses between cardiac cells.
 Allow for the synchronization of heart muscle contractions, ensuring
efficient pumping.

iii. Smooth Muscle Tissue

 Spindle-shaped and non-striated.

 Single, centrally located nucleus.
 Function:
 Responsible for involuntary movements in the walls of hollow organs.
 Reduces the size of hollow organs such as blood vessels, the digestive
tract, and the bladder.
 Influenced by the autonomic nervous system, which can adjust the
speed of contraction (can either speed up or slow down).
 Found in the walls of internal organs, including the stomach, intestines, and
blood vessels.

4. Nervous Tissue

－ Nervous tissue is responsible for receiving, transmitting, and processing electrical

impulses in the body. It is composed of specialized cells called neurons and supporting
cells called neuroglia.

 It is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

 Nervous tissue controls and coordinates activities of the body and is responsible
for sensory reception, motor function, and higher-level brain functions.

i. Neurons

 Neurons are specialized cells that transmit electrical signals throughout

the body.
 Neurons consist of a cell body, axon (which transmits signals away
from the cell body), and dendrites (which receive signals).
 Transmit electrical impulses that carry information to and from the
brain and spinal cord.
 Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

 Cell Body (Soma): The central part of the neuron containing the
nucleus and organelles.
 Dendrites: Branch-like projections that receive signals from
other neurons or sensory receptors.
 Axon: A long, singular projection that transmits electrical
impulses away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or
glands.
  The tips of axons meet other neurons at junctions called
synapses, muscles (called neuromuscular junctions) and
glands.

I. Sensory neurons are responsible for sending information about the

environment (called stimuli) to the central nervous system. They are
activated by touch, light, temperature, pressure, hearing etc. Sensory
nerve cells (or sensory neurons) carry impulses (electrical signals) from
a receptor to the central nervous system (CNS).
II. These [motor] neurons are very short compared to the sensory and
motor neurons. The connectors or interneurons connect a sensory
neuron with a motor neuron. The impulse travels from the cell body at
the head end along the short axon to the dendrites.
III. [Interneurons] Motor neurons carry impulses from the CNS to muscles
or glands. In most cases the motor neuron causes muscle contraction
(movement), but motor neurons can also cause secretion of substances
by glands. The motor neuron causes a response via chemicals known as
neurotransmitters.

ii. Neuroglia (Supporting Cells)

 Neuroglial cells support, protect, and nourish neurons. They do not

transmit electrical signals but are essential for neuronal health and
function.
 Types: Include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and Schwann
cells.
 Function:
 Astrocytes: Provide support and nutrition to neurons.
 Oligodendrocytes: Form myelin in the central nervous system
(CNS).
 Microglia: Act as the immune cells of the CNS.
 Schwann Cells: Form myelin in the peripheral nervous system
(PNS).

 Neurosecretory Cells – These function as endocrine organs. They release

chemical from the axons direcly into blood.

 In addition, the central nervous system contains many microglia — mobile cells
(macrophages) that respond to damage (e.g., from an infection) by engulfing cell
debris and secreting inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α)
and interleukin-1 (IL-1). Microglia are also active in the healthy brain, at least in
young mice where, like astrocytes, they engulf synapses thus reducing the
number of synapses in the developing brain.
 Nervous tissue as a whole forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, enabling
the body to sense stimuli, process information, and coordinate responses.

Fibrous Connective Tissue

 Dense connective tissue

 This contains abundant collagen fibers and minimal cells or matrix. The fibers
can be arranged in two ways:

 Irregular Arrangement: Fibers are oriented randomly, allowing the tissue

to withstand stress from multiple directions. Example: Dermis of the skin.
 Regular Arrangement: Fibers are aligned in parallel, providing strength in
one direction. Examples: Tendons (connect muscles to bones) and
Ligaments (connect bones to bones).
 The matrix is principally Type I collagen, and the fibers are all oriented
parallel to each other. Tendons are strong but not elastic.

 Ligaments attach one bone to another and contain both collagen and
also the protein elastin.
  Elastin permits ligaments to be stretched.

 Cartilage is a connective tissue made up of a large amount of matrix

and varying fiber content. The cells in cartilage are called
chondrocytes, which are found in spaces called lacunae.

Biological Organization:

 Cell
 Tissues
 Organs
 Organ Systems
 Organism

+ When molecules group together, the formed a cell.

CELL MODIFICATION

－ Are specialized or modifications re-acquired by the cell after cell division that helps
the cell in different beneficial ways.

－ Cell specialization (or modification or differentiation) is actually a process that occurs

after cell division where the newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they can
perform their function efficiently and effectively.

－ Cell modification is features or structure of the cell that makes it different from another
type of cell and at the same time enables it to carry out unusual functions.

Kinds of Cell Modification

 Apical Modification (top)

 Basal Modification (bottom)
 Lateral Modification (sides)

Apical Modification

 Microvilli
 Cilia
 Stereocilia
 Flagella

Cilia

 Cilia are usually short, hair-like structures that move in waves.

 A cilium, or cilia (plural), are small hair-like protuberances on the outside of
eukaryotic cells.
 They are primarily responsible for locomotions, either of the cell itself or of fluids on
the cell surface. They are also involved in [Link] even a class of
microorganisms named for these small structures.
 Ciliates are protozoans that possess cilia which they use for both locomotion and
feeding.
  Cilia can be grouped into two categories. First, there are motile cilia, which are
always moving in a single direction. They help the cell move aournd in he
cellular fluids and help move fluids past the cell. Motile cilia are found together
on cells and coordinate their movements to be most effective, making up for
their small size.
 The second type of cilia is non-motile cilia, and these are responsible for sensing
the surrounding environment. They are also called primary cilia. Whereas motile
cilia are found in groups on cells, each cell usually has just one non-motile
cilium.
 A cilium is made up of microtubules coated in plasma membrane.
 The microtubules are small hollow rods made of the protein tubulin. Each cilium
contains nine pairs of microtubules forming the outside of a ring, and two central
microtubules.
 Cilia attach to the cell at a basal body. The basal body is made up of microtubules
arranged as nine tiplets. The triplets are formed as the doublets from the cilia are
joined by an additional microtubule form the cell, The two central microtubules end
before entering the basal body.
 Cilia are very small structures measuring approximately 0.25 µm in diameter and up
to 20 µm in length. Where present they are found in large numbers on the cell
surface. The cilia act like oars, beating back and forth to create movement.
 Cilia play an important role in locomotion. This can include movement of the cell
itself, or of other substances and objects past the cell
 In some organisms known as ciliates, cilia are responsible for movement of the
organism as a whole. For example, in the unicellular protist Paramecium, cilia cover
the surface of the organism and are responsible for movement as well as feeding. In
addition to covering the outside of the organism, cilia also line the oral groove,
moving food into the organism's "mouth".
 Cilia can help to remove contaminants from organs or tissue by helping to move
fluids over the cell. The lining of the nasopharynx and the trachea are covered in
cilia. These ciliated epithelial cells remove mucus, bacteria, and other debris from the
lungs.

Stereocilia

 Stereocilia are non-motile apical modifications of the cell, which are distinct
from cilia and microvilli, but closely related to the latter.
 Long microvilli that function in increasing absorption.
 Found in sensory cells in ear and male reproductive tract.
 Does not have the true characteristic of true cilia or flagella.
 Stereocilia are the mechanosensing organelles of hair cells, which respond to
fluid motion in numerous types of animals for various functions, including
hearing and balance. They are about 10-50 micrometers in length and share
some similar features of microvilli. The hair cells turn the fluid pressure and
other mechanical stimuli into electric stimuli via the many microvilli that make
up stereocilia rods. Stereocilia exist in the auditory and vestibular systems.
 The stereocilia are located in the otolithic organs and the semicircular canals.
Hair cells in the vestibular system are slightly different from those in the
auditory system, in that vestibular hair cells have one tallest cilium, termed the
kinocilium.
 The stereocilia of the epididymis are long cytoplasmic projections that have an
actin filament backbone. These filaments have been visualized at high resolution
using fluorescent phalloidin that binds to actin filaments. The stereocilia in the
epididymis are non-motile. These membrane extensions increase the surface area
of the cell, allowing for greater absorption and secretion. It has been shown that
epithelial sodium channel that allows the flow of Na ions into the cell is
localized on stereocilia.

Flagella

 Flagella are long whiplike structures.

 Formed from microtubules.
 A flagellum is a microscopic hair-like organelle used by cells and microorganisms
for movement.
 The word flagellum in Latin means whip, just like the whipping motion flagella
(plural) often use for locomotion.
 Specialized flagella in some organisms are also used as sensory organelles that can
detect changes in temperature and pH.
 A flagellum can be comprised of different structures depending on the organism,
especially when flagellum from eukaryotes and bacteria are compared. Since
eukaryotes are usually complex organisms, the attached flagellum is more complex
as well. The flagellum is made up of microtubules composed from a protein called
tubulin.
 Eukaryotes have true flagellum, almost half the human population produces cells
with them in the form of sperm.
 This is the only cell in the human body with flagellum, and for good reason. In order
to move through the vaginal tract to meet the egg, sperm must be able to swim, or
move, very long distances (in comparison of cell to body size). Without the
flagellum, there would be very little chance of fertilization or population stability.
 The flagellar structure consists of three different parts: rings embedded in the basal
body, a hook near the surface of the organism to keep it in place, and the flagellar
protein filaments. Every flagellum has these three things in common, regardless of
organism. However, there are four distinct types of bacterial flagellum based on
location:
 A. Monotrichous: A single flagellum at one end of the organism or the other.
 B. Lophotrichous: Several flagellum on one end of the organism or the other.
 C. Amphitrichous: A single flagellum on both ends of the organism.
 D. Peritrichous: Several flagellum attached all over the organism.
 Monotrichous, amphitrichous, and lophotrichous flagellum are considered polar
flagellum because the flagellum is strictly located on the ends of the organism.
These flagella can rotate both clockwise and counterclockwise. A clockwise
movement propels the organism (or cell) forward, while a counterclockwise
movement pulls the organism backwards.
 Peritrichous flagella are not considered polar because they are located all over
the organism. When these flagella rotate in a counterclockwise movement, they
form a bundle that propels the organism in one direction. If a few of the
flagellum break away and begin rotating clockwise, the organism then begins a
tumbling motion. During this time, the organism cannot move in any real
direction.
 If any flagellum stops rotating-regardless of polarity-the organism will change
direction. This is caused by Brownian motion (constant movement of liquid
particles) and fluid currents catching up with the organism and spinning it around.
Some organisms that cannot change direction on their own rely on Brownian motion
and fluid currents to do it for them.
 Flagella are filamentous protein structures found in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes,
though they are most commonly found in bacteria.
 They are typically used to propel a cell through liquid (i.e. bacteria and sperm).
Flagella have many other specialized functions. Some eukaryotic cells use flagellum
to increase reproduction rates.
 Other eukaryotic and bacterial flagella are used to sense changes in the environment,
such as temperature or pH disturbances.
 Flagella may also be used as a secretory organelle according to the recent work of the
green alga Chlamydomonas Reinhardtii.
 Stereocilia (along with the entirety of the hair cell) in mammals can be damaged or
destroyed by excessive loud noises, disease, and toxins and are not regenerable.
 Abnormal structure/organization of a bundle of stereocilia can also cause deafness
and in turn create balance problems for an individual. In other vertebrates, if the hair
cell is harmed, supporting cells will divide and replace the damaged hair cells.

Villi

 Villi are finger-like projections that arise from the epithelial layer in some organs.
They help to increase surface are allowing for faster and more efficient absorption.
 Microvilli

 Microvilli are smaller projections that arise from the cell's surface that also
increase surface area allowing faster and more efficient absorption.
 Microvilli are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the
surface area for diffusion and minimize any increase in volume, and are
involved in a wide variety of functions, including absorption, secretion,
cellular adhesion, and mechanostransduction.
 Microvilli, in most simplistic terms, are tiny little projections that exist in,
on, and around cells.
 The tissue has small fingerlike extensions called villi which are collections
of cells, and those cells have many microvillu to further increase the
available surface area for the digestion process.
 Microvilli are covered in plasma membrane, which encloses cytoplasm and
microfilaments. Though these are cellular extensions, there are little or no
cellular organelles present in the microvilli.
 Thousands of microvilli form a structure called the brush border that is
found on the apical surface of some epithelial cells, such as the small
intestines.
 Microvilli should not be confused with intestinal villi, which are made of
many cells. Each of these cells has many.
 Microvilli are most often found in the small intestines, on the surface of egg
cells, as well as on white blood cells.
 In the intestine, they work in conjunction with villi to absorb more nutrients
and more material because they expand the surface area of the intestine.
 They also play a role in egg cells as they help in anchoring the sperm to the
egg, thus allowing for easier fertilization. In white blood cells, the microvilli
again act as an anchoring point.
 Microvilli are extremely important because they increase the surface are of
the cell that they are found on.
 Microvilli as the primary surface of nutrient absorption in the
gastrointestinal tract. Because of this vital function, the microvillar
membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex
nutrients into simpler compounds that are more easily absorbed. For
example, enzymes that digest carbohydrates called glycosidases are present
at high concentrations on the surface of enterocyte microvilli. This,
microvilli not only increase the cellular surface area for absorption, they
also increase the number of digestive enzymes that can be present on the cell
surface.

Pseudopods

 Temporary, irregular lobes formed by amoebas and some other eukaryotic cells.
 Bulge outward to move the cell or engulf prey.

Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM)

 Compound secretes by the cell on its apical surface.

 Cell wall is the extracellular structure in plant cells that distinguishes them from
animal cells.
 Glycoprotein is the main ingredient of ECM in animal cells.

Basal Modification

－ Cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell.

BASAL MODIFICATION
  Basal Infoldings
 Hemidesmosome

Basal Infoldings

 Often found in epithelium that are known to transport fluid (kidney).

 Will often see mitochondria in the basal infoldings; suggests that active transport is
occurring.
 Very important in epithelial polarization and stability.
 Support the epithelium and also functions as a passive molecular sieve or ultra filter.
 Infoldings of the basolateral region of the plasma membrane are commonly found in
cells engaged in active transport of fluids and ions. These infoldings increase the
surface area available for transport.
 The infoldings of the plasma membrane which surround individual mitochondria;
this portion of the membrane is involved in energy- intensive ion exchange, part of
the kidney filtration process.
 If basal lamina is destroyed (trauma, infections, burns), the epithelium will not be
repaired but substituted with a scar (connective tissue).

Hemidesmosomes

 Anchoring junction on the basal surface of the cell.

 Rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix components such as
the basal lamina that underlie epithelia.
 Primarily composed of keratin, integrins and cadherins.
 Hemidesmosomes are very small stud-like structures found in keratinocytes of the
epidermis of skin that attach to the extracellular matrix.
 Hemidesmosomes are found in epithelial cells connecting the basal epithelial cells to
the lamina lucida, which is part of the basal lamina.
 Protein filaments interlock with filaments of the adjacent cell which forms a dense
intermediate line between the cells.
 Found beneath the zonula adherens.
 Cytoplasmic face is connected to microfilaments extending into the cytoplasm

Lateral Modification

－ Cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell.

LATERAL MODIFICATION

 Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens)

 Adhering Junctions (Zonula Adherens)
 Gap Junctions
 Desmosome (Macula Adherens)

Tight Junction
 Act as barriers that regulate the movement of water and solutes between epithelial
layers.
 Prevent leakage of ECF.
 Tight junctions are areas where the membranes of two adjacent cells join together to
form a barrier.
 The cell membranes are connected by strands of transmembrane proteins such as
claudins and occludins.
 Tight junctions bind cells together, prevent molecules from passing in between the
cells, and also help to maintain the polarity of cells.
 They are only found in vertebrates, animals with a backbone and skeleton;
invertebrates have septate junctions instead.
 Tight junctions have several different functions. Their most important functions
are to help cells form a barrier that prevents molecules from getting through, and
to stop proteins in the cell membrane from moving around.
 Tight junctions are often found at epithelial cells, which are cells that line
the surface of the body and line body cavities. Not only do epithelial cells
separate the body from the surrounding environment, they also separate
surfaces within the body. Therefore, it is very important that the
permeability of molecules through layers of epithelial cells is tightly
controlled.
 If molecules are blocked by tight junctions and physically unable to pass
through the space in between cells, they must enter through other methods
that involve entering the cells themselves. They could pass through special
proteins in the cell membrane, or be engulfed by the cell through
endocytosis. Using these methods, the cell has greater control over what
materials it takes in and allows to pass through.
 Another function of tight junctions is simply to hold cells together. The
branching protein strands of tight junctions link adjacent cells together
tightly so that they form a sheet. These strands are anchored to
microfilaments, part of the cell's cytoskeleton that is made up of long
strands of actin proteins.
 Microfilaments are located inside the cell, so the combination of microfilaments and
sealing strands anchors the cells together from the inside and the outside.
 Tight junctions are a branching network of protein strands on the surface of a cell
that link with each other throughout the surface of the membrane.
 The strands are formed by transmembrane proteins on the surfaces of the cell
membranes that are adjacent to each other.
 There are around 40 different proteins at tight junctions. These proteins can be
grouped into four main types.
 Transmembrane proteins are wedged in the middle of the cell membrane and are
responsible for adhesion and permeability. Scaffolding proteins organize
transmembrane proteins.
 Signaling proteins are responsible for forming the tight junction and regulating the
barrier. Regulation proteins regulate what proteins are brought to the cell membrane
in vesicles.
 Claudins and occludins are the two main types of proteins present at tight
junctions, and they are both transmembrane proteins.
 Claudins are important in forming tight junctions, while occludins play more
of a role in keeping the tight junction stable and maintaining the barrier
between cells that keeps unwanted molecules out.

Adhering Junction

 Anchoring junction on the lateral surface of the cell.

 Very similar to the anchoring junction of the basal surface of the cell.
 Fasten cells to one another.
 The Adherens junction and Tight junction provide important adhesive contacts
between neighboring epithelial cells.
 Although these junctions comprise different proteins, there are similarities in the
roles of specialized transmembrane proteins in forming extracellular adhesive
contacts between cells, and intracellular links to the actin cytoskeleton and signaling
pathways including the regulation of gene transcription.
 Adherens junctions are protein complexes that occur at cell-cell junctions in
epithelial and endothelial tissues usually more basal than tight junctions.
 They can appear as bands encircling the cell (zonula adherens) or as spots of
attachment to the extracellular matrix (adhesion plaques). Adherens junctions
uniquely disassemble in uterine epithelial cells to allow the blastocyst to
penetrate between epithelial cells.
Gap Junction

 Also known as communicating junctions.

 Closable channels that connect the cytoplasm of adjoining animal cells.
 Presence of connexon that allow direct exchange of chemicals between the
cytoplasm of two cells.
 Gap junctions are a type of cell junction in which adjacent cells are connected
through protein channels.
 These channels connect the cytoplasm of each cell and allow molecules, ions, and
electrical signals to pass between them. Gap junctions are found in between the vast
majority of cells within the body because they are found between all cells that are
directly touching other cells.
 Exceptions include cells that move around and do not usually come into close contact
with other cells, such as sperm cells and red blood cells. Gap junctions are only
found in animal cells; plant cells are connected by channels called plasmodesmata
instead.
 The main function of gap junctions is to connect cells together so that molecules may
pass from one cell to the other. This allows for cell-to- cell communication, and
makes it so that molecules can directly enter neighboring cells without having to go
through the extracellular fluid surrounding the cells.
 Gap junctions are especially important during embryonic development, a time when
neighboring cells must communicate with each other in order for them to develop in
the right place at the right time. If gap junctions are blocked, embryos cannot
develop normally.
 Gap junctions make cells chemically or electrically coupled. This means that the
cells are linked together and can transfer molecules to each other for use in reactions.
 Electrical coupling occurs in the heart, where cells receive the signal to contract the
heart muscle at the same time through gap junctions.
 It also occurs in neurons, which can be connected to each other by electrical synapses
in addition to the well-known chemical synapses that neurotransmitters are released
from.
 When a cell starts to die from disease or injury, it sends out signals through its gap
junctions. These signals can cause nearby cells to die even if they are not diseased or
injured. This is called the "bystander effect", since the nearby cells are innocent
bystanders that become victims.
 In vertebrate cells, gap junctions are made up of connexin proteins. (The cells of
invertebrates have gap junctions that are composed of innexin proteins, which are not
related to connexin proteins but perform a similar function.)
 Groups of six connexins form a connexon, and two connexons are put together to
form a channel that molecules can pass through.
 Other channels in gap junctions are made up of pannexin proteins. Relatively less is
known about pannexins; they were originally thought only to form channels within a
cell, not between cells.
 Hundreds of channels are found together at the site of a gap junction in what is
known as a gap junction plaque. A plaque is a mass of proteins.

Desmosomes

 Desmosomes are a type of anchoring junction in animal tissues that connect adjacent
cells.
 Anchoring junctions are button-like spots found all around cells that bind adjacent
cells together.
 Desmosomes have intermediate filaments in the cells underneath that help
anchor the junction, while the other type of anchoring junction, an adherens
junction, is anchored by microfilaments.
 Intermediate filaments and microfilaments are two different components of
a cell's cytoskeleton.
 The function of desmosomes is to adhere cells together.
 They are found in high numbers in tissues that are subject to a lot of mechanical
forces.
 For example, many are found in the epidermis, which is the outer layer of skin, and
the myocardium, which is muscle tissue in the heart.
 They are also found in between squamous epithelial cells, which form the lining of
body parts like the heart, blood vessels, air sacs of the lungs, and esophagus.
 There are three components in desmosomal adhesion: the intermediate filaments
inside the cell, the bond between intermediate filaments and desmosomal
adhesion molecules, and the bond provided by the desmosomal adhesion
molecules.
 The intermediate filaments and their link to the desmosomal adhesion
molecules are both located inside the cell, while the bonds of the
desmosomal adhesion molecules themselves are on the outside of the cell
 Specifically, desmoglein and desmocollin are the two proteins that bind cells at
desmosomes.
 They are transmembrane proteins and are both members of the cadherin family
of proteins.
 All three components of desmosomal adhesion are necessary for desmosomes to
properly function in binding adjacent cells together, so if one of the components
fails, the desmosomes cannot bind cells properly.

Specialized Modification

 Nerve cells, or neurons are very specialized cells of the nervous system. Since an
electrical signal needs to travel relatively long distances to parts of the body, nerve
cells have specialized structures called dendrites, which receive an electrical signal
from another neuron, and axons, which transmit an electrical signal to another person
 Muscle cells are made up primarily of a pair of special proteins called actin and
myosin which allows the muscle to contract.
 Red blood cells are anucleate, and thus are produced from bone marrow, but contain
large amounts of hemoglobin to transport oxygen throughout the body.
 Sperm cells are haploid and contain flagellum in order to swim through the vagina.
 Plant cells have large amounts of the organelle chloroplast, which allows the cell to
undergo photosynthesis. Plant cells are also covered by a cell wall.