Reproduction Biology Notes
What is asexual reproduction?
It is the process resulting in the production of genetically
identical offspring from one parent
Types of Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction in fungi
o In asexual reproduction, fungi produce haploid spores
o These are dispersed by air currents, and they grow
new hyphae if they reach a suitable location
o The hyphae develops into a mycelium
o (eg: penicillium and mucor)
Asexual reproduction in flowering plants
o Vegetative propagation
Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual
Reproduction
Advantages Disadvantages
There is no need to find mate, It results in less variation thus
thus it is fast inhibiting natural selection
Helpful traits are passed down Harmful genes are transferred
Do not need to carry offspring Overcrowding and competition
for resources
Prone to extinction
What is Sexual Reproduction?
The process involving the fusion of gametes (sex cells) to
form a zygote and the production of offspring that are
genetically different from each other.
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Pollination: Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an
anther to a stigma
Parts of Flowers:
Sepal: A leaf-like structure on the outside of a flower, which
protects the flower while in bud
Stamen: The male reproductive part of a flower, made up of the
anther and filament
Pollen: Contains the male sex cell of a flowering plant. The sex
cell is haploid
Carpel: The female reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of
a stigma, style and ovary
Petal: Part of a flower. Often large and brightly coloured to
attract insects
Stigma: A sticky surface at the top of the carpel of a flower that
receives pollen during pollination
Filament: Slender stalk which supports the anther of a flower
Anther: Contains pollen sacs in which pollen grains are formed
Style: Part of the carpel of a flower that links the stigma to the
ovary. Pollen tubes grow through it
Ovary: Part of the reproductive system of a flowering plant,
where ovules are produced. After fertilisation, it becomes a fruit
Ovule: Contains a haploid nucleus, which develops into a seed
when fertilised
Nectar: produced by nectaries to attract insects
Adaptation of Wind and Insect pollinated flowers
Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated
Bright, colourful petals Dull petals
Sweetly scented No scent
Contains nectar No nectaries
Moderate amount of pollen Large amounts of pollen
Pollen is spiky and sticky Pollen is smooth and round
Anther and Stigma inside the Anther and stigma hang out
flower of the flower
Sticky stigma Feathery stigma
Self-Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of
a flower to the stigma of the same flower, or a different flower
on the same plant
Cross-Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a
flower to the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same
species
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cross and Self Pollination
Self-Pollination Cross-Pollination
Advantages Disadvantag Advantages Disadvantag
es es
High chance Lack of Increases Reliance on
of successful genetic Variation, pollinators
pollination variation, promoting
inhibiting natural
natural selection
selection
Fast and Increases Quick to Wastage of
saves time competition adapt to pollen
between surroundings
plants
Susceptible to Less More energy
the same susceptible to required
disease diseases
Process of Fertilisation:
Pollen lands on sticky stigma
Pollen absorbs liquid from stigma
A microscopic pollen tube grows out of the grain and
travels down the style into the ovary
This enters through the micropyle and fuses its haploid
nucleus with the haploid nucleus of the ovule
This results in the formation of a zygote
Conditions required for germination
Water
Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
Sexual Reproduction in Humans
Male Reproductive System
Penis: can become firm to insert into the vagina of the female
during sexual intercourse in order to transfer sperm
Prostate Gland: adds fluid and nutrients to sperm to form
semen
Scrotum: a sac that holds the testes outside the body, keeping
them cooler than body temperature
Sperm Duct: muscular tube that links the testis to the urethra
to allow the passage of semen containing sperm
Testis: male gonad that produces sperm
Urethra: passes semen containing sperm through the penis;
also carries urine from the bladder
Female Reproductive System
Cervix: a ring of muscle separating the vagina from the uterus
Funnel Of Oviduct: directs an ovum (egg) from the ovary into
the oviduct
Ovary: female gonad, contains follicles in which ova (eggs) are
produced
Oviduct: carries an ovum to the uterus, with propulsion
provided by tiny cilia in the wall; also, the site of fertilisation
Uterus: where the foetus develops
Vagina: receives the male penis during sexual intercourse;
sperm are deposited here
Features of Sperm Cells:
Acrosome containing enzymes to digest the coating of the
egg cell
Mitochondria: to provide energy by aerobic respiration for
movement
Haploid Nucleus: nucleus containing 23 chromosomes for
fusing with female gamete
Flagellum: used for locomotion to swim in the fluid of
semen
Features of Egg Cells:
Jelly coating to protect the contents of the cell and to
prevent more than one sperm cell from entering the egg
Cytoplasm rich with nutrients to provide nutrition to the
egg cell.
Process Of Fertilisation
Sperm swim through the cervix and into the uterus
They pass through the uterus and enter the oviduct
The sperm cells reach the ovum
Follicle cells are scattered by the sperm
One sperm gets through the jelly coat
Sperm passes through cell membrane and enters the
cytoplasm
The nuclei of the two gametes fuse to form a zygote
Pregnancy and Development
The fertilised zygote is protected from other sperm by
changes to the jelly coat
The zygote first divides into two cells, then four and so on
This continues to form a solid ball of cells, an early stage
in the development of an embryo
The embryo travels down the oviduct, multiplying in
number, eventually reaching the uterus
The embryo sinks itself into the lining of the uterus and
implants itself
The embryo continues to form tissues and organs
After 8 weeks, when all the organs are formed it is called
foetus
One of the first organs to form is the heart to pump blood
around the body of the embryo
As the embryo, the uterus enlarges to contain it
Inside the uterus, the embryo becomes enclosed if a fluid-
filled sac called the amniotic sac
The oxygen and food needed to keep the embryo are
obtained from the mother by means of a structure called
the placenta
Functions of the Amniotic Sac
Protects foetus
Prevents unequal pressures from acting on the foetus
Functions of placenta:
Involved in the exchange of nutrients (like glucose) from
the mother to the baby
Involved in the exchange of wastes (like CO 2 and urea)
from the baby to the mother
Protection to the foetus is provided by the mother’s
immune systems
Protects against dangerous fluctuations in the mother’s
blood pressure
Secretes progesterone to maintain uterus lining (corpus
luteum breaks down by 3rd month)
The placenta also develops finger-like projections called villi,
which extend into the wall of the uterus. This increases the
surface area for diffusion of wastes and nutrients.
There is no direct contact between maternal and foetal blood
as their blood groups may be different. This also makes sure
that pathogens do not reach the baby.
Some toxins (nicotine) and pathogens (HIV and Rubella virus)
are small enough to pass across the placenta and reach the
foetus.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction
Advantages Disadvantages
Promotes variation thus Takes lots of time and energy
leading to natural selection
Reduced risk of extinction Need to find mate
Sexual Hormones in Humans
Testosterone
Released by testes
The male secondary characteristics begin to show
o Enlargement of testes and penis
o Deepening of the voice
o Growth of hair in the pubic region, armpits, chest
and later the face
o Rapid increase in rate of growth
Female Hormones
FSH
Oestrogen
LH
Progesterone
The ovaries release an ovum about every 4 weeks, in
preparation the wall of the uterus thicken. This is to enable an
embryo to embed itself if the ovum is fertilized. If no embryo
implants, the uterus lining breaks down. The cells along with
blood are passed out of the vagina. This is called a menstrual
period
Hormones and the menstrual cycle
Day 1 to 5:
o In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to
stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary.
o In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down;
menstruation
Day 5 to 12:
o In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
o In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and
the ovarian tissues to prepare the endometrium
Day 13/14/15:
o In the ovary, LH is also secreted by
the Pituitary Gland to trigger the release of the egg
from the follicle into the fallopian tube. Ovulation
happens on Day 14.
Day 15 to 28:
o In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus
Luteum
o In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus
Luteum to keep endometrium thick, waiting for
possible embryo implants.
Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised
o No implantation takes place, the Corpus
Luteum degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone.
o This means that endometrium is no longer thick,
back to Day 1
Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised
o Implantation occurs.
o This makes the hormones keep the Corpus
Luteum maintained which means
that progesterone is high.
o This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy
