SOCIOLINGUISTICS

WHAT IS SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Sociolinguistics is a dynamic field that occupies a substantial place within the broader discipline of
linguistics. It’s the branch of linguistics that investigates the intricate relationship between language and
society. It explores how language use and variation are shaped by social factors such as culture, identity,
power dynamic and social norms. It is the descriptive-study of the effect of any and all aspects of society
on language and the effect
of language use on society. Socio linguistics differs from sociology of language. The focus of
sociolinguistics is the effect of society on language while sociology of language focuses on the effect of
language on society.

Examples
1. Farmers use different type of Moroccan Arabic
2. English is planned in Morocco to have effective communication with other countries

Sociolinguistics overlaps to certain degree with pragmatics (the socio use of language) it also studies
how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables (status, age,
gender, level of education …etc.)
The social aspects of language were first studied by Indians and Japanese in the 1930s. The first attested
use of the term sociolinguistics was by Thomas Callan Hodson in 1939.
Sociolinguistics in the west first appeared in the 1960s and was pioneered by linguists such as William
Labov in the USA and basil in the uk.

Because language is a social phenomenon there some social factors that influence the beliefs and
behaviors of people including language
1. the participants this refers to who is speaking (speakers) and to whom we are speaking to, in other
words the participants refer to the individuals who are in conversation The characteristics. Such as age
gender education social class occupation religion ethnicity all these characteristics can influence how this
language is used
For instance, people from different ages may use different vocabulary or pronunciation style Individuals
from different classes may adopt distinct language patterns to maintain their social classes or position
(there is a difference between high class speakers and low-class speakers)
New York speakers have different ways of speaking than the countryside speakers
2. setting it has to do with time and place let us to say where and when briefly setting refers to the
physical and social context in which communication events take place it includes factors such as
location, formality and purpose of the interaction
For example, the setting can influence the choice of language variety, register and tone. For instance,
people may use more formal language in the parliament unlike normal conversations with drivers
3. the topics of the conversation. The topic refers to the subject matter of a communication event. The
topic can influence the vocabulary used it can also influence the style of language used and the grammar
for instance when discussing technical matters individuals may employ specialized vocabulary on the
other hand when people discuss personal experiences, they may use informal language or colloquial
expressions
4. Functions. Refer to the purpose or goal of the communication event the function can influence the
choice f language, for example the communicative function has different
language use (requests, or complaints) these then are the 4 component which influence social factors
according to Holmes 2013
Language in social context
Language in social context is seemed clearly in language learning and accusation Language is learned
and acquired in different social settings but there is a difference. Language acquisition is an unconscious
process whereas learning is a conscious process. Language acquisition takes place in a formal setting
(home and street) whereas language learning takes place in a formal setting (school and organizations)
Human beings always need each other for communication that's why man called a social being in the
social context Language is not only a means of communication, but also a means of creating and
maintaining social relationships between the speakers

LANGUAGE VARIETIES
The interdisciplinary field of sociolinguistics study the interaction between language and society
investigating the ways in which social variables (components) interact (gender and age …) this discipline
provides insights into the dynamic interaction between language and the various social structures by
analyzing patterns of language variations, language attitudes and the effect of the society at large on
linguistic behavior. So, the concept of language varieties is central in the field of sociolinguistics.

language variety is a term used for any of the subcategories of a language including (direct (register jargon
and idiolect) language variety encompasses the diverse forms of language influenced by geographical
social, and situational factors leading to variations in vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar

Session 2

Language variation
Varieties of languages
Regional variations geographically based and shows which part of the language. Area is the person from.
many factors contribute to regional variations and language variation can be broken down into lects these
include direct sociolect, idiolect and ethnolect

1.Dialect in sociolinguistics. Dialect refers to language varieties that are specific to particular
geographical locations for instance someone from the north of England is different from someone from the
south or someone from the west of USA is different from someone in the east although these people speak
the same language, the accent, the lexicon and grammar can vary. These variations help and contribute to
the formation of dialect

Remark. a dialect is less than language and can develop and become an official language

2.sociolect is language variety spoken by a particular social class the term sociolect is a
combination of the words social and dialect sociolect particularly developed among groups of people who
share the same social environment or background social factors that influence sociolect include socio-
economic stages age, occupation, race, and gender individuals don't have just one sociolect and most
people will use several and different sociolect throughout or across their life our speech will lightly change
depending on who we talk to and where we are
3. Idiolect in sociolinguistics: refers to individuals personal use of language the term is a combination
of the Greek word “idio” (personal) and lect(language) are unique to the individual and constantly change
as individual move through life idiolect are dependent in social factors, the environment, education,
friendship groups, in fact your idiolect directly influenced by almost every aspect of life even your hobbies
and interests
Ex
Imagine the following scenarios and consider how each situation might affect your idiolect
1. You spend a year abroad working in Italy or Spain
2. You mother spend an entire year watching an American Series or Turkish series
3. You are reading an internship at a law firm
4. You become best friends with someone whose native language is mandarin.

3rd session

Ethnolect in sociolinguistics
An Ethnolect is the variety of language used by specific groups the term Ethnolect comes from a
combination of ethnic group and dialect for example the Ethnolect commonly used to describe the variation
of English that non-English immigrants use in USA African-American vernacular English (not standard
English)
Accent refers to an individual's pronunciation that is usually associated with geographical locations,
ethnicity or social class. Accents typically differ in pronunciation, especially in pronounce of vowel and
consonant sounds and stress projdy (the stress and intonation, tone) Our accents can tell people a lot
about who we are and often play a significant role in our identity formation. Many sociolinguistics are
interested in studying accents discrimination and have found that non-native speakers are often
discriminated against for their non-standard accent. similar discrimination can also be found in the
United Kingdom with difference between accents in the north and accents in the south.
Register is the way people used language influenced by their occupation or jobs or lawyer may use
language that is impacted by terminology or legal field a doctor may use a language impacted by medicine
vocabularies or field Register does not apply only to the spoken words but often even to what we write the
most common differences in written Register are formal versus informal expressions
Tasks
1. Think about the way we speak when we are with friends compared to when you are at work
2. Think about how you would write an instant message a quick message compared to an academic
message
More language varieties
1. Dialect: According to Cambridge dictionary a dialect is defined as form of language that people
speak in a particular part of a country containing some different words and grammar so a dialect is
a unique speech pattern used by people in a certain area or place it comprises vocabulary,
grammar, Syntax and other linguistic components that are different from what people speak in other
regions of the nation
2. Standard language. Arise when a certain dialect begins to be used in written form normally
throughout a broader area than that of the dialect itself it can be used in administration, the
economic field and media. A standard is a certain dialect that have developed and gained some
prestige.
3. Lingua franca. According to the Webster dictionary, lingua franca is any of various languages used
as a common tongue among people of diverse speech. When individuals from various language
backgrounds are unable to communicate in their own tongues, they employ a lingua franca which is
a kind of common language that facilitates communication between speakers of different languages.
English is a lingua franca in the United Nations in terms of politics.
 4. pidgin Is a language that has developed from a mixture of two languages it is used as a way of
communication by people who don't speak each other's languages
5. Creole. A creole is a language that has developed from a pidgin but serves as the native language
of a speech community that is to say creole is a language that emerges from pidgin and becomes a
native language

4th session

There two main kinds of sociolinguistics: interactional and variationist

1. Interactional sociolinguistics: studies how people use language in face-to-face interaction. It has a
specific focus on how people manage social identities and social activities as they interact
2. Variationist sociolinguistics: is interested in how and why variations arise
3. Language and identity in sociolinguistics: studying sociolinguistics can reveal how our identity is
bound or related to our use of language because of gender, race, occupation, age. So,
sociolinguistics can help us understand ourselves as individuals or as members of larger social
groups. It can highlight how language can be used as an identity marker and help us feel a part of a
large community. Many theorists view our language including our word choice, accent, syntax and
interaction as a link of sense of identity. An important research method in sociolinguistics is related
to discourse analysis because discourse analysis is the analysis of both written and spoken
language in discourse in social contexts. Sociolinguistics use discourse analysis to understand
language patterns
Tasks
1. Elaborate on the discourse used in the Arabic language to reveal identity

…. Arabic discourse reveals identity through various linguistic features:

Dialect: Regional dialects (e.g., Egyptian, Levantine, Gulf) signal geographical origin and social class.
Code-switching: Mixing formal (Classical Arabic) and informal (colloquial) registers shows education level,
social status, and context.
Lexical choices: Specific vocabulary and expressions reflect cultural background, beliefs, and values.
Discourse markers: Use of certain words or phrases (e.g., "wallah," "inshallah") indicate cultural and
religious affiliations.
Body language and nonverbal cues: Gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice convey additional
layers of identity. The use of language is related to speaker's identity

LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL MOBILITY

It refers to the ways in which language use, proficiency and attitudes can influence an individual's ability to
move within social hierarchies this concept encompasses several aspects:
1.Language proficiency. Mastery of the dominant or standard language often correlate with better drop
opportunities
2.Dialect and accent variations in speech can impact social mobility
3.Educational access language policies in Education can either facilitate or hinder gender success.
4.Social network language can affect how individuals connect with others impacting their access to
resources and systems necessary for upward mobility briefly the relationship between language and social
mobility highlights how linguistics factors can unable or restrict individual's potential for social
advancement.
LANGUAGE CHOICE IN MULTILINGUAL COMMUNITY

Like other subjects, sociolinguistics is partly empirical and partly theoretical. It is partly a matter of going
out and collecting facts and partly sitting back and thinking.
Sociolinguists have long been fascinated by the phenomenon of the complicits language switching. Many
people or many speakers are able to switch from language to language easily, sometimes in mid
sentences there is always a choice in language use in this field of language choice, some sociolinguistic
phenomenon are worth mentioning starting from bilingualism, Code-switching, multilingualism, and
diagnose
1. Bilingualism: is sociolinguistics phenomenon that has received much scholarly attention, not only
because of its importance in communication but also because of political and demographic
considerations that have led many sociologists to consider some languages as major and others as
minor in multi linguistics settings these classification forces African languages into Subordinates or
second position on the ground that only a few of them have been codified consequently, the
superiority of African language for example ( in Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal…). So, the term
Bilingualism in these African countries brings to mind a mastery of English and French.
This phenomenon is difficult to define while Bloomfield defines Bilingualism as a native-like
control of two languages, Diabond gives a small definition when he uses the term incipient
bilingualism “the initial stages of contact between two languages “. These two definitions imply that
we are forced in studying Bilingualism to consider it as something entirely relative because the point
at which the learner of the second language becomes bilingual is either arbitrary or difficult to
determine. It goes without saying that sociolinguists in all languages in addition to speakers of a
particular speech community are always made up of many groups. This makes it difficult for one
speaker to internalize all the variants. briefly then bilingualism is considered as the alternate use of
two languages
Types of bilingualism

we list the following

1.Coordinate bilingualism
In this type of bilingualism, the person learns the languages in separate environments and the words of two
languages are kept separate with each word having its own specific meaning (coordinate bilingualism is
proficient in both languages).

2.Compound bilingualism here the person learns the two languages in the same context where they are
used concurrently So that there is a fused representation of the languages in the brain this the case when a
child brought up by bilingual parents
Ex in Morrocco, in the case of amazigh-arabe parents.

3.Subordinate bilingualism this refers to people who learn second language using their native language
Session 5

Many researchers have examined various attitudes towards bilingualism in multilingual situations; it has
been agreed that in the final analysis, some language groups end up viewing bilingualism with suspicion or
contempt. These negative attitudes are based on one or more of the following reasons:
1. Linguistic basics: monolinguals often consider monolinguals as proud. for the most part, language
purists view certain bilingual behaviors and interference as impure mixture and dislike detested
them because they lead eventually to language shift and eventual death of minority languages this
happens to be true if after introducing certain structures into a target language, initiators of this
structures maintain them thus creating a hybrid or mixed languages
2. Political basics: conflicts involving language are usually not about languages but about fundamental
inequalities between groups which happen to speak different languages. A language can become
the focus of loyalty or minority or community that thinks itself to be suppressed Ex: the south of
Cameroon where numbers abhor hearing French spoken especially in anglophone Cameroon
according to them francophone administrators and documents published in French are all symbols
of colonial masters
3. Educational basics: bilingualism in education is generally a matter of public policy. Many critics
however usually hold or believe children brought up or educated bilingually performed poorly
usually in other subjects because a greater amount of mental efforts has to be expended in the
mastery of two languages
4. religious basics: some religious arguments are given sometimes to justify that negative attitude
towards bilingualism because the translation of the religious texts is not always perfect
5. Positive attitude towards bilingualism: some people believe that using bilingualism cannot be
avoided, giving some arguments such as “ease of communication “. To cater for lexical holes.
Contribution to the development of languages

CODE SWITCHING

The definition of code switching is to fold. The first definition refers to the specific linguistic action of
alternating or combining two or more languages. The second definition revolves around interchangeably
using words and phrases from different languages as they suit the situation. Linguistic code switching is
mostly used within bilingualism and multilingual communities. There are many reasons that push people to
use such code switching, for example the need to fit in with a group or to use it as a habit, or to convey
thoughts or concepts that might be easier to explain in a specific language.
Another definition of code switching from sociolinguistics perspective. In this respect code switching
describes the use of different dialects, accents, language combinations in order to project a particular
identity code switching is consequently used by everyone as they change their language style based on
who they are talking to, what they are talking about, where they are etc.
Types of code switching

There are two types of code switching: metaphorical code switching and conversational code switching
1.Metaphorical or situational code switching: where a variety of language a type of language normally used
only in one kind of situation is used in different kinds because the topic is the sort which would normally
arise from the first situation

2.Conversational code switching: in this type of code switching there is no change in the situation instead
one gets the impression that the aim is simply to produce instances in a particular language this may be
achieved by expressing one sentence in one variety and the next one in the other variety
Multilingualism: can be defined as in sociolinguistics as the ability of societies, institutions, groups,
and individuals to engage, on a regular basis, with more than one language even more than two
languages in their day to day lives Nowadays multilingualism has spread in the educational context
because of historical, social, political and economic reasons

Session

Multilingualism can be defined as the ability of society, institutions, groups and individuals to engage on
regular bases with more than one language or even more than two languages in their day to day lives.
Nowadays multilingualism has spread in the educational context because of historical, social, political and
economic factors,
multilingualism in education takes many forms depending on factors such as linguistic diversity, the aims
of the educational program or the characteristics of the languages involved. In many contexts a great
number of school children have different home languages from the ones used at school. Today's school
classes are more linguistically diverse than in the past, particularly in the case of big cities in Europe and
North America due to the mobility of the population in a globalized world
, even young learners come to the classroom with rich and dynamic trajectories that are influencing their
language learning (Means automatically they become multilingual) these students have to learn languages
of the host country and other languages in curriculum, which in many cases are different from the ones
spoken at home , multilingualism in education is often related to the mobility of the population but it can also
be related to the use of two or more languages in the same region in this context the situation of the
languages are asymmetrical and one language is dominant while the other have minority status "\\
vernacular region" " ‫ "؟؟ اﻟدارﺟﺔ‬//
The position of minority languages in education can range from a strong position of having minority
languages " vernacular" or having the minority language as the main language of instruction " to make the
teaching and learning produces easier" to a weak position of making no provision for the minority language
of …. The Educational policies on the role of original minorities in the curriculum can change over time exp:
the status of minority languages in Spain changed in the last decades of the 20th century after many years
of exclusion, Bask, Catalan and Galician became official languages in their regions in the 1970s and early
1980s and were strongly reinforced because of their use in education, minority languages are defined by
their status as compared to the majority language. A minority language such a Catalan with approximately
10 million speakers has a minority status as compared to Spanish but it has more speakers than other
European state languages such as Danish, Greek or Swedish.
Diglossia
The term Diglossia was introduced into the English literature on sociolinguistics by Charles Ferguson
(1959) who is a source to linguistics in order to describe the situation found in places like Greece
Ferguson defines Diglossia as follows: " Diglossia Is a relatively stable language situation in which, in
addition to the primary dialects of the language, there is a very divergent, lightly codified superposed
variety. The vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in
another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and
formal spoken purposes but it is not used by any section of the community for ordinary conversations.
In A diglossic situation like the Arab world, we have the existence of two varieties of two side by side. Each
variety is used for official things, the low variety is used for daily communication.
Briefly, diglossia is the og the key concepts in the study of societal multilingualism, because: it belongs to
the macro level of sociolinguistics since is a phenomenon relating more to a group rather than an individual
consequently the way to acquire a high variety in such a society. Is not by being born into the wight kind of
society but by going to school.
Language maintenance
Language maintenance is a process in which languages continue to exist and be spoken by speech
community despite facing competition from dominant and global languages
Ex the continued use of a family's native language in the home despite dominant languages spoken outside
Ex a family with roots in France who although living in England where the dominant language in the public
sphere is English, continue to speak French in their home in England
Why is language maintenance important? The child's first language is critical to his or her identity.
Maintaining this language helps the child to value his or her culture and heritage which contribute to a
positive self-concept. According to fishmen 1966 language maintenance is the effort of someone to keep
using his vernacular language in some situations so that his or her language ability will not decrease or be
lost.
The strategies of language maintenance There are many strategies that contribute to language
maintenance ranging from reading, speaking, watching and listening to documentaries and networking and
engaging in a language learning program. Briefly, it is important to foster language maintenance programs
because language is vehicle identity, culture and it is a means of communication, values, beliefs and
customs. It has also an important social function to share group identity and preserve it.

Language shift
Is a process whereby members of a community in which more than one language spoken abandoned or
quit their original vernacular language in favor of from one language to another. This happens in language
contact situations. People are confronted by choices about which language to speak. Language shift is also
known as language transfer or language replacement or language assimilation.
An example of language shift happened in Ireland in between 1600 and 1900 in this period. The Irish
language was gradually replaced by English.
There are many causes of language shift namely economic, social, political, demographic and attitudinal.
According to Holmes 2001.

What is the difference between language shift and language change? Language shift is a sociolinguistics
phenomenon whereby one language replaces another language in a particular speech community, whereas
language change is a process of language development; it is a transition from one form to another within
the same language.

Language planning and policy:

Language planning is a process adopted by every country to guarantee the official languages to be used in
the community and to make decisions about which foreign languages to be learned at different levels.
Actually, language planning brings changes in the structure (the corps) and the function (status) of
language. it is also referred to as language engineering

Types of language planning

There are four types of language planning
1.Status planning: it is about the social standing of a language (decisions about which language should be
official and which languages should be foreign
2.Corps planning (): it is about the structure of a language for instance its grammar, its lexical etc.
3.Language in education planning: this has to do decisions about the processes of language learning
4.PRESTIGE PLANNING. THIS has to do with the image of the language whether it has prestige in society
or not. Language planning occurs at the macro level.
The factors that influence language planning
There are many factors that affect language planning:
1.Linguistic factor. This factor has to do with the position or status in relation to other languages
2.Political factor this has to do with the political decision
3.Sociodemographic factor it has to do with the stages of the position of the language in society

— session

Language loss
We can define a language loss as the individual or societal losing the use or the ability to use a language
this implies that another language is replacing another one this phenomenon is very common worldwide
wherever languages are in contact.
What are the main causes of language loss
Most languages die out gradually as successive generations of speakers become bilingual and then begin
to lose proficiency in their traditional languages. There is another reason in addition to bilingualism which
happens when speakers seek to learn a more prestigious language in order to gain social and economic
advantages or to avoid discrimination The third reason is related to the development and scientific progress
in the world of globalization of society especially to globalization and world

Types of language loss

Aphasia which happens at the individuals level it may be due to brain damage or language impairment that
occurs during childhood

What the effects of language loss

When language loss happens, it may have some serious problems such as loss of identity, no
communication, effect on self-esteem, effects on society. And loss of language heritage Examples of
language loss can be listed as follows, the Arabic Andalucía due to political reasons, social and economic
reasons
 Slavic language in 1918 it was spoken in Austria and Hungary British Latin in the year 700
 The bulgar language 13th century
 Lazish language 1800 in Ukraine
 Pictish in Scotland
 Old Prussian (means old Germany) it was lost in the year 1700 and it was spoken in Germany

standardization
The process of standardization. Refers to that process when a language is standardized or its linguistic
forms as well as social communicative function. A language become a process of standardization this
process needs some well prepared and systematic steps and procedures
These procedures are as follows
1. Selection of the variety to reach the level of standard
2. Codification means to make rules and improve them, these rules should be simple, official,
academic and acceptable (means that everyone should agree on them) They refer to grammatical,
lexical and morphological level
3. Elaboration of function this means to specify official roles for dialects concerned to have a role of
standard language such Roles as media
4. Acceptance refers to the agreement of all concerns speech community on the official use of the
target variety
 The Goal of standardization is to allow everyone in a specific country to communicate, at least in an official
language. The standard supposed to be a language style that can be understood across dialects with clear
systematic rules at the grammatical, morphological and lexical levels.

Language and gender

Language and gender in sociolinguistics refer to the language use and the implication that there are
differences between males and females. gender refers to the social, cultural, behavioral, and emotional
differences between men and women. It is not the same thing as sex which is about the biological and
physiology in the early stages of sociolinguistics research gender was overlooked as a social variable.
Academic research was dominated by well-educated males who focused on exploring the correlation
between language and social factors such as class, age, and ethnicity this change in the 1970s in the
publication of an article by robin Lakoff a female sociolinguist based at the University of California. Lakoff
drew attention to a wide range of gender differences in language use, and she argued that these
differences were directly related to the relative social power of male speakers
And the relative powerlessness of female speakers the publication of this work market a turning point in
sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics and gender
The use of language related to gender refers to the relationship between language and of female and
males gender differences is not only a reflection of the speeches between male and female but also a
reflection of their living styles and attitudes.
Language and communication have some importance to women more than men. It is stated that women
talk more than men. In other words, women are more verbally skilled than men, men's goals in using
language tend to be about getting things done, whereas women's speech tend to be about making
connections to other people. Men talk more about things and facts whereas women talk more about
feelings. Men's speech reflects their interests in acquiring and maintaining status (order) whereas women
use of language is cooperative reflecting their preference of equality and harmony
The approaches to study language and gender
Concerning the approaches that study language and gender, at least 3 approaches can be recognized
1. The dominance approach. This approach sees women as an oppressed group and interprets
linguistic differences in women's and men's speech in terms of men's dominance and women's
subordination. Robin Lakoff in 1975 proposed this dominance approach suggesting that women
naturally act even less dominant around men while men tend to act more dominant. Exm. Women
use tag questions in order not to be too assertive or impose their ideas or point of views on men.
2. The difference approach. This approach stresses the idea that men and women belong to different
subcultures this approach came as a result of women's growing resistance to being treated as
subordinate group women began to assert that they had a different voice a different experience of
work a different personality, this approach briefly sees that no gender is superior and no gender is
inferior we are just different (biologically)
3. The deficit approach. This approach seeks to demonstrate distinctions in language usage between
men and women. It argues that men's language is considered the norm and superior, while women's
language is perceived as deficient due to its deviation from the standard, and it is thus considered
inferior. Otto Jespersen was Danish linguist who described language use by wen as the
(indispensable small change of language) even Lakoff 1975 argued that the features of language
used by women lack certainty

Conclusion
Gendered aspects of language. Many aspects of gender are reflected in language foe examples Arabic
English and French: the use of adjectives in Arabic and French are different from the use of adjectives
in English