GENERAL PHYSICS(Phys 1011)
CHAPTER ONE
PRELIMINARIES
What is Physics?
• The word physics comes from the Greek word
meaning ‘’nature’’.
• deals with the structure of matter and how
the fundamental constituents of the universe
interact
• deals with matter in relation to energy and the
accurate measurement of natural
phenomenon.
Physical Quantities and Units of
Measurement
• Physical quantity is a quantifiable property ascribed to
a particular body
• Quantities that can be measured directly or indirectly
are known as physical quantities.
for instance the length of a rod or the mass of a body.
• Measurement is the act of comparing a physical
quantity with a certain standard
• Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in
terms of units
• SI unit is the abbreviation for International System of
Units
It is the system of units used in measurement
Basic quantities and their SI units
• are those quantities which can be measured directly.
• cannot be expressed in terms of any other physical
quantity.
Derived quantities and their SI units
• are quantities that can be measured indirectly.
• can be expressed in terms of fundamental quantities.
Conversion of Units
• To convert a quantity from one unit to
another, multiply by conversions factors is the
most common method.
Uncertainty in Measurement
• Measurements are always uncertain
• Uncertainty gives the range of possible values of
the measure and, which covers the true value of
the measure.
Estimates the deviation of the measured value
from the unknown, true, value of the quantity
• We refer to the uncertainty as the error in the
measurement.
• Errors categories into Systematic Error and
Random Errors
Systematic Error and Random Errors
Systematic Error
• Is determinate error
• Occurs in the some direction each time(high or low)
• errors resulting from measuring devices being out of
calibration.
Random Error
• Is indeterminate error
• Errors resulting in the fluctuation of measurements of
the same quantity about the average
• Measurement has an equal probability of being high
and law
• errors results from scale division of a measuring device.
Uncertainty in a single measurement
1. Uncertainty in a scale measuring device is
equal to the smallest increment divided by 2.
Example: Meter Stick (scale device)
2. Uncertainty in a digital measuring device is
equal to the smallest increment.
Example: A reading from digital
Balance (digital device) is 5.7513 kg, therefore
Con’t
• In general, any measurement can be stated in the
following preferred form:
• 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑥𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 ± 𝜎𝑥
Where 𝑥𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 is best estimate of mean
𝜎𝑥 is Uncertainty (error) in measurement
• if we measure a length of 5.7cm with a meter
stick, the measurement is written as
𝐿 = 5.7 ± 0.05 𝑐𝑚
this implies that the length can be anywhere in the
range 5.65 cm ≤ L ≤ 5.75 cm. Thus, L =5 .7cm
measured with a meter stick implies an uncertainty
of 0.05 cm.
Significant digits
• The term Significant figures refers to digits
that were measured.
• Whenever you make a measurement, the
number of meaningful digits that you write
down implies the error in the measurement.
• For example if you say that the length of an
object is 0.428m, you imply an uncertainty of
about 0.001 m
Con;t
• In general to determine significant digits in a
given number
1. All non-zero numbers are significant.
2. Zeros within a number are always significant.
3. Zeros that do nothing but set the decimal point
are not significant. Both 0.000098 and 0.98
contain two significant figures.
4. Zeros that aren‘t needed to hold the decimal
point are significant. For example, 4.00 has three
significant figures.
5. Zeros that follow a number may be significant.
Rules for significant digits:
• Rule 1: When approximate numbers are
multiplied or divided, the number of significant
digits in the final answer is the same as the
number of significant digits in the least accurate
of the factors.
• Least significant factor (45) has only two (2) digits
so only two are justified in the answer. The
appropriate way to write the answer is P = 7.0
N/m2
Con’t
• Rule 2: When approximate numbers are added or
subtracted, the number of significant digits
should be equal to the smallest number of
decimal places of any term in the sum or
difference.
• Example: 9.65 cm + 8.4 cm - 2.89 cm = 15.16 cm
Note that the least precise measure is 8.4cm. Thus,
answer must be to nearest tenth of cm even though
it requires 3 significant digits.
The appropriate way to write the answer is 15.2cm.
Vectors: composition and resolution
scalar quantity vector quantity
is a physical quantity is a physical quantity which
which has only a has both magnitude and
magnitude and no direction.
direction. obey the laws of vector
algebra. Examples are:
Scalars obey the rules of displacement, velocity,
ordinary algebra. acceleration,
examples of a scalar examples of a vector
quantities are: quantities are:
Time, mass, volume, Displacement, velocity,
density, temperature, force, Pressure,
energy, distance, acceleration,
momentum ………
speed, power …
Vector Representation
1. Algebraic Method
• Vectors are represented algebraically by a
letter (or symbol) with an arrow over its head
• (Example: velocity by 𝑣, momentum by 𝑝)
• the magnitude of a vector is a positive scalar
and is written as either by |A| or A.
Geometric Method
• vectors are represented by an arrow
• Vectors are nothing but straight arrows drawn from
one point to another.
• Zero vector is just a vector of zero length - a point.
• Length of vectors is the magnitude of vectors. The
longer the arrow the bigger the magnitude.
Vector Addition
• A single vector that is obtained by adding two or
more vectors is called resultant vector and it is
obtained using the following two methods
A. Graphical method of vector addition
• Graphically vectors can be added by joining their
head to tail and in any order their resultant
vector is the vector drawn from the tail of the
first vector to the head of the last vector.
• Figure 1 graphical technique of vector addition is
applied to add three vectors.
Con’t
• The resultant vector R = A + B + C is the
vector that completes the polygon. In other
words, R is the vector drawn from the tail of
the first vector to the tip of the last vector
B. Parallelogram law of vector
addition
• The parallelogram law states that the resultant R of
two vectors A and B is the diagonal of the
parallelogram for which the two vectors A and B
becomes adjacent sides.
• All three vectors A, B and R are concurrent as shown
in Figure 2.
• A and B are also called the components of R.
Con’t
• The magnitude of the diagonal (resultant vector)
is obtained using cosine law and direction ([Link]
angle that the diagonal vector makes with the
sides) is obtained using the sine law.
Components of Vector
component of a vector is the projection of a vector
onto coordinate axes.
Resolving a vector is splitting the vectors into
components
Example
Vector 𝐴 has magnitude of 8units and makes an angle of
600 with the positive x-axis. Vector 𝐵 also has the same
magnitude of 8units and directed along the positive x-
axis. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant
vector? A) Using parallelogram Method
B) Using component method
Unit Vector
• A dimensionless vector having a magnitude of exactly one.
They are used to specify a given direction. For a given vector
𝐴
𝐴, the unit vector in the direction of 𝐴 is 𝐴=
|𝐴|
Example
Finding a Unit Vector
Activities
1. If 𝐴 = 6𝑖 − 8𝑗, 𝐵 = −8𝑖 + 3𝑗𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐶 = 26𝑖 +
19𝑗, Find a and b Such that 𝑎𝐴 +b𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0
2. Given the displacement vectors 𝐴 = 3𝑖 −
4𝑗 + 4𝑘,𝐵 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 7𝑘, Find the unit
vector of the vectors
a)𝐴+𝐵 b) 𝐴 C) 𝐵
