University of Santo Tomas CHE 2117: Particle Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering Second Term, AY 2022-2023
MODULE 7
FLUIDIZATION
Fluidization refers to those fluid-solid systems in which the solid phase is transformed to a fluid-like state
by an upward flow of fluid stream through the bed of solid particles at a sufficient velocity to locally
suspend the particles, but not too great for the fluid velocity to transport all the particles out of the bed.
USES OF FLUIDIZATION
• Gas-solid system
o Using Winkler’s coal gasifier in 1926, coal was transformed into carbon monoxide
o Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) operations were introduced to transform kerosene and gas
oil into the higher-octane fuels that were needed for aviation gasoline in World War II.
o Metallurgical ore roasting, limestone calcinations, petrochemical production, silicon
production for semiconductors.
o Cultivation of microorganisms in a process called “biofluidization”.
• Liquid-fluidized system
o Fluidized bed bioreactors, which are usually characterized by the catalytic use of
enzymes or microbial cells that are immobilized by attachment, entrapment,
encapsulation, or self-aggregation.
FLUIDIZED BED REACTOR (FBR)
• Fluidized catalytic cracking unit (FCCU) in the petroleum refining industry.
• This reactor system uses a fluidized catalyst to “crack” large gas oil molecules into smaller
molecules.
• The system breaks apart larger molecules into C-4 and C-8 molecules or into C-5 and C-7
molecules.
• Advantages: Ease of handling, nearly isothermal behavior due to excellent solids mixing, and
high heat and mass transfer rates.
• Disadvantages: Non-uniform residence times due to mixing, erosion from abrasive particles, and
very complicated hydrodynamic behavior.
SUPERFICIAL VELOCITY
The superficial or approach velocity, vs, is the velocity of the fluid based on the empty column and is
given by the equation below, where Q is the volumetric flow rate of the fluid, Ac is the cross-sectional
area of the column, vi is the interstitial velocity, and ε is the bed porosity (fraction of void spaces in the
bed).
𝑸
𝒗𝒔 = = 𝒗𝒊 𝜺
𝑨𝒄
Although the interstitial velocity is the more important parameter from a theoretical standpoint, the
superficial velocity is generally more useful to fluidization from a practical standpoint.
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University of Santo Tomas CHE 2117: Particle Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering Second Term, AY 2022-2023
FLUIDIZATION REGIME
Consider a fluidization vessel in which a vertical bed of solid particles is subjected to an upward flow of a
fluid.
Minimum fluidization, vmf
• Also known as incipient velocity, this is the velocity at which the bed just begins to fluidize.
Particulate Fluidization
• When the superficial velocity exceeds the minimum fluidization velocity (vs > vmf), the bed
behaves differently depending upon the density difference between the solid and fluid, the
particle size, and the fluid velocity.
• For small density differences, the bed appears to expand smoothly
• Also referred to as homogeneous, uniform, smooth or non-bubbling fluidization regime.
• The bed is commonly referred to as quiescent bed
• This fluidization regime is observed for most liquid-fluidized beds except those involving very
dense particles.
• Gases at high pressure when flowing through beds of fine particles.
Free Bubbling Regime
• For large density differences typically associated with gas-fluidized system
• The bed tends to separate into two phases, namely the dilute bubble phase and the dense
particulate phase.
• The bed exhibits further instabilities as the gas (superficial) velocity increases and the gas starts
bypassing the rest of the bed in the form of bubbles.
• This is the onset of the free bubbling fluidization, and the corresponding superficial velocity is
called the minimum bubbling velocity (vmb).
• These bubbles increase in size as they rise the column.
• The solids in the bed begin moving upward, downward, and around in a highly agitated manner,
appearing as a boiling frothing mixture.
• In general, this fluidization regime is referred to as aggregative, non-particulate, heterogeneous,
or bubbling fluidization.
Slug Flow Regime
A further increase of the gas velocity will result in slug flow in which the size of the bubble increases
until they span the column diameter and appear as slug that moves up the column.
Turbulent Fluidization
• If the gas velocity is increased continuously, it will eventually become sufficiently rapid to carry
some of the particles upward out of the bed leading to turbulent fluidization.
• When this begins to happen, the bubbling and agitation of the solids are still present.
• The turbulent regime extends to the operating velocity known as the transport velocity.
Page 2 of 5
University of Santo Tomas CHE 2117: Particle Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering Second Term, AY 2022-2023
Fast Fluidization
A further increase of the gas velocity will result in fast fluidization and the bed is referred to as a fast-
fluidized bed where significant carryover of particles is observed.
Pneumatic Conveying
• Occurs at sufficiently very high velocities
• Particles (lean phase) are well apart and are carried along with the fluid stream
• The bed is referred to as transported or entrained bed.
• Under this condition, lean (or dilute) phase fluidization and pneumatic transport occurs.
• In general, the superficial velocity that will exceed the terminal velocity of the particle may result
in carryover or entrainment of that particle.
• A cyclone is commonly installed in a gas-fluidized system, where entrained particles are
recovered and returned to the bed to prevent the bed from becoming depleted as the fluid
superficial velocity continues to increase.
FLUIDIZATION PROCESS
• Initially, when there is no flow, the pressure drop is
zero, and the bed has a certain height.
• As the superficial velocity increases, the pressure
drop gradually increases while the bed height remains
fixed due to a drag exerted on the solid particles by
the fluid.
• When point B is reached (refer to figure below), the
bed starts to expand in height while the pressure drop
levels off to point C and no longer increases as the
superficial velocity increases. This condition is the
onset of fluidization or usually termed as incipient
fluidization. This is when the drag force exerted by
the fluid on the particles is enough to balance the net
weight of the bed, and the particles begin to separate
from each other and suspend in the fluid.
• The characteristic hump at point B may be due to the
initial compaction of the bed or the tendency of
particles to interlock. The pressure drop at point B,
which is in excess of the theoretical value at incipient
fluidization, is the extra pressure required to unlock
the particles from the pattern of packing.
• As the velocity is increased further, the fluidized bed continues to expand, but the pressure drop
stays constant as shown in curve CDF. However, the pressure drop decreases at the condition of
entrainment because the entrained particle offers little resistance to flow.
• Past the point of incipient fluidization, i.e., at point F, gradually decreasing the fluid velocity to
zero, the pressure drop stays fixed while the bed settles back down (FDCEO), and then, the
pressure drop begins to decrease when point C is reached. The bed height then becomes constant
while the pressure drop follows the curve CEO.
• The observed hysteresis as described by curved FDCEO may be due to the tendency of particles
in the bed to loosen up from initial compaction when subjected to fluidization. After fluidization,
the particles settle back into a more loosely packed state which may result to a larger constant bed
height on the return loop compared to that of the bed height in the initial state.
• The superficial velocity at point C refers to the minimum fluidization velocity or incipient
fluidization velocity. The bed porosity at minimum fluidization is the maximum porosity of the
loosely packed bed.
• For a bed consisting of wide particle size range, the superficial velocity at point D refers to the
velocity of complete fluidization.
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University of Santo Tomas CHE 2117: Particle Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering Second Term, AY 2022-2023
EVALUATION OF MINIMUM FLUIDIZATION VELOCITY, vmf
• Known bed porosity at incipient fluidization, εmf
o Ergun equation:
3
2
150𝜇(1 − 𝜀𝑚𝑓 ) 𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)𝑑𝑝 𝜀𝑚𝑓
𝑣𝑚𝑓 + ( ) 𝑣𝑚𝑓 − ( )=0
1.75𝜌𝑑𝑝 1.75𝜌
o Bed porosity – experimental based on weight of the bed, wB’
𝑤𝐵 ′
𝜀𝑚𝑓 = 1 −
𝐿𝑚𝑓 𝐴𝑐 (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)
o For special solids, dp is the volume surface mean diameter
1
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑠𝑣 = 𝑥
∑ 𝑖
𝑑𝑝𝑖
o Typical values of bed porosity at incipient fluidization
• Unknown bed porosity at incipient fluidization, εmf
o Leva (1959) as cited from Perry ChE Handbook, 6th ed (1984)
0.00930[𝜌(𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌)]0.934 𝑑𝑣1.82
𝐺𝑚𝑓 = 𝑣𝑚𝑓 𝜌 =
𝜇 0.88
o Baeyens’ equation for (dp < 100 microns):
0.934
0.00094(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌) 𝑔0.934 𝑑𝑝1.8
𝑣𝑚𝑓 =
𝜇 0.87 𝜌0.066
o dV – volume mean diameter
𝑑𝑠𝑣 = 𝜑𝑠 𝑑𝑣
PARTICULATE FLUIDIZATION
• In a non-bubbling bed beyond vmf, the particle separation increases with increasing fluid
superficial velocity while pressure loss across the bed remains constant. Consequently, the bed
porosity increases as the bed expands uniformly with increasing fluid superficial velocity.
• For small dp and laminar flow between the particles, i.e., NRe,p<10:
• Assuming the Blake-Kozeny equation which applies to fixed bed holds true for slightly expanded
bed:
𝜀3 150𝜇 150𝜇
= 𝑣( ) 𝑘=
1−𝜀 𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)𝑑𝑝2 𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)𝑑𝑝2
3
𝜀3 𝑣 𝜀𝑚𝑓 At incipient fluidization:
=( )( ) 3
𝜀𝑚𝑓
1−𝜀 𝑣𝑚𝑓 1 − 𝜀𝑚𝑓 = 𝑘𝑣𝑚𝑓
1 − 𝜀𝑚𝑓
• For all flow regimes:
o The following general correlation can be used to relate bed porosity to superficial
velocity. Note that subscript 1 and 2 refer to condition 1 and 2 with the following
operating range: vmf ≤ v ≤ vt and εmf ≤ ε ≤ 1.
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University of Santo Tomas CHE 2117: Particle Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering Second Term, AY 2022-2023
o It is assumed that at the upper bound of the fluidized bed condition is the point of a fully
expanded bed when v approaches the terminal velocity (vt) of the particle, the bed
porosity approaches 1 as if the bed has ceased to exist and each particle is moving as an
isolated individual.
o According to McCabe et al (2001), the correlation v = εn has been verified from various
experimental data in which the plot of log v against log ε approximates a straight line
over a full range of bed expansion. Thus, n can be estimated from the slope of such plot.
o Data from many investigations show that the n is a function of NRe,p, i.e. n varies about
4.5 in the laminar region to 2.5 at high Reynolds number as indicated by the correlation
given by Leva (1959). Using Figure 7.13 MSH, n can be estimated at incipient
fluidization condition, (NRe,p)mf, thus:
𝑛
𝑣 𝜀
=( )
𝑣𝑚𝑓 𝜀𝑚𝑓
Figure 7.13/178 MSH
BED POROSITY AND EXPANSION OF A FLUIDIZED BED
Design of a fluidization vessel:
• Requires the weight of the bed (WB) in its expanded fluidized state because this parameter plus
the freeboard dictate the actual height of the fluidization vessel.
• Total mass balance on solids around a fluidized bed, assuming negligible solids are entrained and
carried out of the bed
𝑊𝐵 = 𝜌𝐵 𝐴𝑐 𝐿 = 𝜌𝑃 (1 − 𝜀)𝐴𝑐 𝐿
• At different operating (superficial) velocity, the bed porosity and expanded bed height L varies:
(1 − 𝜀2 )𝐿2 = (1 − 𝜀1 )𝐿1
o Where condition 1 refers to that of incipient fluidization, the height of the expanded bed
at a given operating fluid velocity can be expressed as:
(1 − 𝜀𝑚𝑓 )
𝐿= 𝐿
(1 − 𝜀) 𝑚𝑓
EVALUATION OF MINIMUM BUBBLING VELOCITY, vmb
Experimental procedure:
• Deaeration test as cited from Geldart and
Abrahamsen (1980) to evaluate vmb.
o The material to be tested is fluidized
vigorously and the gas is then turned off.
The bed level is recorded as a function of
time.
o The bed level drops quickly reflecting the
flow of bubbles leaving the bed.
o An inflection point is then reached as
remainder of the gas leaving the bed is
flowing through the interstices. The vmb can
then be estimated from the slope of the
second line. The intercept of that line
corresponds to Lmb.
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