292

DETERMINING AREAS
12.2. GENERAL METHODS OF
areas:
general
the methods of calculating
The following are
measurements
computations based directly on field
1. By
These include
the area into a number of triangles
(a) By dividing
(b) By offsets to base line
(c) By latitudes and departures
distance (D.M.D. method)
() By double meridian
(ii) By double parallel distance (D.P.D. method)
By co-ordinates.

2. By computation based on
measurements scakd from a map.
Usually by means of a planimeter.
3. By mechanical method:
INTO TRIANGLES
12.3. AREAS COMPUTED BY SUB-DIVISION
In this method, the is divided into a
area
number of triangles, and the area of each triangle
is calculated. The total of the tract will then
area
be equal to the sum of areas of individual triangles.
Fig. 12.1 shows an area divided into several triangles.
For field work, a transit may be set up at 0, and
the lengths and directions of each of the lines ODA,
OB...etc. may be measured. The area of each triangle
can then be computed. In addition, the sides AB,
BC.....etc. can also be measured and a check may
be applied by calculating the area from the three
known sides of a triangle. Thus, if two sides and
A
one included angle of a triangle is measured, the
area of the triangle is given by FIG. 12.1

Area a b sin C .(12.1)

When the lengths of the three sides of a triangle are measured, its area is computed
by the equation.
Area = Vs(s - a) (s- b) (s - c) .(12.2)

where s half perimeter = (a+b+ ).

The method is suitable only for work of small nature where the determination or

the closing error of the figure is not important, and hence the computation of latitudes
ined
and departure is unnecessary. The accuracy of the field work, in such cases, may be determined
Dy measuring the diagonal in the field and comparing its length to the computed length.
12.4. AREAS FROM OFFSETS S
TO A BASE LINE : OFFSETS ATREGULAR INTERVA
ns method is, uitable for long narrow strips of land. The offsets are measu ired

from the boundary to the

base line or a line at regular intervals. The metho
Can aiso be applied to a plotted plan fromsurvey
which the offsets to a line can be scaled

off. The area may be calculated by the following rules

CALCULATION OF AREA
Average ordinate rnule
( Mid-ordinate rule ; (ii) one-third rulc
iv) Simpson's
(ii) Trapezoidal rule ;
(1) MID-ORDINATE RULE (Fig 12.1)
The method is used with the
assumption that the boundaries be-
ween the extremities of the ordinates
(or offsets) are straight lines. The O.
base line is divided into a number O O O
of divisions and the ordinates are
measured at the mid-points of each
division, as illustrated in Fig. 12.2. A -d d
L nd-
The area is calculated by the
formula FIG. 12.2
Area A= Average ordinatex Length of base
O1+O+ 0st +On= (o. +0, +0, +... + On) d = d 20 (12.3)
where O1, O...= the ordinates at the mid-points of each division
EO sum of the mid-ordinates n =number of divisions
L =
length of base line nd; =
d distance of each division
(2) AVERAGE ORDINATE RULE (Fig 12.3)
This rule also assumes that the boundaries between the
extremities of the
are straight lines. The offsets are measured to each of the points of the ordinates
base line. divisions
the
The area is given by A = Average ordinate x Length of the base
Oo+O1.. +On
n+1 L= +1)O
Oo
(124)
where O,= ordinate at one end of the base.
On ordinate at the other end of the base divided into
=
nequal divisions.
O1, O2. = ordinates at the end of each division.
6) TRAPEzOIDAL RULE (Fig. 12.3)
This rule is based on the as-

Sumption that the figures are trape

Zoids. The rule is more accurate than
the previous two rules which are
proximate versions of the trapezoidal
a ap Oo O Og
rule. Os
Referring to Fig. 12.3, the area
of the first trapezoid is given by -d -d
L nd-

FIG. 12.3
2
294 sURVEYING

O
Similarly, the area of the second trapezoid is given by A^ =
d
Area of the last trapezoid (nth) is given by
4 - 1 t 0 ,d
2
Hence the total area of the figure is given by

A A + O+O+, 2
A2t....... An d+.... * O-1tO
2
OI+00+02 +03t 20n-1)
or
Oo O +0+0+.. +Oa -1 ...(12.5)
2
below
Equation (12.5) gives the trapezoidal rule which may be expressed as

Add the average of the end offsets to the sum of the intermediate offsets. Multiply
the total sum thus obtained by the common distance benween the ordinates to get the
required area.

(4) SIMPSON'S ONE-THIRD RULE

This rule assumes that the short lengths
of boundary between the ordinates are parabolic
arcs. This method is more useful when the bound- D
the straight
ary line departs considerably from
line. O
Thus, in Fig. 12.4, the area between the O
line AB and the curve DFC may be considered O
ABCD
to be equal to the area of the trapezoid
the parabolic
plus the area of the segment between -d-
arc DFC and the corresponding chord DC.
Let Oo.0,0, any three consecutive
= FIG. 12.4

ordinates taken at regular interval of d.

the chord DG to cut the ordinates in E
Through F, draw a line EG parallel to

and G.

Area of trapezoid ABCD =Oo+O.2d 2

..(1)

we will utilize the property

of
To calculate the area of the segment of the curve,
is equal to rwo-third the area of the
the parabola that area of a segment (such as DFC)
enclosing parallelogram (such as CDEG).
Thus. area of segment DFC (FH x AB) = 0, - 24 ..(2)
2
of first two intervals. Thus.
Adding (1) and (2), we get the required area (41. )
..3)
dOO.2d+ - 2-(0,+40 +O:)
Similarly, the area of next rwo intervals (A, ) is given by
CALCULATION OF AREA
295

( O + 40,+ O)
..(4)
Area of the last two intervals
(A,n -

1, A,) is given by
on-1.n (On -2 + 40-1+ O,)
3
.(5)
Adding all these to get the total area (A), we get
A[O0+40,+20 +403. +20-2+40-1+OnlJ
Co On 02 +04 -- -+ n Os t 0s+. On
+
of A Oo +On) +4 (0, +0,t.. +On-1) +2 (0%+O +...On-))
.

..(12.6)
It is clear that the rule is
applicable only when the number of divisions of the
area is even i.e., the total number of ordinates is odd. If there is an odd number of
divisions (resulting in even number of ordinates), the area of the last division must be
calculated separately, and added to equation 12.6.
Simpson's one third rule may be stated as follows: The area is equal to the sum
of the wo end ordinates plus four times the sum of the even intermediate ordinates
+twice the sum of the odd. intermediate ordinates, the whole
multiplied by one-third
the common interval between them.
Comparison of Rules. The results obtained by the use of Simpson's rule are in
all cases the more accurate. The results obtained by using 'Simpson's rule are greater or
smaller than those obtained by using the trapezoidal nule according as the curve of the
boundary is concave or convex towards the base line. In dealing with irregularly shaped
figures, the degree of precision of either method can be increased by increasing the number
of ordinates.
Example 12.1. The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10 metres intervals
from a survey line to an irregular boundary line :
3.25, 5.60, 4.20, 6.65, 8.75, 6.20, 3.25 4.20, 5.65
Calculate the area enclosed between the survey line, the irregular boundary line.
and the first and last offsets, by the application of (a) average ordinate rule, (b) trapezoidal
rule, and (c) Simpson's rule.
Solution.
aBy average ordinate rule

From equation 12.4 (a), we have A = EO0

n+1

Here n = number of divisions = 8 : n +1 = number of ordinates= 8 +1= 9

L Length of base = 10 x 8 = 80 m

2O =3.25 + 5.60 +4.20 + 6.65 +8.75 +6.20 +3.25 + 4.20 + 5.65 =47.75 m

A -x47.75 424.44 sq.metres =4.2444 ares.

6) By trapezoidal rule
From Eq. 12.5, A = Oot On+0,+0+.. +On -1a
 Measurement of Volume

13.1. GENERAL

There are three methods generally adopted for measuring the volume. They are:
From cross-sections
() From spot levels
(ii) From contours
The first two methods are commonly used for the calculation of earth work while
the third method is generally adopted for the calculation of reservoir capacities.
13.2. MEASUREMENT FROM CROSS-SECTIONS
This is the most widely used method. The total volume is divided into a series
which measurement
of solids by the planes of cross-sections. The fundamental solids on
the sections depends upon
is based are the prism, wedge and prismoid. The spacing of
in the measurement. The area of
the character of the ground and the accuracy required
the cross-section taken along the line
are first calculated by standard formulae

developed below, and the volumes of

the prismoids between successive croSs-
sections then calculated by either
are (a) (b)
trapezoidal formula or by prismoidal
formula.
The various cross-sections may
be classed as
(1) Level section, Cutting
(Figs. 13.1 a and 13.2) FIlling (d)
(2) Two-level section,
(Fig. 13.1 band 13.3)
(3) Side hill two-level section,
(Fig. 13.1and 13.4)
c
(4) Three-level section,
(Figs. 13.1 d and 13.5) (o)
and (5) Multi-level section.
FIG. 13.1.
(Fig. 13.1 e and 13.6)
(315)
320
SURVEYING
A prismoid is defined as a solid whose end faces lie in parallel planes and consis
of any two polygons, not necessarily of the same number of sides, the longitudinal faces
being surface extended between the end planes.
The longitudinal faces take the form
of triangles, parallelograms, or trapezium.
Let d = length of the prismoid measured
perpendicular to the two end parallel
planes. C2
A area of cross-section of one
end plane.
A area of cross-section of the other
end plane.
M the mid-area = the area of the P
plane midway between the end
planes and parallel to them. S**°*.. . .
In Fig. 13.7, let 4, B, C, D, be one end
plane and 4, B, C, D, be another end plane
parallel to the previous one. Let PQRST
represent a plane midway between the end
faces and parallel to them. Let A be the
area of mid-section. Select any point O in
the plane of the mid-section and join it to B
- - - -0
the vertices of both the end planes. The
prismoid is thus divided into a number of
Pyramids, having the apex at A and bases FIG. 13.7
on end and side faces. The total volumne
of the prismoid wil1 therefore be equal to the sum of the volume of the pyramids.

Volume of pyramid OA1B,CD=G)4=; 4d

Volume of pyramid OABCD=z Asd.
To find the volumes of pyramids on side faces, consider any pyramid such as OA B,B42
Its volume = AB,BA) x h, where h= perpendicular distance of PT from O.
zldx PTh= zd(240PT)=jd(a0PT)
Similarly, volume of another pyramid OCDD on the side face = d (aOSR).

Total volume of lateral (side) pyramids = d (PORST) = j An)

Hence, total volume of the pyramid = z4, d+z4 d+ j4md

.(13.21)
or
V-A1+Aa+4Am)
MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME
321
Letus now alculate the volume of earth
work between a number of sections
area A, Az, As. An spaced at a constant
distance d apart. Considering the having
herween first three sections, its volume will be, from prismoid
equation 13.21,
A + 4 A+ As). 2d being the length of the prismoid.
Similarly, volume of the second
prismoid of length 2d will be
(A+ 4A+ As).
and volume of last prismoid of length 2d will be

An-2 + 4 An-1+ A
Summing up, we get the total volume,

V=A +4 A+2 A3 +4 A...2 An-2 + 4 An-1+Anl ..(13.22)

V
or
[(A + An) + 4(42 +As.An-1) +204 +As...An -)
This is also known as Simpson's rule for volume. Here
also, it is necessary to
have an odd number of cross-sections. If there are even number of
sections, the end strip
must be treated separately, and the volume berween the
remaining sections may be calculated
by primoidal formula.
13.4. THE TRAPEZOIDAL FORMULA (AVERAGE END AREA METHOD)
This method is based on the assumption that the mid-area is the mean of the end
areas. In that case, the volume of the prismoid of Fig. 13.7 is given by
V=A+4) .(1)
This is true only if the prismoid is composed of prisms and wedges only and not
of pyramids. The mid area of a pyramid is half the average area of the ends hence
ne volume of the prismoid (having pyramids also) 1s over estimated. However, the method
of end area may be acceped with sufficient accuracy since actual earth solid may not be
exactly a prismoid. In some cases, the volume is calculated and then a correction is applied,
the correction being equal to the difference between the volume as calculated and that which
could be obtained by the use of the prismoidal formula. The correction is known as the
prismoidal correction.
Let us now calculate the volume of earth work between a mumber of sections having
re A2,.....An, spaced at a constant distance d.

Volume between first two sections (Ai +A)

Volume between next two sections (4s + A)

Volume between last two sections =(An-1t An)

AA2
Total volume =V=d + A2 +As+...An -1 ...(13.23)