BIO

Organisms and life processes

LIFE processes
The 8 proceses of life:
1) Movement- action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of
position or place.
2) Respiration- chemical reaction in cells that break down nutrient molecules and
release energy for metabolism.
3) Growth- permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell numbers,
by cell division, or cell size or both.
4) Sensitivity- living organisms are able to detect or sense stimuli and respond to
changes in the external and internal conditions.
5) Reproduction- process that produces offspring.
6) Regulation- maintain a steady state inside the body
7) Excrete- removal in organisms of the waste products, toxic materials, and
substances in excess of requirements.
8) Nutrition- taking in material/other organisms for energy growth and development.
VARIETY OF LIVING ORGANISMS
Eukaryotes and prokaryotes
Living are composed of cells. These can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic:
Eukaryotic cells- contain a nucleus and other organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplast
Plants, animal fungi, and protoctist are all eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells- much more smaller and simpler. Do not contain a nucleus or organelles.
Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms.
Cell structure
Organelle Function Animal Plant
Cell wall Gives support and shape X ~

Cell membrane Control what enters and leaves ~ ~

Cytoplasm Where anemical reactions takes place

E
Nucleus Contains genetic material
Mitochondria Respiration (energy)
Chloroplast Photosynthesis
RER Protein synthesis (ribosomes)
SER Lipid synthesis
Golgi apparatus Protein modification
Ribosomes Protein synthesis
Vacuole Storage -v
Diffusion- Net passive movement of particles down their concentration gradient, as a
result of their random movement. (high to low)
Osmosis- Net passive movement of water molecules down their potential gradient, through
a partially permeable membrane. (high to low)
Active transport- Movement of particles through a cell membrane against their
concentration gradient using energy from respiration. (lower to higher)

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:

Concentration gradient- diffusion quicker when steep concentration.
SA to volume ratio- A larger SA in proportion to the volume increases the rate.
Distance- Rate decreased if greater distance.
Temp- Rate grater with higher temp.

Tissue- Group of cells with similar structures,

working together to perform a shared
function.
Organ- Structure made up of a group of
tissues, working together to perform a
specific function.
Organ system- Group of organs with related functions working together to perform body
functions.

Biological molecules
Balanced diet- diet that includes all nutrient in their correct propertions to mantain
health and the appropriate energy requirements the body needs according to age, sex and
lifestyle.
Catalyst- substance that helps to speed up a chemical reaction, without being changed in
the process.
Metabolism- all chemical reactions taking place in the cells of the body.
Enzymes
Enzymes control the chemical reactions that have place in a cell,
They are biological catalysts.
Each enzyme has a small area on its surface called the active site.
Factors that affect enzymes:
Optimum temperature Optimum pH
When an enzyme is heated too much It changes enzymes complementary shape, so
the enzyme denatures. The enzymes will the substrate will not fit, so there cannot be
no longer catalyst the reaction. a reaction, making the enzyme useless
Nutrients Reagent Positive
Carbohydrates Iodine Benedict's Blue/ black
Lipids Ethanol White cloudy
Proteins Biuret Purple

Biomolecules
Carbohydrates- main source of energy for respiration.
Lipids- primary energy source used for growth, repair to form cell membrane. E.g fats and oils.
Proteins- main of long chains of amino acids and regulate metabolism.

Vitamins and Job Deficiency disease

mineral ions

.
Vitamin A Helps to grow and keep skin healthy, Night blindness
helps eyes to see in poor light.
Vitamin C To have heathy skin, teeth and gums, Scurvy (bleeding gums and wounds
and keeps lining of blood vessels do not heal properly)
healthy.
Vitamin D For strong bones and teeth. Rickets (softening of the bones)
Calcium Needed for strong teeth and Rickets (softening of the bones)
bones, and involved in the
clothing of blood.
Iron Needed to make haemoglobin Anaemia (reduction in number of
in red blood cells. red blood cells, person soon
becomes tired and short of breath)
Nutrition and transport
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants carry sunlight, water and carbon dioxide
to create oxygen and energy in the form of sugar.
This process transfers light energy into chemical energy in the bonds of sugar.
The sunlight in plants is absorbed by the green pigment called chlorophyll.
Carbon dioxide + water -> glucose + oxygen

6CO + 6H O -> C H O + 6O
22 6 12 6 2

Leaf part Function Adaptation

Cuticle Reduces water loss and lets Waxy, thin and transparent.
light pass.
Upper epidermis Concentrated in cells in Thin and transparent.
the uppermost half of the
leaf to absorb as much
light as possible.
Lower epidermis Lets light pass. Thin and transparent.
Stomata Allow movement of gases Thin and transparent.
in/out.
Palisade mesophyll tissue Absorb sunlight for Cells are tightly packed and
photosynthesis. contain lots of chloroplasts.
Spongy mesophyll tissue For gas exchange. Cells loosely packed and there
are gaps in between for
diffusion of gases.
Xylem To carry minerals and Dead, impermeable and hollow
water. tubes.
Phloem To carry the products of Sieve tubes and companion
photosynthesis. cells.
Factors affecting photosynthesis
Temperature
The lower the temperature, so more collisions will occur over a period of time, therefore,
the rate of photosynthesis will increase.
The higher the temperature, enzymes that control the process of photosynthesis will
eventually be denatured. This reduces the rate of photosynthesis.

Light intensity
The more light plant receives, the faster the rate of photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide concentration
The more carbon dioxide present, the faster the rate of photosynthesis.

Starch test
Starch is stored in the chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs so testing a leaf for
starch is a reliable indicator of which parts of the leaf are photosynthesising.
1) Before doing the experiment, destarch the plant by placing it in a dark cupboard 24
hours before the experiment takes place.
2) Place the leaf in boiling water- This stops chemical reactions and dewates it.
3) Place it in boiling ethanol- This removes chlorophyll and decolourises the leaf (turns from
green into white).
4) Ethanol is flammable so turn off the source of heat and put ethanol in a tube inside
the beaker with the boiling water.
5) Wash the leaf with cold water.
6) Cover the leaf with an iodine solution.
7) If starch is present, the areas that contain chlorophyll will turn to a blue-black colour.

/
&fF
↑
↑↓
Mineral ions
Plants need mineral ions:
Nitrates
Contain nitrogen to make amino acids
Needed for cell growth
If lack; stunted growth, yellow older leaves
Phosphates
Contain phosphorus to make DNA and cell membranes.
Needed for respiration and growth.
If lack; Poor root growth, purple older leaves.
Potassium
To help enzymes needed for photosynthesis and respiration.
If lack; poor flower/fuit growth, discoloured leaves.
Magnesium
Makes chlorophyll.
Needed for photosynthesis.
If lack; yellow leaves.
Transport in flowering plants
In plants, water and dissolved substances are transported throughout the plant in
transport vessels. They are arranged throughout the root, stem and leaves in groups
called vascular bundles. There are two types:
Xylem
Transport water and minerals from the roots to the stem and leaves.
Xylem tissue is composed of dead cells which form hollow tubes through the plant.
The cells walls are thickened with lignin so they are adapted for the transport of water
and support the plant.
Phloem
Transport food materials, mainly sucrose and amino acids, made by the leaves, are
transported to all over the plant.
The transport materials through the phloem is called translocation.
Tropism and reproduction
A change in conditions is called a stimulus.

To produce a coordinated stimulus, there must be a receptor that can recognize the
stimulus and an effector, a mechanism to carry out the response.

Coordination means detecting and responding appropriately to a particular stimulus.

Plants generally respond to changes in the envirment by a change in the way they grow.
The directional growth responses made by plants in response to light and gravity are known
as tropisms.
Phototropism- a response in which a part of a plant grows towards or away from the
direction from which light is coming.
Geotropism- a response in which a part of a plant grows towards or away from the
direction of gravity.

Experiment 1
paque Shows growth but no bending.
-> tip with auxins covered

Experiment 2
micasheet

Shows no bending.
-> stoping the diffusion of auxins.

Shows bending.
agar (jelly) -> jelly is a spongy material so auxins can diffuse through it.

Experiment 3 (no light direction)

This distribution of hormones will bend the plant.

TIP

The agar keeps all diffused auxins and it acts as the tip.
Sexual reproduction
The process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (known as fertilization) to
form a zygote (fertilised egg cell). Then the zygote undergoes cell division to develop into
an embryo.
Sexual reproduction involves two parent organisms of the same species
The zygote formed contains some genes from each parent
Plants are able to reproduce by self-fertilisation and can produce male and female
gametes in the same flower.
Advantages:
Increases genetic variation.
The species can be better adapted to new environments than the parents and other
offspring
Species have a greater change of survival in changing condition

Disadvantages:
Takes time and energy to find a second parent for fertilization
Sexual reproduction takes longer to produce offspring than asexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction
Process in which cells from the body of one parent divide to produce offspring.
Cells from the body of the parent divide to produce the offspring.
Offspring are genetically identical to the parent and to each other
Does not involve gametes or fertilisation

Advantages:
Only one parent is required
Large number of organisms can be produced in a short amount of time.
All the offspring produced are genetically identical, so they should survive well in the
conditions in which the parent grows well.

Disadvantages:
Lack of variation in population, therefore, population is vulnerable to changes in conditions
and may only be suited for one habitat
Disease is likely to affect the whole population as there is no genetic variation
Fertilisation
Fertilisation- the fusion of the nuclei from a male and a female gamete.
Flowers

Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of the same flower or different flower on the same place.
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of another flower on a different plant of the same place
Wind-pollinated flowers
They have small petals and no scent. They produce large amounts of pollen and is very
light. Wind can take away pollen grain from the anthers and also catch the pollen with
its feathery stigma.
Insect-pollinated flowers
They have big, coloured and scented petals to attract insects.
They produce smaller amount of pollen but it’s heavy
Pollen is sticky, so when insects go to the flower the insect’s feet sick to the pollen, and
when they go to another flower they leave the pollen.
Germination
Germination- the growth of a new plant from the seed.
The seed contains the zygote. The food stores are used up providing the nutrients to allow
the radicle and plumule to. Once the plant is able to photosynthesis, germination is over

For germination to occur correctly, there has to be a number of conditions:

Warm temperatures, so that enzymes can act efficiently.
Water, for chemical reactions to take place in solution.
Oxygen for respiration.
 Digestive system and excretion
Parts of the
~

What happens there

digestive system
Mouth -Teeth and tongue chew food into smaller pieces.
-Saliva is used to lubricate food and to swallow it easily.
Oesphagus -Food passes down to the stomach by waves of muscle contractions
called peristalsis.
Stomach -Food enter through the sphincter.
-Peristalsis mixes bolts with gastric juices forming chyme.
-Breaks down proteins during food digestion. Proteins are broken down
into amino acids.
-Digested food passes through sphincter into the small intestine.
Liver -Bile is produced (a type of juice).
-Amino acids are broken down to form use which passes to the
kidneys for excretion.
-Glucose is removed from the blood and stored as glycogen in the
liver cells.
Gall bladder -Stores bile from the liver
-Bile is passed into the small intestine where it neutralizes the
stomach acid in the chyme and emulsifies lipids
Pancrease -Produces all three types of digestive enzyme: amylase, protease and
lipase
-Strong digestion of starch to maltose, proteins to amino acids, lipids
to fatty acids and glycerol

Small intestine -Digested food is absorbed into the blood through the vili
Large intestine -Absorbtion of water and salts in colon
-Bacteria can be found here
-Undigested food is stored as faces in the rectum
Anus -Faeces are egested through the sphincter.
Eating food involves several processes:
Ingestion- the taking in of substances, such as food or drink, into the body, through the
mouth.
Mechanical digestion- the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemically
changing them
Chemical digestion- the breakdown of large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules
Absorption- the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood
Assimilation- the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where
they are used, becoming part of the cells
Egestion- he passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces,
through the anus
Deamination- the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea
Excretion- removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolisms (chemical
reactions in cell including respiration), toxic materials, and substances in excess of
requirements through organs such as skin, lungs or kidneys.
Digestion
Digestion- the breaking down of food molecules. Which can be physical or chemical.
Peristalsis
Peristalsis is a mechanism that helps moves food
along the alimentary canal
Muscles in the walls of the oesophagus create
waves of contractions which force the bolus along.
Peristalsis is controlled by circular and longitudinal
muscles.
Mucus are produced to continually lubricte the
food mass and reduce friction.

Bile
Bile is produced by the liver, it is stored in the gall bladder, and passes down the

B
byceductor on to the food.
It turns any larger lipid globules in the food into an emulsion
of tiny droplets, it increases the surface area of lipids so
that lipase enzymes can break down easily.

The mixture of semi-digested food and enzymes coming from

the stomach are acids, so bile is in charge of neutralising.
000 0
The small intestine
The small intestine has a very long surface area, which means it can absorb the soluble
product of digestion into the blood more quickly and effectively.

The length of the intestine also helps to crease the surface area, The tiny projections from
the lining are called villi.

The villi lining is 300ml, is a massive area in contact with the digested food. The surface cells
of each villi have hundreds of minute projections called micro villi.
Homeostasis- the maintenance of a constant internal
environment.
 Respiration
Breathing- the movement of air in and out of the lungs.
Respiration- chemical reaction in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release
energy for metabolism.

Aerobic respiration
Chemical reaction in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism, using oxygen.
J Glucose + Oxygen -> water + carbon dioxide (+ATP)
C H 0 + 60 -> 6H 0 + 6C0 (+ATP)
6 12 6 2 2 2

Anaerobic respiration
Chemical reaction in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism without using oxygen.
Animals: glucose -> lactic acid (+ATP)
C M 0 -> 2C H 0
6 126363

Plants: glucose -> ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ATP)

C M 0 -> 2C H OH + 2CO
6 12625 2

Thorax
Diaphragm- contracts and moves downwards and
inwards when breathing out.
Intercostal muscles- contract and move the ribs up
and outwards when breathing.
- When breathing in the intercostal muscles and
diaphragm contract, thorax volume increases, this
decreases pressure forcing air in,
- When breathing out the intercostal muscles and
diaphragm relax, the thorax volume decreases
forcing air out.
Breathing in humans
During exercise we increase breathing to obtain oxygen for respiration to be delivered to
the muscles and remove CO .
Steady State
oxygen
-

deFITIT oxygen requirement

EPOC
resting
oxygen
Consuption

Start exc end exc end recovery

- After exercise we maintain a high breathing rate, heartbeat does not immediately
decrease because anaerobic respiration builds up lactic acid in the muscles.

- The production of lactic acid creates an oxygen debt that has to be repaired
afterwards.
We keep on breathing quickly for a few minutes after we finished exercising, this is known
as EPOC (Excess Post-exercising Oxygen Consumption).

EPOC can also be used to:

- Maintain higher the breathing rate, heart rate and temperature
- Reduce body temperature
- Remove excess CO2 from the body
Alveoli and gas exchange
Alveoli are tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles in the lungs.
The alveoli are where oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse into and out of the blood.

The alveoli are adapted for efficient gas exchange by diffusion by having:
-Thin permeable walls which keeps the distance over which diffusion of gases takes place,
between the air and blood, to a minimum
-A large surface area- there are hundreds of millions of alveoli in a human lung.
Effects of smoking
Tar
-Tar is a carcinogen, it increases the chances of cancerous cells developing in the lungs.
-Can cause bronchitis.
-Contributes to COPD.
-Develops a disease where the patient has difficulty getting enough oxygen into their blood.
Carbon monoxide
-Less oxygen in the respiratory system.
Nicotine
-Addictive.
-Higher pressure in blood.
-Coronary heart disease (CHD).
 Blood, the heart and circulation
Blood
-

Red blood cells

Red blood cells transport oxygen to the body's tissues
-Have a biconcave disc shape (thinner in the middle) that increases surface area to volume
ratio compared with other cells.
-Red blood cells contain hemoglobin (a substance that allows oxygen to bind and be carried).
-Don't contain a nucleus.
-Small and flexible.
White blood cells
-Form part of the immune system
Travel in blood and fight disease and infection
Circulatory system
The human circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels.
The heart pumps and forces blood to go all around the body and back
again to the heart.
The blood vessels carry blood to the organs, tissues and cells.
Arteries
-Carry blood away from the heart.
-High blood pressure.
-Aorta. Contains the highest blood pressure and
is the blood vessel that leaves the left ventricle.
-Thick, muscular and elastic walls.

Capillaries
-Flow through every tissue.
-Connect arteries to veins, which helps to
increase the rate of diffusion of substances.
-Exchange of substances between the blood and
the tissues occurs here.
-Medium blood pressure.

Veins
-Large blood vessels.
-Carry blood that is flowing back to the heart
-Blood pressure very low.
-Large lumen to allow blood flow easily back to the heart.
-Valves are present. They prevent the back flow and make sure blood only flows in the
right direction.
Heart
The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood by expanding in size as it fills with blood,
and then contracts, forcing the blood on its way.
The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs and collect oxygen
The left side then pumps the oxygenated blood around the rest of the body.
The deoxygenated blood then returns to the right side to be sent to the lungs again.
The heart is made up of four chambers:
Two atriums at the top of the heart
that contract, push blood into the
bottom two chambers
Two ventricles at the bottom which have
thick, muscular walls to pump blood
throughout the body.
-The valves open to allow blood to flow
through them in one direction but close
to stop blood flowing back in the other
direction.
-Valves prevent the backflow of blood.
There are 4 main blood vessels that connect the heart to the rest of the body:
Vena cava- vein that carries deoxygenated blood to the heart.
Pulmonary artery- artery that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the
lungs.
Pulmonary vein: vein that transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
Aorta: main artery, carries blood from the heart to the circulatory system.
Heart rate- the amount of times the heart pumps per minute.
Heart rate can depend on:
-Age- children usually have faster average than adults.
-Fitness - a trained athlete has lower heart rate because their heart is stronger and can
pump out more blood on each contraction.
-Illness- infection can raise heart rate, but some diseases of the circulatory system can
slow it down.
Coordination and response
The nervous system consists of two main sections: the central nervous system (CNS) and
the peripheral nervous system. The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord, whereas
the peripheral nervous system contains motor and sensory neurons, which carry impulses
to and from the CNS.
Type of neurones
Sensory - carries impulses from a receptor to the spinal cord and brain.
Relay (connector) - carries impulses between different parts of the central nervous system.
Motor (effector) - carries nervous impulses from the central nervous system to the
effector.

The eye
Cornea - the cornea refracts light into the eye.
Iris - the coloured section of the eye. This controls the amount of light that enters the
eye by contracting and dilating the pupil.
Pupil - allows light into the eye.
Lens- the lens changes shape in order to focus the image on the retina.
Retina- Contains rod and cone cells which are sensitive to light.
Fovea - a section in the middle of the retina which contains a large amount of cone cells;
this section provides the clearest image.
Optic nerve - Each photoreceptor cell is attached to a neuron. These neurons group
together to form the optic nerve, which carries the impulse to the brain.

Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment in organisms, despite
external changes.
Reproduction

Sperm cells- male gametes produced in large numbers in the testes. They contain many
mitochondria to produce energy for this movement.
Egg cells- are unable to move themselves. They are instead transported on the walls of
oviduct.
Fertilisation- fusion of a sperm cell and an egg cell.

Once fertilisation has occurred, the zygote undergoes mitosis (cell-division) to produce many
cells which make up an embryo. The embryo is implanted into the wall of the uterus, where
it grows.

Sexual hormones
Two hormones are key to the development of secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty and the subsequent regulation of these characteristics:

Testosterone - Testosterone is produced in the testes of males, and in small amounts in

the ovaries of females. It is responsible for muscle development and the deepening of the
voice, amongst other things.
Oestrogen - made in the ovaries of females. It leads to the development of widened hips,
breasts, and plays a part in the menstrual cycle.
Menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle happens
approximately every 28 days. During each
cycle, an egg cell is released from the
ovaries. The uterus wall thickens by filling
with blood capillaries in preparation for a
pregnancy, which would occur if the egg is
fertilised. If this egg is not fertilised, the
egg dies and menstruation occurs, where
the dead egg cell and old uterus lining is
expelled from the body in a period.
Genetics
Gene- a length a DNA that codes for a protein.
Genome- complete, set of genes present in a cell of organism.
Alleles- version of genes.
Chromosome- a throat like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information.
Transcription Translation
Where does it take place? Nucleus Ribosome
Which component is in charge of the process? RNA RNA
What's the molecule? DNA RNA
What molecule is made? RNA polymerase RNA brings
unzips DNA amino acids

Haploid - only one chromosome.

Diploid- two chromosomes
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
How many chromosomes are in parent cells? 46 46
Which cells can do cell division? All stem cells Sex stem cells
Do chromosomes need to be copied first? Yes Yes
How many cell divisions take place? 1 2
How many daughter are are produced? 2 4
Are daughter cells haploid or diploid? Diploid Haploid
How many chromosomes are in each daughter? 46 23
Is there genetical variation in daughter cells? No Yes
Are daughter cells genetically identical? No Yes
Which type of cells can be made with these? All cells Gametes
What function do these divisions have in the body? Asexual rep Sexual reproduction
Inheritance
Genotype- genetic make-up of an organism in terms of the alleles present.
Phenotype- observable features of an organism.
Homozygotes- having two identical alleles of a particular gene.
Heterozygote- having two different alleles of a particular gene.
Dominant - allele that is expressed if its present.
Recessive- allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present.
The phenotype of a heterozygous tells which allele is the dominant
If two parents, with the same phenotype, but an offspring has a different phenotype, means
that offspring has the recessive allele.
 Dominant allele, tall, R Parental 1 Parental 2
Recessive allele, short, r

Parental phenotype Tall Tall

Parental genotype Rr Rr
Gametes R r R r

Punnet square
R r

R RR Rr

r Rr rr

Offspring phenotype rr -> 1/4 25% Rr and RR -> 3/4 75%

Offspring genotype Short Tall

Genetic engineering
Selective breeding
Variation- differences between individuals of the same species.
Fitness-probability of an organism of surviving and reproducing.
Adaptive feature- inherited functional feature of an organism as a result of natural
selection.
Question key words:
Variation in feature.

:
↑

Caused by random mutation.

Survival (of the fittest).
·

Reproduce.
↓
Genes passed on to offspring.
·
Many generation.
Selective advantage
E.g. Fennec foxes live in the sandra desert, wnich is very hot. They have very large ears
and a thin body. Explain how body shape of the fennec fox has evolved by natural
selection.
Before, fennec foxes had different sizes of ears, by a random mutation , a fennec fox
with very large ears was born. This increased the surface area of the fennec fox, so it
lost more heat. Because of this, the fennec fox survived more/better and reproduced
more. The gene was passed on to the offspring. After many generations most foxes have
very large ears. 5/5
Key words:
Selected individuals.

:
Chosen reasons.
Bread/ reproduce/ cross.
Select offspring with desired features.
Many generations.
E.g. A farmer has crossed different breeds of sheep to produce offspring with bare legs and
bare backside.
To get this characteristics, the farmer should cross the cheviot breed of sheep and the
East Friesian, as the cheviot have bare legs and feet, while East Friesian has a bare
backside. So the offspring of both may have bare legs and backside. Then the farmer will
cross the offspring with other sheep that has similar features as the farmer desires, so
after many generations, a offspring with those exact characteristics is born.

Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering- changing the genetic material of an organism by removing, changing or
inserting selected genes using vectors.
Transgenic- the transfer of a gene from a species into an organism of a different species.
Environment
Population- an isolated group of individual of the same species living in the same area at
the same time.
Community- all of the population of different species in an ecosystem.
Habitat- the physical space where organisms live invading their biotic and abiotic factors.
Ecosystem- a unit containing the community of organisms and their environment,
interacting together.
Components of ecosystem
Producers- plants which need photosynthesis to produce food.
Consumers- animals that eat plants for other animals.
Decomposers- organisms that break down dead material and help to recycle nutrients.
Biodiversity- amount of variation. shown by species in an ecosystem. It depends on the
number of different species present the environment and their relative abundance.
Ecological pyramid
&
Brown trout Dos

de

Dragonfly nymph m
Di

Mayfly nymph Mu
Freshwater shrimp
e
&

Pondweed Microscopic algae

Organism Type Tropic level

Pondweed Producer 1st
Microscopic algae Producer 1st
Freshwater shrimp 1 consumer 2nd
Mayfly nymph 1 consumer 2nd
Dragonfly nymph 2 consumer 3rd
Brown trout 2/3 consumer 3rd/4th

Energy transfer
Not all energy of an organism is transferred to the organism that ate this first organism.
There are loses:
Some parts of the organisms are not eaten (bones, roots).
Some parts are not digested and not absorbed.
Some of the materials absorbed form excretory products.
Feeding relationships
Food chain (Tertiary) secondary
Owls
consumer M

Primary consumer Caterpillar A Mice (Also secondary)

Mar e

Producer Plants
Pyramids of numbers Tertiary consumers Bird
Secondary Frogs
consumers
Primary
Grasshopper
consumer

Producer Grass
Pyramids of biomass
Pyramid of number Pyramid of biomass
Bird Bird
Ladybird
Ladybird
Aphids
Aphids
Oak-tree
Oak tree i

Little quantity but huge mass

Deforestation
Main consequences would be:
Less trees means less dead leaves and trees, therefore less decomposition and less raw materials.
Disrupts water cycle since there is less transpiration.
Brought desertification.
Global warning greenhouse effect.
Loss of medicinal plants.