CHAPTER 2

CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

Gain a better understanding of human behavior, the factors that affect changes in
human behavior, and how it is defined through different perspectives;

Gain a better understanding of how a human's personality develops over time through
experience and how these experiences enable a person to reach self-actualization;

Become familiar with the causes, conflicts, and motivations affecting human behavior;

Identify the theories that attempt to explain human behavior.

HUMAN BEHAVIOR- refers to a voluntary or involuntary attitude of a person to adapt and fit
society's values and ideas of what is right and wrong. It also refers to a range of actions
demonstrated by humans in conjunction with their environment, and in response to various
stimuli, whether conscious or subconscious, internal or external, voluntary, or involuntary, and
overt or covert (Human Behavior, n.d.).

Common Perspectives in the Study Of Human Behavior

Neurological - This perspective emphasizes human actions in relation to events that
take place inside the body, especially the brain and the nervous system.

Behavioral - This view focuses on the external activities that can be observed and
measured.

Cognitive - This perspective studies how the brain processes and transforms
information in various ways.

Psychoanalytical - This view emphasizes unconscious motives stemming from

repressed sexual and aggressive impulses in childhood.
Humanistic - This perspective focuses on the subject's experiences, freedom of choice,
and strong motivation to achieve self-actualization.

Factors that Affect Human Behavior

Heredity - This is determined by genes, which are segments of cell structures called
chromosomes, by which parents pass on traits to their offspring.

Environment - These factors consist of the conditions that surround and influence an
individual.

Learning - This refers to the process by which behaviors change because of experience
or practice.

Other factors that affect or influence behavior include the following:

 Attitudes, beliefs, emotions
  Reasoning
 Culture, values, ethics, religion
 Authority, motivation, persuasion, and coercion

MOTIVATIONS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

The Needs Theory of Human Motivation
This theory states that throughout one's life, desires, wishes, and drives
that are collectively called "needs," motivate every individual. When not fulfilled,
these needs place an individual under stress. Thus, to relieve the tensions created, one
has to strive for appropriate satisfaction of these needs. According to Abraham Maslow,
human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:

"It is quite true that man lives by bread alone when there is no bread. But what
happens to man's desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically
filled? At once other (and "higher") needs emerge and these, rather than physiological
hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and
still "higher") needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic
human needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency" (Maslow, 1943, p.
375).

The Five-Stage Pyramid according to Maslow's Theory

Self Actualization
Esteem Needs
Love and Belonging Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs

Source: (McLeod citing Maslow, 2014).

1. Biological and physiological needs: food, drink, air, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep

2. Safety needs: security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear, protection from the elements

3. Love and belongingness needs: affection and love from work group, family, friends, peers;
romantic relationships; friendship; intimacy

4. Esteem needs: achievement, independence, mastery, status, dominance, self-respect,

prestige, and respect from others

5. Self-actualization needs: realization of one's personal potential and self-fulfillment, seeking

personal growth and peak experiences.

The Psychodynamics of Human Motivation

Psychodynamics, which literally means "motivation to action, defines human
behavior in terms of the personality of the inner self. It also refers to the concept
of subjective life and inner forces within, which are called "mental personality".

Sigmund Freud first proposed a psychodynamic theory in the early 20th century.
According to this theory, the mind has three levels by which its psychic forces
operate, namely, the Id, Ego, and SuperEgo. In psychology, the psychodynamic view
 is used to explain human personality and behavior in terms of conscious and
unconscious forces, such as unconscious desires and beliefs. Psychodynamic theories
generally argue that one's childhood experiences shape personality (Definition of
Psychodynamic Theory, n.d.)

CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Physical Causes - These refer to natural causes, like typhoons, and earthquake, fire,
flood, and storm.

Social Conflicts - These are restrictions or rules in the home, school, workplace, and
community.

Economic Conflicts - These result from one's inability to acquire material things
because of poverty or other financial obligations.

Two Basic Types of Human Behavior

Type Concept Examples

1. Inherited Behavioral response or reflex that is Breathing, ingesting food,

Behavior exhibited by people based on their avoiding waste, mating, and
genetic endowment or the process of defending one's self
natural selection.

2. Learned Involves cognitive adaptation that Verbal communication, Logical

Behavior enhances the human being's abilities problem- solving techniques,
to cope with environmental changes job, and skills, etc.
and manipulate the environment to
improve one's existence

Other Types of Behaviors

Type Behavior
s

1. Habitual Motor, emotional, language

2. Instinctive Unlearned behavior

3. Symbolic Substitute behavior

4. Complex Two or more habitual behaviors that occur in one situation

STIMULANTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Sensations - These are feelings or impressions of stimuli that may be delivered via the
following sources:
 Olfactory - smell
 Cutaneous touch
 Auditory hearing
 Gustatory taste
 Visual - sight

Perception - This refers to one's knowledge of various stimuli from the environment or
external sources.

Awareness - This is a psychological activity that occurs in accordance with the

interpretation and experience of various stimuli.

Attributes of Human Behavior

Duration- how long it occurs in terms of functions of time
Extensity- spatial characteristics
Intensity- magnitude or level
Quantity- normal or abnormal, un/acceptability

Characteristics of Behavior
1. Human behaviors are primarily native or learned.
2. Evoked by external stimuli or internal needs.
3. Automatic, voluntary, conscious motor, or intentional.

Personality Dimensions that affect Human Behavior

Types Characteristics Effects

1. Frequently seeks stimulation, excitement, Gets people in trouble, has the

Extraversion and thrills greatest role in crime and
delinquency

2. Intensely reacts to stress, generally Enhances habits and influences

Neuroticism moody, touchy, sensitive to slights and the individual to behave in ways
anxious or nervous. that are considered anti-social.

3. Cold, cruel, social insensitivity, disregard Impulse aggressive individuals

Psychoticism for danger, troublesome behavior, dislike without appreciable conscience
of others, attraction towards the unusual. or sense of morals.

ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
Abnormal Behavior - This is a kind of behavior that fails to meet the characteristics of a normal
person and includes inabilities in the following areas:
1. Free expression of personality
2. Adequate security feeling
3. Efficient contact with reality
4. Adaptability to group norms
5. Emotional maturity
6. Adequate self-knowledge
7. Integrated and consistent personality

Criminal Psychology - This is a branch of knowledge that studies various aspects of criminal
behavior. Specifically, it refers to "the study of the mind and its workings in relation to crime
(Criminal Psychology, n.d.).

TYPES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

Personality Disorder
This kind of disorder originates during the early development process and leads
to maladaptive behavior.

Classifications of Personality Disorder

Classification Characteristics

1. Passive- Aggressive Passively dependent and aggressive due to overindulgence.

2. Hysterical Personality Easily excitable, emotional instability, dramatic need for

Disorder attention, immature, tendency to sexualize contacts with the
opposite sex.

3. Compulsive Personality Excessive concern for conformity, perfection, and order.

disorder

4. Paranoid Personality Hypersensitive, unwarranted suspicion, jealousy, envy, and

feelings of excessive importance.

Neuroses- or psychoneuroses are behavioral disorders that are brought about by emotional
tension resulting from conflicts, repression, frustration, or insecurity. Neurotic individuals
compromise with reality by developing imaginary ailments, obsessions, phobias, compulsion,
depression or anxiety.

Behavioral Characteristics of Individuals Displaying Neurotic Reactions

1. Inability to function at the normal capacity level
2. Presence of anxiety
 3. Rigid or repetitive behavior
4. Somatic complaints
5. Immaturity
6. Hypersensitivity
7. Egocentricity
8. Unhappiness
9. A great deal of unconsciously motivated behavior

Understanding the Causes of Neuroses

As we have learned earlier, human behaviors are influenced by different factors.
The following factors may be considered important considerations when evaluating an
individual suffering from neurosis:
1. Predisposing or constitutional factors
2. One's immediate life situation
3. Childhood development patterns
4. Important cultural factors

Classification of Neurosis According to the Most Striking Symptoms

1. Anxiety Reactions - These are mainly manifested in consciously experienced
feelings of anxiety and apprehension, for which there are no specific bases in actual life.

Hysteria
This disorder is a type of anxiety reaction, in which the individual manifests
one or more symptoms that are often associated with organic disease. Disabilities
that may develop from this disorder include paralysis of the limbs, deafness, blindness,
intense aches and pains, continuous vomiting, loss of voice, and head or hand tremors.

Forms of Hysteria
A. Amnesia - This is a disorder wherein the individual cannot recall his or her name and
remembers little or nothing about the past in varying levels of intensity.

Types of Amnesia
Anterograde - This is the inability to retain information, which has just
been seen or read.
Retrograde - This refers to the inability to recall any event (and details
thereof) that took place during a certain period.
Localized - The inability to recall events and details that are related to a
particular situation.

B. Fugue - This is a type of amnesia wherein one wanders away from his or her home
or usual surroundings; often, the person has no recollection as to how he/she came to
be there when awareness sets in.

Multiple Personality - This is a dramatic form of hysteria, in which the patient

develops two or more separated and very distinct personalities.
 C. Somnambulism - This is a dreamlike state in which the person walks about and
carries on certain activities that he eventually fails to remember when he wakes up.

Psychasthenia
This is a psychoneurotic condition that is accompanied by a vast range of
mental and emotional symptoms that cannot be controlled. The person is fear-
ridden by obsessions, compulsion, or unreasonable dread or phobia. Other symptoms of
Psychasthenia are unreasonable elation, over inhibition, or constant depression.

Forms of Psychasthenia
A. Phobia- This refers to an irrational or exaggerated fear of an object, person,
act or situation. This is characterized by the following:
 Reasons for the fear do not make sense.
 One's fear paralyzes instead of enhances one's ability to deal with a
problem.
 The fear seems to be caused by the threat of self- destructive
aggressions that may take place.

Examples of Phobias
 Arachnophobia - The fear of spiders
 Ophidiophobia - The fear of snakes
 Acrophobia - The fear of heights
 Agoraphobia - The fear of open or crowded spaces
 Cynophobia-The fear of dogs
 Astraphobia - The fear of thunder and lightning
 Claustrophobia - The fear of small spaces
 Mysophobia-The fear of germs
 Aerophobia-The fear of flying
 Trypophobia-The fear of holes

B. Obsession - This refers to an idea or series of ideas that recur very frequently
that interfere with the ability of an individual to think and/or function normally.

C. Compulsion - This is an irresistible tendency to perform an act or ritual, which

an individual feels compelled to carry out although it is recognized as irrational; a
person must perform an act and give in to the urge in order to reduce the tension.

Examples of Compulsion
 Suicidal mania the impulse to take one's life
 Homicidal mania - the impulse to kill
 Dipsomania the impulse to drink liquor
 Megalomania - the impulse to amass great fame or power
 Kleptomania the impulse to steal
 Pyromania the impulse to set things on fire
 Arithmomania - the impulse to count everything
 Traumatic Neuroses - These are manifested in situations, in which the individual fears
for his/her safety.

Operational Fatigue - Otherwise known as war neurosis, this is manifested in response

to a battle environment.

Psychoses - are serious mental illnesses that are characterized by unpredictable

behavior. Psychotic persons have a largely unrealistic interpretation of the self and the
life around them. In this case, their ego has lost control over their personality. In addition,
people with psychosis have great mood swings that range from extreme exaltation to extreme
depression. They are also quiet and docile at one moment and hyperactive the next. Owing to
such an imbalance, they are often socially inept and unable to fit in with the normal society.

Classification of Psychoses
1. Organic/Somatogenic- Organic or somatogenic psychoses are due to a wide
variety of causes; however, damage or injury to the brain or other parts of the
central nervous system is always involved.

Symptoms of Organic Psychoses

 Emotional instability, which is manifested by general irritability or violent
mood swings without a clear cause.
 Impairment of normal, intellectual functions.
 Inappropriate behavior and changes in general behaviors, including
neglect of responsibilities, lack of interest in personal appearance, and an
anti-social tendency.

Types of Organic Psychoses

 Psychoses associated with toxins
 Psychoses associated with infectious disease
 Psychoses associated with old age
 Psychoses associated with head injuries

2. Functional Psychosis- refers to a serious mental disorder involving the

total personality with no observable tissue damage. Hence, with no organic
basis, these ailments are believed to result from years of living under emotional
stress. As a severe emotional disorder, functional psychosis is characterized by
personality derangement and complete loss of the ability to function in reality,
"but without evidence that the disorder is related to the physical processes of the
brain" (Functional Psychosis, n.d.). It can also relate to an obsolete term "once
used to denote schizophrenia and other severe mental disorders before modern
science discovered a biological component to some aspects of each of the
disorders" (Functional Psychosis, n.d.)

Forms of Functional Psychosis

A. Schizophrenic Disorder- is a psychotic condition that is characterized by one's

withdrawal from reality, indifference toward daily problems, and the tendency to
live in a world of fantasy. The word "schizophrenia" comes from the Greek words
"schizo" (split) and "phrene" (mind); hence, the term is used to describe the
fragmented state of mind of people suffering from such a disorder. The disease was
first identified in 1887 by Dr. Emile Kraepelin, who considered this disease as a
discrete mental illness. Dr. Kraeplin was also the first to classify varied mental
disorders into categories (History of Schizophrenia, n.d).

Initially, Dr. Kraepelin used the term "dementia praecox." However, in

1911, the Swiss psychiatrist, Eugen Bleuler coined the term "schizophrenia"
to describe the condition of individuals who showed symptoms of the disease.
Bleuler was also the first to describe the symptoms as either "positive" or
"negative" (History of Schizophrenia, n.d).

Symptoms of Schizophrenia
 Disorganized patterns of feeling and thinking, where there is no logic or
reason in thoughts and expressed feelings
 Apathy or absence of feelings and emotions in situations that call for such
reactions
 Bizarre actions, including absurd and eccentric gestures, or such
activities as hoarding, among others.
 Shunning others, reclusiveness, or narrowing of interests and social
contacts.
 Disorganized speech patterns
 Delusions and hallucinations (usually auditory)
 Deterioration of conduct and personal habits

Types of Schizophrenia
Simple Schizophrenia - This manifests in a gradual decline of interest
and ambition. The person withdraws from almost all social contacts and
becomes increasingly irritable and inattentive.

Hebephrenic Schizophrenia - It usually begins in early adolescence and

develops gradually in time. The person may be prone to fits of laughter or
childish giggling and grimacing for hours without apparent reasons.

Catatonic Schizophrenia - This is marked by cycles of psychomotor

reactions in stupor (partial or complete loss of consciousness) and
excitement phases.

Paranoid Schizophrenia - This is marked by hallucinations and

delusions that are illogical and loosely organized, as well as grandiose
and/or persecutory in nature.

B. Affective Disorder
Affective reactions of manic-depressive psychosis are often characterized by
periods of depression or elation or both. Affective disorders refer to a set of
psychiatric diseases, the symptoms for which may vary depending on each
individual. Symptoms typically affect one's mood, hence affective disorders are
also called mood disorders that can be anywhere from mild to severe.
An affective disorder can be diagnosed by a psychiatrist or other trained
mental health professional, usually through a psychiatric evaluation. Although
affective disorders can disrupt daily lives, there are effective medication and
psychotherapy treatments for this (Ellis, 2013).

Types of Affective Disorders

The three main types of affective disorders are as follows:
depression, bipolar disorder, and anxiety disorder, and these vary from
one another in terms of severity (Ellis, 2013).

Depression - This is often characterized by feelings of extreme hopelessness

and sadness. These episodes may last anywhere from several days or even
weeks. Its symptoms include the following:
 suicidal thoughts
 irritability or anxiety
 prolonged sadness
 lack of interest in normal activities
 lethargy and lack of energy
 major changes in eating and sleeping habits
 feelings of guilt
 difficulty concentrating
 aches and pains that have no physical explanation

Bipolar disorder - This refers to a state wherein the person experiences

alternating periods of depression and periods of mania, which is the feeling of
being extremely positive and active. A person may have bipolar disorder if he/she
has the following symptoms:
 chronic mood swings
 during depression, symptoms similar to those for major depressive
disorder
 during mania, less sleep and feelings of exaggerated self-
confidence
 irritability or aggression
 feeling of self-importance
 impulsiveness and recklessness
 delusions or hallucinations

Anxiety Disorders - The different types of anxiety disorders are all characterized
by feelings of anxiety, fear, and nervousness. The symptoms of affective
disorders include the following: constant worrying, irritability, obsessive thoughts,
restlessness and trouble concentrating trembling, sweating, shortness of breath
and rapid heart rate difficulty sleepingnausea

C. Paranoia - This is another type of psychotic reaction, the main symptom of

which is characterized by suspicion.
Types of Paranoia
Persecutory Paranoia - This refers to having delusions of
persecution. The person believes that some people are plotting to
harm him/her in some way.
 Litigious Paranoia - This refers to having delusions of both
persecution and grandeur; a person may go to great lengths to
bring alleged persecutors to court.

Erotic Paranoia - Also called amorous paranoia, this refers to

having delusions that a certain person is in love with him/her.

Exalted Paranoia - Having grandiose delusions and believes

himself/ herself as someone with great power or importance,
usually a social reformer or religious crusader.

Jealous Paranoia - The state of having extreme and irrational

jealousy.

D. Antisocial Personality - A person with an antisocial personality is a mentally

disturbed person who is opposed to the Normal principles upon which a society
is based.
Characteristics of an Anti- Social Personality

Sociopath refers to a person who dislikes any sense of social or

moral responsibility due to mental illness.

Psychopath- refers to a person with a personality disorder that is

characterized by antisocial behavior, indifference to immorality,
and abnormal changes in mood or activity. A psychopath is a
classic manipulator or con artist.

One of the major significant characteristics of a psychopath

is the absence of a conscience or any guilty feeling after
committing grievous acts against others. This means that the
person has not incorporated the moral values of society into his
life. In addition, the psychopath is selfish and strives for physical
pleasure. Hence, most of his pursuits revolve around manipulating
people to acquire personal gains. A chronic liar, a psychopath is
often impulsive and demands immediate satisfaction, thus unable
to learn from past experiences.

Dealing with Different Abnormal and Deviant Behaviors

Abnormal Proper Handling and Hints
Behavior

1. Anxiety Reassurance

2. Depressed Put yourself in the shoes of the sufferer; be on the alert for possible
suicide

3. Obsessive - Understand that the sufferer is disturbed and not crazy; refer to the
Compulsive appropriate facility
 4. Phobia Supportive intervention

5. Psychoses Display of guns, force, and restraints. should be avoided unless there is a
manifestation of danger to one's life; send the patient to a hospital. If he/
she desists, be firm.

6. Psychopathy 1. Review arrest records.

2. Recognize con man/woman's manipulative conversation
3. Don't bluff, he/she is a master of this and certainly better than anybody
4. Interview him/her after knowing every detail of a case.
5. A psychopath can beat lie detectors, he/she is immune to anxiety
unless placed under stress
6. Be firm and clear.
7. A psychopath may be charming but can also become very angry and
may manipulate others, thus violating their rights.

7. Drug- 1. Be patient, but firm- the person is not himself.

Dependent 2. Keep him/her talking to relieve the stress;
Behavior 3. Refer him/her to the appropriate hospital, medical facility or medical
institution.

8. Paranoid 1. Be understanding; never give the impression that he/she is crazy.

Behavior 2. Friendliness and neutrality is usually the best approach.
3. Do not heighten the patient's anxieties; do not provoke him/her, or
ignite violent reactions.
4. Assure the paranoid patient that your presence is to help and protect
him/her.
5. Do not frighten a paranoid patient with a weapon; he/she may panic
and react violently. However, do not let your guards down. Remember, a
paranoid patient may be suicidal and/or homicidal.

SEXUAL DEVIANCY
Sexuality - The behavior associated with the relation between sexes and their
respective reproductive organs.

Normal Sexuality - Sexual completion that leads to a mature and well-adjusted

individual, capable of entering relationships with a member of the opposite sex, and who
is physically and mentally stable and satisfying heterosexual needs.

Abnormal Sexuality/Sexual Deviancy - A kind of sexual behavior that seeks

stimulation and gratification by means other than normal, heterosexual norms.

Classifications of Sexual Abnormalities

1. As to Choice of Sexual Partner
Types of Characteristics
Abnormality

1. Infantisexual Sexual desire towards an immature person

 2. Bestosexual Sexual desire towards animals

3. Autosexual A form of self-abuse or solitary vice carried out without the cooperation
of another person.

4. Gerontophilia Sexual desire toward an elder person

5. Necrophilia Sexual perversion that is characterized by erotic desire or actual sexual

intercourse with a corpse.

6. Incest Sexual relations between persons who, by reason of blood relationship,

cannot legally marry.

2. As to Instinctual Sexual Urge

Types Characteristics

1. Satyriasis Excessive sexual desire of men to perform intercourse.

2. Nymphomania Strong sexual feeling of a woman

3. Sexual Anesthesia Absence of sexual desire of arousal during sexual act in women.

4. Dyspareunia Painful sexual act in women

5. Vaginismus Painful spasm of the vagina during sexual act

3. As to the Mode of Sexual Expression or Way of Sexual Satisfaction

Types Characteristics

1. Oralism (Irrumation) The use of the mouth as a way of sexual gratification, such as
fellatio, cunnilingus, and anilingus.

2. Sado- Masochism Pain or cruelty acts as a factor for gratification, such as sadism
(Algolagnia) and masochism.

3. Fetishism A form of sexual perversion, in which the real or fantasized

presence of an object or bodily part is necessary for sexual
 stimulation or gratification.

Examples: anatomic, clothing, necrophilia,

and odor, etc.

4. As to the Parts of the Body

Types Characteristics

1. Sodomy Sexual act through the anus of another human being.

2. Uranism An act in which sexual gratification is attained by fingering, fondling the breast,
licking parts of the body, etc.

3. Frottage A form of sexual gratification that is characterized by the compulsive desire of a

person to rub his sexual organ against the body parts of another person.

4. A form of sexual deviation, in which a person has a special affinity to certain

Pantialism parts of the female body.

5. As to Visual Stimulus
Туреs Characteristics

1. Voyeurism A form of sexual perversion that is characterized by a compulsion

to covertly look at a person undress or perform other activities.

2. Mixoscopia Sexual perversion wherein sexual pleasure is attained by watching

(Scoptophilia) a couple undress or during their acts of sexual intimacy.

6. As to Number

Types Characteristics

1. Froilism A form of sexual perversion, in which three persons participate in

the sexual orgy (Suixante-neve)

2. A form of sexual deviation, in which a group of persons participate

Pluralism in the sexual orgy (sexual festival)
7. Other Sexual Deviations
Types Characteristics

1. Corpolalia A form of sexual deviation that is characterized by the need to

use obscene language to obtain orgasm.

A form of sexual deviation that is characterized by promiscuity

2. Don and seduction of many women as part of a male's sexual career.
Juanism

3. Indecent Exposure Willful exposure of one's genital organs in public places and in
(Exhibitionism) the presence of other persons, usually those of the opposite sex.

Coping Strategies, Mechanisms of Skills

Psychological coping mechanisms refer to constructive coping strategies

that an individual invests in to address stress and conflicts, be it internal or
external. At times, coping strategies are mistakenly referred to as defense mechanisms.
This is not accurate. Cramer (1998) outlines the difference between the two. Coping
mechanisms are conscious and purposeful effort to address the sources of stress and
anxiety while defense mechanisms are processes that occur without conscious effort
and awareness. Cramer goes on to state that coping mechanisms involve a conscious
effort to solve the problematic situation while defense mechanisms only seek to alter the
person's internal psychological makeup but does not address the external reality that
caused the problem in the first place. Simply put, coping mechanisms address the
problem face on while defense mechanisms aim to stay from the problem by
distorting one's perception of reality.