Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial

Engineering

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 Unit 3

WELDING

Manufacturing Engineering II, (MEng 4191)

4th Year, Mech. Eng. 1st Sem., 2017 (2024/25)

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 Unite: 3 Welding (Fusion Welding)

Outline
1. Introduction
[Link] Area of Welding
[Link] of welding
[Link] of welding
[Link] of welding
[Link] (Fusion & Solid state Welding)

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 1. Introduction
Two or more parts are to be
assembled/joined together in any machine
parts to fulfil the intended purposes;
No machine is made from single part;
For examples: Automobile around 15000 parts; Air craft (Boing 747-
400) 6 million part; etc.
Consider utensils that we are used day by how many parts that they
have
Mechanical fastening methods can be divided into two major
classes: those that allow for disassembly, and those that create a
permanent joint;
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 1. Introduction
The term joining is generally used for welding,
brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding, which
form a permanent joint between the parts—a
joint that cannot easily be separated;

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 1. Introduction
• Welding is a materials joining process in
which two or more parts are coalesced at
t h e i r c o n t a c t i n g s u r f a c e s by a s u i t a b l e
application of heat and/or pressure;

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1. Introduction
• Many welding processescan be accomplished by:
• Heat alone, with no pressure applied;
• Combination of heat and pressure;
• Pressure alone, without external heat supplied;

• I n some welding processes a filler material is added to

facilitate coalescence;

Defination:
Welding is defined as “localized coalescence of metal or non metal
produced either by heating the materials to suitable temperatures, with
or without applications of pressure, or by the application of pressure
alone, and with or without the use of filler materials. ”(AWS)
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 1. Introduction
• The assemblage of parts
that are joined by welding is
called a weldment.
• We l d i n g i s m o s t c o m m o n l y
associated with metal p ar ts,
but the process is also used for
joining plastics;
• In this discussion welding of
metals will be focused;

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 2. Application Area

1. Construction, such as buildings and

bridges;
2. Piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and
storage tanks;
3. Shipbuilding;
4. Aircraft and aerospace; and
5. Automotive and railroad

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3. Importance of Welding
• Welding provides permanent joint, that
welded parts become a single entity
• Welding, if properly controlled results
permanent joints having strength equal or
sometimes more than the base metal;

• Large number of metals and alloys both similar

and dissimilar can be joined by welding;
• Welding can also be mechanized;

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 3. Importance of …
Welding is usually the most economical way to join components in
terms of material usage and fabrication costs compared with
that of mechanical methods of assembly which requires more
complex shape alterations and addition of fasteners.

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 3. Importance of …
• Mechanical assembly is usually
heavier than the corresponding
weldment;

• Welding is not restricted to the factory

environment. It can be accomplished ‘‘in
the field’’ also;

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 4. Limitations
• Most welding operations are performed
manually and are expensive in terms of
labor cost;

• Many welding operations are considered

‘‘skilled trades,’’ and the labor to perform
these operations may be scarce;

• Most welding processes are inherently

dangerous because it involve the use of
high energy;

13
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 4. Limitations
• Welding accomplishes a permanent bond
between the components, then it does not
allow for convenient disassembly of the part
for any inaccuracy;

• The welded joint can suffer from certain

quality defects which are difficult to
detect that reduce the strength of the
joint;

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4. Limitations
• Welding results in residual
stresses and distortion of the
work pieces;
• Welded joint needs stress
relieving and heat treatment;
• Welding gives out harmful
radiations (light), fumes and
spatter;

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4. Limitations
• Jigs, and fixtures may also be needed to
hold and position the parts to be
welded;
• Edges preparation of the welding jobs
are required before welding;
• Heat during welding produces
metallurgical changes as the structure
of the welded joint is not same as that
of the parent metal (HAZ);

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 Welding Joint Types

Butt Joint Corner Joint Lap Joint Tee Joint Edge Joint

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 Welding Joint position
Flat Position Horizontal Position Vertical Position Overhead Position

Fillet Weld

Grooved Weld

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 Welding edges
Grooved weld edge type

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 5. Classification of Welding

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 Energy source in welding
Electrical source
Chemical source
Optical sources
Mechanical sources
Gas: Hydrogen, acetylene,

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 5. Physics of Welding
Fusion Welding (FW)
• In FW processes, heat is used
to melt the base metals;

• In many FW operations, a filler metal is added to the molten

pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to
the welded joint;

• A FW operation in which no filler metal is added is referred to

as an autogenous weld;

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 5. Physics of Welding
Fusion Welding (FW)
• To accomplish fusion, a source
of high-density heat energy is
supplied to base metal and
filler (if filler is used) to cause
localized meting;
• Heat density can be defined as the power transferred to the
work per unit surface area, W/mm2;
• If power density is too low, then heat is conducted into the work
as rapidly as it is added at the surface, and melting of the
metal never occurs;
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 Fusion Welding(FW)
• The time to melt the metal
is inversely proportional to
the power density.
• At low power densities, a
sufficient amount of time is
required to cause melting,
since the applied heat lost As heat density increases, melting
by conduction to the other time is reduced. If power density is too
surface the metal to be high-above around 105 W/mm 2 -the
welded; localized temperatures vaporize the
metal in the affected region;

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 5. Physics of Welding
Fusion Welding (FW)
HEAT BALANCE IN FUSION
WELDING
The quantity of heat required to
m e l t a given v o l u m e o f m e t a l
depends on
1. The heat to raise the temperature of the solid metal to its
melting point, which depends on the metal’s volumetric specific
heat;
2. The melting point of the metal, and
3. The heat to transform the metal from solid to liquid phase at the
melting point, which depends on the metal’s heat of fusion;
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6. Physics of Welding
Fusion Welding (FW)
Power density:
�
�� =
�
Where:
PD-Power density, �
��2
P-Power entering to the surface, w;
A-Surface area over which the energy is entering, ��2

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6. Physics of Welding
Fusion Welding (FW)
Quantity of heat can be estimated by the eqn. given below;

where:
Um = the quantity of heat required to melt a unit volume of metal
starting from room temperature, J/mm3 (Btu/in3) respectively ;
T m =melting point of the metal on an absolute temperature scale,
K(R); and K=constant whose value is 3.33 X10 - 6 when the Kelvin
scale is used (and K =1.467 X10-5 for the Rankine temperature scale);

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 6. Physics of Welding (FW)
HEAT BALANCE IN FUSION WELDING Fusion Welding
Two factors, (f 1 &f 2 ) introduced, as all the
heat supplied to the system may not be
converted to melt the metal.

1. Heat transfer factor f 1, defined as

the ratio of the actual heat received
by the workpiece divided by the total
heat generated at the source.
2. Melting factor �� a mechanism that involves
the conduction of heat away from the weld area to be
dissipated throughout the work metal, only the
remaining portion of the heat transferred to the
surface is available for melting;
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 6. Physics of Welding
Fusion Welding (FW)
The combined effect of
these two factors:

Where:
Hw= net heat available for
welding, J
f1= heat transfer factor;
f2 = the melting factor; and
H =the total heat generated by the welding
Process; J
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 6. Physics of Welding
Fusion Welding (FW)
Balance between energy needed
and energy input

Where:
Hw = net heat energy used by the welding
operation (input heat), J;
U m = unit energy required to melt the
metal, J/mm3 ; and
V=the volume of metal melted,mm3

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 6. Physics of Welding
Fusion Welding (FW)
Most welding processes are rate
process, mathematically

Where:
��� -Rate of heat energy delivered to the
operation for welding, J/s
3
��� -Volume rate of metal welded, ��
�

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 6. Physics of Welding
Fusion Welding (FW)
Most welding processes are rate process,
mathematically

��� = �1 �2 �� = �� �� �

Where:
�1 &�2 -Heat transfer and melting factor;
�� -Rate of input energy generated by the welding power source,
W (J/s)
�� -Welding cross-sectional area, ��2
V-Travel velocity of the welding operation, �� �
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 6. Physics of Welding �
�� =
Fusion Welding (FW) �
Examples:
1. In a laser beam welding process, what is the quantity of heat per unit
time (J/sec) that is transferred to the material if the heat is concentrated
in circle with a diameter of 0.2 mm? Assume the power density is 9000
W/mm2; P?
2. Compute the unit energy for melting for the following metals (Um):
A. Aluminum, B. copper and C. Titanium,
3. A fillet weld has a cross-sectional area of 25.0 mm2 and is 300 mm long.
A. What quantity of heat (in J) is required to accomplish the weld, if
the metal to be welded is low carbon steel? (Hw) B. How much heat
must be generated at the welding source, if the heat transfer factor is
0.75 and the melting factor is 0.63(RH )?
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 6. Physics of Welding
Fusion Welding (FW)
Examples:
4. The welding power generated in a particular arc welding
operation is 3000 W. This is transferred to the work surface with
a heat transfer factor equals 0.9. The metal to be welded is copper
whose melting point is given in Table 29.2. Assume that the
melting factor is 0.25. A continuous fillet weld is to be made with
a cross-sectional area is 15.0 mm2. Determine the travel speed at
which the welding operation can be accomplished.

��� = �1 �2 �� = �� �� �
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 Fusion Welding (FW)
Features of Fusion Welding
A typical fusion-weld joint in which
filler metal has been added consisted of
several zones

1. Fusion zone
2. Weld interface,
3. Heat-affected zone, and
4. Unaffected base metal zone.

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 Fusion Welding (FW)
1. The fusion zone consists of a
mixture of filler metal and base
metal that have completely
melted.

2. The second zone in the weld joint is the weld interface, a

narrow boundary that separates the fusion zone from the
heat- affected zone.
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 Fusion Welding (FW)
3. The heat-affected zone (HAZ): the
metal in this zone has experienced
temperatures that are below its
melting point, yet high enough to
cause microstructural changes in
the solid metal. The effect on
mechanical properties in the heat-
affected zone is usually negative, and
it is in this region of the weld joint
that welding failures often occur.

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 Fusion welding classification
Fusion welding is by far the more important category, is
classified as:
1. Arc welding (Consumable and non consumable
electrode),
2. Resistance welding,
3. Oxy fuel gas welding,

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode

• Arc welding (AW) is a fusion- welding process in which

coalescence of the metals is achieved by the heat of an
electric arc b/n an electrode and the work an Arc
cutting is available for cutting operations.

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
Equipment's:
• Welding transformer
(AC/DC)
• Electrode holder
• Cables (+ve and –ve)
• Ground clamp
• Safety wears

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
• To initiate the arc in an AW
process, the electrode is
brought into contact with the
work and then quickly
separated from it by a short
distance.
• An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit. I t is sustained by the
presence of a thermally ionized column of gas
(called a plasma) through which current flows.
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
The electric energy from the
arc thus formed produces
temperatures of 5500oC or
higher, sufficiently hot to melt
any metal.
A pool of mo l ten m e t a l , c o n s i s t i n g of base metal(s) a n d
filler metal (if one is used) is formed near the tip of the
electrode.
In most arcwelding processes, filler metal is added during the
operation to increase the volume and strength of the weld joint.
As electrode is moved along the joint, the molten weld pool
solidifies in its wake.
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode

Electrodes:
• Consumable and non consumable.
• Consumable electrode used as a filler.
• It is available in rod(stick)/wire forms
which continuously feed.
• Non consumable electrode; also used
which does not melt but separate filler
metal can be supplied to the process.
• The electrode is made from Tungsten or
Carbon.
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
Arc Shield:
• The molten metals
welding bed reacts with the
atmospheric air then the mechanical
properties of the weld joint can be
seriously degraded by these reactions;

• Thus, some means to shield the arc from the surrounding air is
provided in nearly all AW processes.
• Arc shielding is accomplished by covering the electrode tip, arc,
and molten weld pool with a blanket of gas or flux, or both,
which inhibit exposure of the weld metal to air.
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode

Arc Shield:
Common shielding gases:
argon and helium, both of which are inert.
In the welding of ferrous metals with certain AW processes,
oxygen and carbon dioxide are used, usually in combination with
Ar and/or He,
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
• A flux is a substance used to prevent the
formation of oxides and other unwanted
contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate
removal.
• During welding, the flux melts and becomes a
liquid slag, covering the operation and protecting the
molten weld metal.
• The slag hardens upon cooling and must be removed
later by chipping or brushing.

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
Flux additional functions:
1. Provide a protective atmosphere for welding,
2. Stabilize the arc, and
3. Reduce spattering.

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
The method of flux application :
1. Pouring granular flux onto the welding operation,
2. Using a stick electrode coated with flux material in which
the coating melts during welding to cover the operation,
and
3. Using tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the
core and released as the electrode is consumed.

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
Power Source in Arc
Welding
• Direct current (DC) and
alternating current (AC) are
used in arc welding;
• AC machines are less expensive
to purchase and operate, only
used for welding of ferrous
metals,
• DC equipment can be used on all metals with good
results and is generally noted for better arc control.
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode

• In all arc-welding processes, power to drive the

operation is the product of the current I passing
through the arc and the voltage E across it;
• This power is converted into heat, but not all of the
heat is transferred to the surface of the work;

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Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
Power Source in Arc Welding
• Convection, conduction,
radiation, and spatter
account for losses that reduce
the amount of usable heat.

The effect of the losses is expressed by the heat transfer factor f1

Some representative values of f1 for several AW processes are
given in the Table

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
Power Source in Arc Welding
• Heat transfer factors are greater for AW processes that use
consumable electrodes because most of the heat consumed in
melting the electrode is subsequently transferred to the work as
molten metal.

• The process with the lowest f1 value in is gas tungsten arc

welding, which uses a non consumable electrode.

• Melting factor f2 further reduces the available heat for welding.

The resulting power balance in arc welding is defined by

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):

Shielded Metal Arc Welding:

• Shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) is an AW process
that uses a consumable
electrode consisting of a filler
metal rod coated with
chemicals that provide flux
and shielding.

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):

• The filler metal used in the rod

must be compatible with the
metal to be welded, the
composition usually being very
close to that of the base metal.

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):

• The welding stick(SMAW is

sometimes called stick welding)
is typically 225 to 450mm(9–18
in) long and 2.5 to 9.5mm(3/32–
3/8 in) in diameter;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode

• The coating consists of powdered cellulose (i.e., cotton and

wood powders) mixed with oxides, carbonates, and other
ingredients, held together by a silicate binder;
• Metal powders are also sometimes included in the coating to
increase the amount of filler metal and to add alloying
elements;
• The heat of the welding process melts the coating to provide
a protective atmosphere and slag for the welding operation;
• It also helps to stabilize the arc and regulate the rate at
which the electrode melts;

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Arc welding-Consumable Electrode

• The operations are performed manually;

• Current typically used in SMAW range
between 30 and 300 A at voltages from 15
to 45 V;

• Power parameters selection based on work

materials types and thickness, electrode type
and length, and de pth of penetration
required;
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Arc welding-Consumable Electrode

Common applications area: construction, pipelines, machinery

structures, shipbuilding, job shop fabrication, and repair work;

• I t i s preferred over oxy-fuel welding for thicker

sections-above 5 mm thick because f its higher power
density;
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Arc welding-Consumable Electrode

• The equipment is portable and low cost, making SMAW

highly versatile and portably the most widely used arc welding
processes;

• Base metals include steels, stainless steels, cast irons,

and certain nonferrous alloys;

• It is not used or seldom used for aluminum and its

alloys, copper alloys, and titanium;
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode

Advantages:
• Versatility-wide application;
• Relatively simple and portable equipment;
• Low cost;
• Suitable for all welding position;
• Can be used where ever (at factory area or field);

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode

Disadvantage:
• Not productive compare to other welding types (periodic change
of electrode sticks and removal of slag takes considerable
time that reduce arc time);

• High metal wastage as the end of the electrode that changed

has left o ver;
• Limited current compare to other welding types;
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
2. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):
• Gas metal arc welding(GMAW)/MIG is an AW process in which a
consumable bare metal wire used as an electrode/filler, and

• A shielding of the weld pool is

accomplished by flooding the arc
with a n inert g as .
(Argon/Helium) /carbon dioxide;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
2. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):

• The bare wire (dia. 0.8 to 6.5 mm) is fed

continuously and automatically from a
spool through the welding gun;
• Wire size depends welding thickness and
deposition rate requirement;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
2. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):

• Inert gases (Ar., He.) are used for

welding a l u m i n u m alloys a n d
stainless steels,
• CO2 is commonly used for
welding low and medium carbon
steels;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
2. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):
Advantages:
• No slag removal in the due process as of SMAW;
• It used for ferrous and non-ferrous metals by
varying the shielding gas;

• It has significant advantage in terms of arc time

compare to SM AW;

• It can be automated;
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
2. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):
Advantages:

• Effective utilization of filler material;

• It has high deposition rate compared with SM AW;
• High welding speed;
• Welding can be made in all position;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
2. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):

Disadvantages:
• Equipment is more expensive and
complex;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
3. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW):cen
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is an arc-
welding process in which the electrode is a
continuous consumable tubing that
contains flux and other ingredients in its
core;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
3. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW):cen

The tubular flux cored ‘‘wire’’ is flexible

and can therefore be supplied in the
form of coils to be continuously fed
through the arc welding gun;

There are two versions of FCAW:

1. Self-shielded and
2. Gas shielded.
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
3. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW):

In the first version of FCAW to be developed,

arc shielding was provided by a flux core, thus
leading to the name self-shielded flux-cored
arc welding. The core in this form of F C AW
includes not only fluxes but also ingredients
that generate shielding gases for protecting
the arc;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
3. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW):

The second version of FCAW, developed

primarily for welding steels, obtains arc
shielding from externally supplied gases.
This version is called gas- shielded flux-
cored arc welding. Because it utilizes an
electrode containing its own flux together
with separate shielding gases,

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc-welding process that
uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode, and arc
shielding is provided by a cover of granular flux;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

The electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil into the arc. The flux
is introduced into the joint slightly ahead of the weld arc by gravity
from a hopper;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

The blanket of granular flux

completely submerges the welding
operation, preventing sparks, spatter,
and radiation that
are so hazardous in other AW processes
to the welder;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

The unfused flux remaining after welding can be recovered

and reused;

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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Application:
Used in steel fabrication for structural shapes (e.g., welded I-
beams); longitudinal and circumferential seams for large
diameter pipes, t a n k s , and pressure vessels; and welded
components for heavy machinery;

Low-carbon, low-alloy, and stainless steels can be readily

welded by SAW;
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 Arc welding-Consumable Electrode
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Limitation:
• Used for the parts in a horizontal
position due to the g r a v i t y feed of the
granular flux;

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Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
1. TIG /GTAW

• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

is an AW process that uses a non
consumable tungsten electrode and
an inert gas for arc shielding.
• GTAW can be implemented with or
without a filler metal;

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Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
1. TIG /GTAW

• Tungsten is a good electrode material

due to its high melting point of point of
3410 0C ;

• GTAW is applicable to nearly all metals

in a wide range of stock thickness;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 79

Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
1. TIG /GTAW

• It can also be used for joining various

combinations of dissimilar metal;

• Its most common applications are for aluminum and stainless steel;

• Advantages of GTAW in the applications to which it is suited

include high-quality welds, no weld spatter because no filler metal is
transferred across the arc, and little or no post weld cleaning because no
flux is used;
1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 80
Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
1. TIG /GTAW

• It can also be used for joining various combinations of dissimilar

metals;
• Its most common applications are for aluminium and stainless
steel;

Advantages of GTAW: High-quality welds, no weld spatter

because no filler metal is transferred across the arc, and little or
no post weld cleaning because no flux is used;
1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 81
Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
2. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a special form

of gas tungsten arc welding in which a
constricted plasma arc is directed at the Argon, argon–hydrogen, and
helium are also used as the
weld area; arc-shielding gases;
A plasma is an ionized hot gas composed of
nearly equal numbers of electrons and ions; Plasma is a gaseous mixture of
p o s i t ive i o n s , e l e c t r o n s a n d
The plasma is initiated between the tungsten neutral gas molecules;
electrode and the orifice by a low-current
pilot arc;
1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 82
Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
2. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
There are two methods of
I n PAW, a t u n g s t e n electrode i s
plasma-arc welding:
contained in a specially designed
1. Transferred Arc Method: the
nozzle that focuses a high-velocity
w/p is part of the electrical
stream of inert gas (e.g., argon or
circuit i.e. arc occurs
argon–hydrogen mixtures) into the
between w/p& electrode tip.
region of the arc to form a h i gh
2. Non-Transferred Arc Method:
velocity, intensely hot plasma arc
the w/p is not part of the
stream.
electrical circuit but the arc
occurs between the electrode
tip and nozzle.

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 54

Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
2. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 84

Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
2. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Temperatures in plasma arc welding

reach 1 7 , 0 0 0 0 C o r g r e a t e r , h o t
enough to melt any known metal
(due to the constriction of the arc);
A basic PAW system consists
of a power source, a plasma
control console, a water
cooler, a welding torch and a
gas supply system for the
plasma and shielding.
1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 85
Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
2. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Principles of operation:
• O n c e t h e e q u i p m e n t is s e t up a n d t h e
welding is initiated, the plasma and
shielding gases are switched on;

• A pilot arc is then struck b/n a tungsten alloy electrode and the copper alloy
nozzle with in the torch, usually by applying high frequency open-circuit
voltage;
• After that when the selected welding current is initiated, the arc is
transferred from the electrode to the workpiece through the orifice in the
copper alloy nozzle;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 86

Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
2. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Advantages:
• good arc stability, better penetration control than most other AW
processes, high travel speeds, and excellent weld quality;
• The process can be used to weld almost any metal, including
tungsten;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 87

Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
2. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Limitation:
• High equipment cost compared with
GTAW
• L a r g e r t o r c h s i z e t h a n o t h e r AW
operations, which tends to restrict access
in some joint configurations;

• The greater complexity of the PAW torch design and greater number
of parts requires more scheduled maintenance;
1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 88
Arc welding-Non-Consumable Electrode
2. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Application:
• The PAW process is commonly used to weld s t a inles s steels in a
wide range of thickness;
• The process can also be used with Carbon and alloy steels,
Aluminum alloys, Titanium alloys, Copper and Nickel alloys, and
more specialized materials, such as Zirconium and Tantalum;
• Thickness welding range in a single pass 0.025 mm to 12.5mm;
• The process is used for all welding positions;
• Horizontal and Horizontal position can be welded by mechanized
PAW process;
• PAW p r o c e s s is o f t e n c a r r i e d out in an a u t og e n o u s m o d e ( i . e .
without filler metal);
1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 89
Other Fusion Weldings
1. Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
• Electron-beam welding (EBW) is a fusion-
welding process in which the heat for welding is
produced by a h i gh ly focused, h i gh - i n te n s i t y
stream of electrons impinging against the work
surface;
• The work piece melts as the kinetic energy of the
electrons is transformed in to heat up on impact;

• The electron beam gun operates at high voltage to accelerate the electrons (e.g.,
10–150 kV typical), and beam currents are low (measured in milliamps);
• High power density is achieved by focusing the electron beam on a very small
area (0.013 to 0.2 mm2) of the work surface;
1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 90
Other Fusion Weldings
2. Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Classification of EBW
1. High-vacuum welding (EBW-HV), in which
welding is carried out in the same vacuum
as beam generation;
2. Medium-vacuum welding ( E B W - M V ) , in
wh i c h t h e o p e ra t i o n i s p e r fo r m e d i n a
s e p a ra te c h a m b e r where only a p a r t i a l
vacuum is achieved; and
3. Nonvacuum welding (EBW-NV), in which
welding is accomplished at or near
atmospheric pressure;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 91

Other Fusion Weldings
2. Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Application:
• Any metals that can be arc welded can
be welded by EBW, as well as certain
refractory and difficult-to-weld metals
that are not suited to AW;
• Work sizes range from thin foil to thick plate;
• EBW is applied mostly in the automotive, aerospace, and nuclear
industries;
1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 92
Other Fusion Weldings
2. Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Advantages
• E l e c t r o n - b e a m w e l d i n g i s n o t e d for
high- quality welds with deep (above 50
mm depth) and/ or narrow profiles,
• Limited heat-affected zone, and
• Low thermal distortion.
• Welding speeds are high compared to
other continuous welding operations.
• No filler metal is used, and no flux or
shielding gases are needed.

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 88

Other Fusion Weldings
3. Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Disadvantages:
• High equipment cost,
• It needs for precise joint preparation
and alignment, and
• The limitations associated with
performing the process in a vacuum.
• Safety concerns because E B W
generates X-rays from which humans
must be shielded.

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 94

Other Fusion Weldings
2. Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
Laser-beam welding (LBW) is a fusion-welding
process in which coalescence is achieved by the
energy of a highly concentrated, coherent light
beam focused on the joint to be welded.

The term laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission

of radiation. A laser is an optical transducer that converts electrical energy
into a highly coherent light beam.

LBW is normally performed with shielding gases (e.g., helium, argon, nitrogen,
and carbon dioxide) to prevent oxidation. Filler metal is not usually added.

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 95

Other Fusion Weldings
3. Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

Advantages:
• LBW produces welds of high quality, deep
penetration(up to 19 mm depth), and narrow
heat-affected zone.
• No vacuum chamber is required,
• No X-rays are emitted, and
• Laser beams can be focused and directed by
optical lenses and mirrors.

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 96

Other Fusion Weldings
2. Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
Disadvantage:
• L B W does not possess the capability for
the deep welds and high depth-to-width
ratios of EBW.

• Maximum depth in laser welding is about 19 mm, whereas

EBW can be used for weld depths of 50 mm or more; and

• The depth-to-width ratios in LBW are typically limited to around

5:1. Because of the highly concentrated energy in the small area of
the laser beam, the process is often used to join small parts;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 92

 Thermite welding (TW)
• Also known as thermite or exothermic welding, and developed in
1895, thermite welding involves mixing a metal powder with a
metal oxide, and using a high-temperature ignition source (1300
deg. C) to cause an oxidation–reduction reaction;

• The temperature from the reaction is around 2500°C;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 98

 Thermite welding (TW)
Applications:
• joining of railroad rails, and
• repair of cracks in large steel castings and forgings such as ingot
molds,
• large diameter shafts,
• frames for machinery, and ship rudders;
The surface of the weld in these applications is often sufficiently
smooth so that no subsequent finishing is required;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 99

Other Fusion Weldings
4 . Oxy Fuel Gas Welding
• Group of fusion welding operations that
burn various fuels mixed with oxygen;

OFW employs several types of gases,

which is the primary distinction among
the members of this group;

• Oxy-fuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut and separate
metal plates and other parts;
• Most important OFW process is oxy-acetylene welding;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 100

Other Fusion Weldings
1. Oxy Fuel Gas Cutting

• When filler metal is used, it is typically in the

form of a rod with diameters ranging from1.6
to 9.5mm. Composition of the filler must be
similar to that of the base metals;

• The filler is often coated with a flux t h a t helps to clean the

surfaces and prevent oxidation, thus creating a better weld joint;

Acetylene (C 2 H 2 ) is the most popular fuel among the O F W group because it is

capable of delivers higher temperatures than any of the others—up to 3480C;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 101

Other Fusion Weldings
1. Oxy Fuel Gas Cutting

• The flame in OAW is produced by the chemical reaction of acetylene and

oxygen in two stages. The first stage is defined by the reaction: one-third of
the heat is generated from the total heat generated in the flame;

• The second-stage reaction: two-third of the heat is generated from the total
heat generated in the flame;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 96

Other Fusion Weldings
1. Oxy Fuel Gas Welding

1. Oxy-acetylene Flame Types

1. Neutral flame: acetylene and oxygen is in the ratio 1:1,

Good for welding carbon steel, mild steel

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 96

Other Fusion Weldings
1. Oxy Fuel Gas Cutting

2. Oxidizing flame:Excess oxygen approx. 1.5:1

Good for welding brass, bronze and copper

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 104

Other Fusion Weldings
1. Oxy Fuel Gas Cutting

3. C arburizing flame: excess acetylene approx. 09:1-Low

temperature
Good for soldering, brazing and flame hardening operations;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 105

Other Fusion Weldings
1. Oxy Fuel Gas Cutting

Equipment:
1. Hoses
2. Torch
3. Cylinders
4. Regulator valves
5. Safety wear

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 106

 Solid state welding

Solid-State Welding Processes:

• Friction Welding (FW) and
• Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
• Ultrasonic Welding
• Resistance Spot Welding (RSW),
• Projection welding,
• Seam Welding,

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 107

 Solid-State Welding Processes
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW):
• RSW is an RW process uses a combination
of heat and pressure, at one location;
• The process is used to join sheet-metal
parts of thickness 3 mm or less, using a
series of spot welds, in situations where an
airtight assembly is not required;
• No shielding gas is required;
• No filler metal is required;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 108

 Solid-State Welding Processes
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW):
• The size and shape of the weld spot is
determined by the electrode tip, the most
common electrode shape being round, but
hexagonal, square, and other shapes are also
used;
The resulting weld nugget is typically 5 to 10 mm in diameter, with a
heat-affected zone extending slightly beyond the neget into the base
metals;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 109

Solid-State Welding Processes

Resistance Spot Welding (RSW):

• Electrode in RSW is made from copper
material or refractory metal
composition (copper and tungsten);
• The electrode is worn out through
time and it is provided with internal
passage for water cooling;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 110

Solid-State Welding Processes
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW):
The heat energy supplied to the welding
operation depends on current flow, resistance of
the circuit, and length of time the current is
applied;
Heat generated in resistance welding, H can be gives as
� = ���2
Where:
I-current (5000-20,000A), (A), t-time (Sec.), R-Resistance(ohm)
The time, t of the current is short in most processes, perhaps
lasting 0.1 to 0.4 s in a typical spot-welding operation.

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 111

Solid-State Welding Processes
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW):
• Stationary Spot Welder:
Rocker Arm Spot Welder:
Press type Spot Welder: by a vertical
press that is pneumatically or
hydraulically powered. The press action
permits larger forces to be applied, and
the controls usually permit programming
of complex weld cycles.
• Portable Spot Welder:

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 112

Solid-State Welding Processes
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW):
Application:
Mostly in automobile industries bodies and
frame welding;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 113

Solid-State Welding Processes
Solid-State Welding Processes:

Advantages:
1. No filler metal is required;
2. High production rates are possible;
3. Good for mechanization and automation;
4. Operator skill level is lower than that required for arc welding;
and
5. Good repeatability and reliability;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 114

Solid-State Welding Processes
Solid-State Welding Processes:

Limitation:
1. Equipment cost is high-usually much higher than most
arc-welding operations, and
2. Types of joints that can be welded are limited to lap joints
for most RW processes.

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 115

Solid-State Welding Processes
Resistance Projection
welding,
• Resistance projection welding
(RPW) is an RW process in which
coalescence occurs at one or more
relatively small contact points on
the parts;

• These contact points are determined by the design of the parts to be

joined, and may consist of projections, embossments, or localized
intersections of the parts;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 116

Solid-State Welding Processes
Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW),
• the stick-shaped electrodes in spot welding
are replaced by rotating wheels, and a series
of overlapping spotwelds are made along
the lap joint.
• The process is capable of producing air-
tight joints, and its industrial applications
include the production of gasoline tanks,
automobile mufflers, and various other
fabricated sheet metal containers.

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 117

Solid-State Welding Processes
Resistance Seam Welding,
• The operation is usually carried out continuously,
the seams should be along a straight or uniformly
curved line;

• Warping of the parts becomes more of a factor in resistance

seam welding, and fixtures are required to hold the work in
position and minimize distortion;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 118

Solid-State Welding Processes
Friction Welding (FW)
Friction welding (FRW) is a solid state
welding process in which coalescence is
achieved by frictional heat combined with
pressure;
The friction is induced by mechanical rubbing
between the two surfaces, usually by rotation
of one part relative to the other, to raise the
temperature at the joint interface to the hot
working range for the metals involved.
Then the parts are driven toward each other
with sufficient force to form a metallurgical
bond;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 119

Solid-State Welding Processes
Friction Welding (FW)
Nearly all FRW operations use
rotation to develop the frictional heat
for welding.
There are two principal drive systems,
distinguishing two types of FRW:

Continuous drive friction welding and

Inertia friction welding:

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 120

Solid-State Welding Processes
Friction Welding (FW)
• Continuous-drive friction welding:
one part is driven at a constant
rotational speed and forced into
contact with the stationary part at a
certain force level so that friction heat
is generated at the interface.
• When the proper hot working temperature has been reached,
braking is applied to stop the rotation abruptly, and
simultaneously the pieces are forced together at forging
pressures.

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 121

Solid-State Welding Processes
Friction Welding (FW)
• Inertia friction welding: the rotating
part is connected to a flywheel, which is
brought up to a predetermined speed;

• Then the flywheel is disengaged from the drive motor, and the
parts are forced together;
• The kinetic energy stored in the flywheel is dissipated in the form
of friction heat to cause coalescence at the abutting surfaces;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 122

Solid-State Welding Processes
Friction Welding (FW)
Applications:
• welding of various shafts and tubular
parts in industries such as
automotive, aircraft, farm equipment,
petroleum, and natural gas;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 123

Solid-State Welding Processes
Advantages
Friction Welding (FW)
• The process yields a narrow heat-
affected zone and can be used to
join dissimilar Metals;
• No melting occurs at the faying
surfaces;
• No filler metal, flux, or shielding
gases are normally used;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 124

Solid-State Welding Processes
Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
• is a solid state welding process in which a rotating tool
is fed along the joint line between two workpieces,
generating friction heat and mechanically stirring the
metal to form the weld seam;
• FSW is distinguished from conventional FRW by the
fact that friction heat is generated by a separate wear-
resistant tool rather than by the parts themselves;
• The rotating tool is stepped, consisting of a cylindrical
shoulder and a smaller probe projecting beneath it;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 125

Solid-State Welding Processes
Friction Stir Welding (FW)

• During welding, the shoulders rubs against the

top surfaces of the two parts, developing much of
the friction heat, while the probe generates
additional heat by mechanically mixing the metal
along the butt surfaces;

• The heat produced by the combination of friction and mixing does

not melt the metal but softens it to a highly plastic condition;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 126

Solid-State Welding Processes
Friction Stir Welding (FW)
Applications:
• The FSW process is used in the aerospace,
automotive, railway, and shipbuilding
industries;
• Typical applications are butt joints on large
aluminum parts;
• Other metals, including steel, copper, and
titanium, as well as polymers and composites
have also been joined using FSW;

Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 127

Solid-State Welding Processes
Friction Stir Welding (FW)
Advantages:
1. Good mechanical properties of the weld joint;
2. Avoidance of toxic fumes, warping, shielding issues, and other
problems associated with arc welding;
3. Little distortion or shrinkage, and
[Link] weld appearance;
Disadvantages:
1. An exit hole is produced when the tool is withdrawn from the work,
and
2. Heavy-duty clamping of the parts is required;
Manuf. [Link] By Gessessew L.&Yibeltal W. 128
 Weldability
• It is the capacity of a metal or combination of metals to be welded into a
suitably designed structure, and for the resulting weld joint(s) to possess
the required metallurgical properties to perform satisfactorily in the
intended service.

• Good weldability is characterized by the ease with which the welding

process is accomplished, absence of weld defects, and acceptable strength,
ductility, and toughness in the welded joint;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 129

 Weldability

Factors that affect weldability include

1. Welding process,
2. Base metal properties;
3. Filler metal, and
4. Surface conditions

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 130

 Welding defects

• Crack,
• Cavities
• Solid inclusion
• Incomplete fusion
• Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 131

 Welding defect testing
• Visual inspection
• Nondestructive evaluation (NDE): dye-penetrant,
fluorescent penetrant, magnetic particle testing,
ultrasonic testing, radiograph testing
• Destructive testing: shear, tensile

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 132

 Soldering and Brazing
• Brazing and soldering both use filler metals to
join and bond two (or more) metal parts to
provide a permanent joint.
• It is difficult, although not impossible, to
disassemble the parts after a brazed or
soldered joint has been made.

• In the spectrum of joining processes, brazing and soldering lie

between fusion welding and solid-state welding;
• A filler metal is added in brazing and soldering as in most
fusion-welding operations; however, no melting of the base
metals occurs, which is similar to solid-state welding;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 133

 BRAZING
• Brazing is a joining process in a which filler metal
and is melted and distributed by capillary action between
the faying surfaces of the metal parts being joined;
•N o m e l t i n g o f t h e b a s e m e t a l s o c c u r s i n
brazing; only the filler melts;
•In brazing the filler metal (also called the
brazing metal), has a melting temperature
(liquidus) that is above 450 o C but below the
melting point of the base metal(s) to be joined

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 134

 Application of Brazing
• A u t o m o t i v e (j o i n i n g t u b e s a n d
pipes), electrical equipment
(joining wires and cables),
• Cutting tools (brazing cemented
carbide inserts to s h a n k s ) , and
jewelry making.

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 135

 Advantage of Brazing
 Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar
metals;
 Certain brazing methods can be performed quickly
and consistently, thus permitting high cycle rates
and automated production;

• Some methods allow multiple joints to be brazed simultaneously;

• Brazing can be applied to join thin-walled parts that cannot be welded;

• Less heat and power are required than in fusion welding;
• Problems with the heat-affected zone in the base metal near the joint are
reduced;
• Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding processes can be brazed,
since capillary action draws the molten filler metal into the joint
1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 136
 Disadvantage of Brazing

• Joint strength is generally less;

• High service temperatures may weaken a brazed joint;
• The color of the metal in the brazed joint may not match the
color of the base metal parts, a possible aesthetic disadvantage.

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 137

 SOLDERING

• Joining process in which a filler metal with melting point

(liquids) not exceeding450� � is melted and distributed
by capillary action between the faying surfaces of the
metal parts being joined.
• Surfaces to be soldered must be precleaned so they are
free of oxides, oils, and so on.
• An appropriate flux must be applied to the faying
surfaces, and the surfaces are heated.
• Filler metal, called solder, is added to the joint, which
distributes itself between the closely fitting parts.

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 138

 S O L D E R I N G Application Area

It is most closely associated

with electronics assembly.

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 139

 Advantages of soldering include

1. Low energy input relative to brazing

and fusion welding,
2. Variety of heating methods available,
3. Good electrical and thermal conductivity in the joint,
4. Capability to make air-tight and liquid-tight seams
for containers, and
5. Easy to repair and rework;

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 140

 Disadvantages of soldering
1. Low j o i nt s t r e n g t h u n l e s s reinforced by
mechanically means and

2. Possible weakening or melting of the joint in elevated

temperature service.

1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 141

 The End !
Thank you!
100
1/15/2025 Welding By Gessessew L. 142