2.
0 Literature Review
Traffic evolves because of a need to move people and goods from one location to
another. As such, the movement is initiated because of decisions made by people to
transport themselves or others from one location to another to participate in activities
at that second location or to move goods to a location where they have higher value.
The movement typically occurs along a specific facility or pathway that can be called
a guide way. It may be a physical guide way, as in the case of a railroad, or it may be
an agreed-upon or designated note,marked either electronically (as in aviation) or
geographically (as in maritime industry). Movement-excepting pedestrian movement,
which only requires human power-involves a vehicle of some type that can serve
people, goods, or both. The pattern of Nigerian urbanization has many implications on
various areas of the country including determining the areas of road traffic origination
and destination. Associated with these implications are various urban problems such
as housing problems, environmental pollution, transportation problems and general
inadequacy of infrastructural facilities (Ogunbodede, 2008). Urban mobility problems
had been on the increase since independence in many Nigerian cities. This is due to
rapid increase in population of urban areas, which is not matched with growth in
transport facilities such as road network, transport complimentary facilities, transport
services and traffic management techniques. Thus urban transport problems have
increasingly been noted since 1960, to be characterized by inadequate and inefficient
services, long waiting time at bus stop, long travelling time, environmental pollution,
traffic congestions and bad roads, shortage of vehicles and the use of motorcycle as a
means of urban passenger transport system (Ogunbodede, 2008). Studies in the area
of urban transportation confirmed that more than 75% of population in cities
depended on public transport while about 25% depended on private transport system
(Ogunbodede, 1990; Ogunjumo, 1986; Mrakpor, 1986). The socio-economic variables
of Nigerians contributed in no small measure to this pattern. Public transport system,
which is an aspect of the country’s transport sector, had all along been in the hands
and control of Nigeria operandi of the nation’s public transportation
The use of public transport for intern were largely concentrated in large cities like
Lagos and Ibadan while commuters contend with the use of trekking within smaller
towns in Nigeria as at 1960 (Ogunbodede, 2008). The situation however changed
drastically today as vehicle stocks increased astronomically in towns and cities.
According to ogunsanya (1998), there were 6,822 vehicles in Nigeria by
1946 made up of 4,702 re-licensed and 2,115 new ones. The figure scores to 20,440
by 1950 made up of 14,200 re-licensed and 6,240 new ones. The vehicle stock grew
gradually from this time up to 1970 when it shut up astronomically. This period
coincided with the period of rapid urbanization although a period of doldrums was
experienced during the period where Nigerians was engulfed in the civil war (1967-
1970). After 1970, there was an automobile explosion in Nigeria cities. This is
because vehicles stock rose sharply from a modest 100,268 vehicles in 1970 to
1,009,797 in 1977 (ogunbode, 2008). Unfortunately the road constructed then were
unable to accommodate the increased vehicle at such a rapid speed hence, the problem
of immobility in Nigeria cities started to unfold.
Akure is rapidly emerging as a metropolitan city, its change from 1976 gave the city
an accelerated physical and economic growth (Aribigbola and osunsanmi,2010). The
subsequent increase in oil revenue accruable to the state since 2003 has consequently
raised the general standard of living of the citizenry (Ogunbodede, 2006).
The most noticeable of the physical expansion of the city is its population growth and
urban landmass. The estimated amount of the built-up area from available land use
maps have shown immense increase from 16km² in
1980 to about 30km² in 2000. The population rose from 123,000
population projection for the year 1996 and 2000 put the city population at 269,207
and 298,712 respectively. However, a sharp increase was recorded in the 2006 census,
which put Akure south at 353,211 and Akure North population
population at 131,587 respectively (NPC, 2007). The increase in landmass and
population is evident in economic cities carried out in a network of traditional and
modern markets, service industries, governments establishments, hotels and guest
houses, which dotted the landscape of both the inner and outskirts of the city. These
activities have equally increased the number of traffic and travel volume in the city as
people travel between their homes and different land uses. In addition, the city being
strategically located in the heart of the State is linked by fairly good roads to local
government areas which generate considerably daily road traffic journeys are largely
responsible for the peak traffic flow and congestion in the city. Space demand to park
vehicles at places of destination is therefore high with almost all the commercial and
business centres located within the city without designated parking areas. Consequent,
vehicles are usually parked indiscriminately along the roads creating traffic
obstruction and travel delays.
2.1. Definition of some terms in traffic
a.Travel time is the section of a highway
b.Running time is the traversing a given s
c. Delay is the time loose control of the driver
d. Operational delay impedance of other
This impedance can occur either as side friction, where the stream flow is interfered
with unparking vehicles), or as internal friction, where the stream flow is interfered
with by other traffic ( for example, parking or unparking vehicles), or as internal
friction, where the interference is within the traffic stream ( for example, reduction in
capacity of the highway). Stopped-time delay is that part of delay during which
the vehicle is at rest.
e. Fixed delay is that part of the delay caused by control devices such
as traffic signals. This delay occurs regardless of the traffic volume or
the impedance that may exist.
f. Travel-time delay is the difference between the actual travel time
and the travel time that will be obtained by assuming that a vehicle
traverses the study section at an average speed equal to that for an uncongested traffic
flow on the section being studied.
2.2 Travel time study
Travel time is the elapsed time it takes for a vehicle to traverse a given segment of a
street. Travel time studies provide the necessary data to determine the average travel
time. Combined with the length of the corridor under study, this data can be used to
produce average travel speed. Travel time and delay are two of the principal measures
of roadway system performance used by traffic engineers, planners and analysts.
Since vehicle speed is directly related to travel time and delay, it is also an appropriate
measure-of-performance to evaluate traffic systems.
A study conducted to determine the amount of time required to traverse a specific
route or section of a street or highway. The data obtained provide travel time and
travel speed information but not necessarily delay. This term is often used to include
speed and delay study. Travel time may be defined as the total elapsed time of travel,
including stop and delay, necessary for a vehicle to travel from one point to another
point over a specified route under existing traffic condition.
2.3 Delay studies
Delay is defined as an extra time spent by drivers against their expectation. Delay can
have many forms depending on different locations. A study made to provide
information concerning the amount, cause, location, duration and frequency of delay
as well as travel time and similar value. The time lost by traffic due to traffic friction
and traffic control device is called delay.
2.4 Types of Delay
Congestion delay- Congestion delay is the delay caused by the constricting or slowing
down effect of overloaded intersections, inadequate carriageway widths, parked cars,
crowded pavement and similar factor.
Fixed Delay- The delay to which a vehicle is subjected regardless of the amount of
traffic volume and interference present.
Operational Delay-The delay caused by interference from other component of the
traffic stream. Examples include time lost while waiting for a gap in a conflicting
traffic stream, or resulting from congestion, parking maneuvers, pedestrians, and
turning movement.
Stopped Delay- The time a vehicle is not moving.
Travel Time Delay- The difference between the actual time required to traverse a
section of street or highway and the time corresponding to the average speed of traffic
under uncongested condition. It includes acceleration and deceleration delay in
addition to stopped delay.
Approach Delay -Travel time delay encountered to an approach to an intersection.
2.5 Purpose of travel time and Delay Studies
The purpose of a Travel Time and Delay Study is to evaluate the quality of traffic
movement along a route and determine the locations, types, and extent of traffic
delays by using a moving test vehicle.
This study method can be used to compare operational conditions before and after
roadway or intersection improvements have been made. It can also be used as a tool to
assist in prioritizing projects by comparing the magnitude of the operational
deficiencies (such as delays and stops) for each project under consideration.
The Travel Time and Delay Study can also be used by planners to monitor level of
service for local government comprehensive plans.
The methodology presented herein provides the engineer with quantitative
information with which he can develop recommendations for improvements such as
traffic signal re-timing, safety improvements, turn lane additions, and channelization
enhancements
2.6. Method for obtaining travel time and delay study
Floating Car Method: Floating car data are positions of vehicles traversing city streets
throughout the day. In this method the driver tries to float in the traffic stream passing
as many vehicles as pass the test car. If the test vehicle overtakes as many vehicles as
the test vehicle is passed by, the test vehicles should, with sufficient number of runs,
approach the median speed of the traffic movement on the route. In such a test
vehicle, one passenger acts as observer while another records duration of delays and
the actual elapsed time of passing control points along the route from start to finish of
the run.
Average Speed Method: In this method the driver is instructed to travel at a speed that
is judge to the representative of the speed of all traffic at the time.
Moving-vehicle method: In this method, the observer moves in the traffic stream and
makes a round trip on a test section. The observer starts at section, drives the car in a
particular direction say eastward to another section, turns the vehicle around drives in
the opposite direction say westward toward the previous section again. Let, the time
in minutes it takes to travel east (from X-X to Y-Y) is ta, the time in minutes it takes
to travel west (from Y-Y to X-X) is tw, the number of vehicles traveling east in the
opposite lane while the test car is traveling west be ma, the number of vehicles that
overtake the test car while it is traveling west be mo, and the number of vehicles that
the test car passes while it is traveling west from be mp. The volume (qw) in the
westbound direction can then be obtained from the expression
qw = ma + mo - mp
----------------------
ta + tw
the average travel time direction iin the westbound direction is obtained from
tw(avg)= tw - mo - mp
-------------
qw
4. Maximum-car method: In this procedure, the driver is asked to drive as fast as is
safely practical in the traffic stream without ever exceeding the design speed of the
facility.
5. Elevated Observer method: In urban areas, it is sometime possible to station
observers in high buildings or other elevated points from which a considerable length
of route may be observed. These investigator select vehicle at random and record;
time, location and causes-of-delay. The drawback is that it is sometime difficult to
secure suitable points for observation throughout the length of the route to be studied.
6. License Plate Method: when the amount of turning off and on the route is not great
and only over all speed value are to be secured, the license-plate method of speed
study may be satisfactorily employed. Investigator stationed at control point along the
route enters, on a time control basis, the license-plate numbers of passing vehicles.
These are compared from point to point along the route, and the difference in time
values, through use of synchronized watches, is computed. This method requires
careful and time-consuming office work and does not show locations, causes,
frequency, or duration of delay. Four basic methods of collecting and processing
license plates normally considered are:
Manual: collecting license plates via pen and paper or audio tape recorders and
manually entering license plates and arrival times into a computer.
7. Portable Computer: collecting license plates in the field using portable computers
that automatically provide an arrival time stamp.
Video with Manual Transcription: collecting license plates in the field using video
cameras or camcorders and manually transcribing license plates using human
observers.
Video with Character Recognition: collecting license plates in the field using video,
and then automatically transcribing license plates and arrival times into a computer
using computerized license plate character recognition.
Photographic Method: This method is primarily a research tool, it is useful in studies
of interrelationship of several factors such as spacing, speeds, lane usage, acceleration
rates, merging and crossing maneuvers, and delays at intersections. This method is
applicable to a short test section only.
8. Interview Method: this method may be useful where a large amount of material is
needed in a minimum of time and at little expense for field observation. Usually the
employees of a farm or establishment are asked to record their travel time to and from
work on a particular day.
9. Highway Capacity Manual 2000 or (Cycle- based method): This method is
applicable to all under saturated signalized intersections. For over-saturated
conditions, queue buildup normally makes the method impractical. The method
described here is applicable to situations in which the average maximum queue per
cycle is no more than about 20 to 25 veh/ln. When queues are long or the demand to
capacity ratio is near 1.0, care must be taken to continue the vehicle-in-queue count
past the end of the arrival count period, vehicles that arrived during the survey period
until all of them have exited the intersection.as detailed below. This requirement is for
consistency with the analytic delay equation used in the chapter text.method does not
directly measure delay during deceleration and during a portion of acceleration, which
are very difficult to measure without sophisticated tracking equipment. However, this
method has been shown to yield a reasonable estimate of control delay.
The method includes an adjustment for errors that may occurred when this type of
sampling technique is used, as well as an acceleration-deceleration delay correction
factor Table 1. The acceleration-deceleration factor is a function of the typical number
of vehicles in queue during each cycle and the normal free-flow speed when vehicles
are unimpeded by the signal. Before beginning the detailed survey, the observers need
to make an estimate of the average free-flow speed during the study period. Free-flow
speed is the speed at which vehicles would pass unimpeded through the intersection if
the signal were green for an extended period.be obtained by driving through the
intersection a few times when the signal is green and there is no queue and recording
the speed at a location least affected by signal control. Typically, the recording
location should be upstream about mid-block. Table 2 is a worksheet that can be used
for recording observations and computation of average time-in-queue delay.
Steps for data reduction
Sum each column of vehicle-in-queue counts, then sum the column totals for the
entire survey period.
A vehicle recorded as part of a vehicle-in-queue count is in queue, on average, for the
time interval between counts. The average time-in-queue per vehicle arriving during
the survey period is estimated.
( )
d = Is× ΣViq 0.9
vq Vtot
where, Is = interval between vehicle-in-queue counts (s), ΣV iq = sum of vehicle-in-
queue counts (veh), V tot = total number of vehicles arriving during the survey period
(veh), and 0.9 = empirical adjustment factor. The 0.9 adjustment factor accounts for
the errors that may occur when this type of sampling technique is used to derive
actual delay values, normally resulting in an overestimate of delay.
Free flow ¿¿ 7 vehicles 8-19 20-30
speed vehicl vehicl
es es
<_60km/ 5 2 1
hr
60- 2
71km/hr 7 4
>_ 5
71km/hr 9 7
Compute the fraction of vehicles stopping and the average number of vehicles
stopping per lane in each signal cycle, as indicated on the worksheet.
Using Table 1, look up a correction factor appropriate to the lane group free-flow
speed and the average number of vehicles stopping per lane in each cycle. This factor
adds an adjustment for deceleration and acceleration delay, which cannot be measured
directly with manual techniques.
Multiply the correction factor by the fraction of vehicles stopping, and then add this
product to the time-in-queue value of Step 2 to obtain the final estimate of control
delay per vehicle.
