Introduction to Sampling Plans

Acceptance sampling, the third branch of statistical quality control, refers to the process
of randomly inspecting a certain number of items from a lot or batch in order to decide
whether to accept or reject the entire batch.

Acceptance sampling is a form of inspection that is applied to lots or batches of items

either before or after a process. The purpose of acceptance sampling is to decide whether
a lot satisfies predetermined standards (specifications) for important characteristics of the
item. Lots that satisfy these standards are passed or accepted; those that do not are
rejected.

Rejected lots may be subjected to 100 percent inspection or, if purchased, returned to the
supplier for credit or replacement (especially if destructive testing is involved).

The alternatives to acceptance sampling are

(a) 100% inspection and
(b) No inspection.
The decision of acceptance sampling plan is one to choose is mainly based on the
costs.

A measure used is the breakeven point BEP1:

BEP = cost of inspection per item / cost of later repair due to a defective item

Let P = estimated proportion of defectives in the lot.

The decision is:
If P ≈ BEP, use acceptance sampling
If P > BEP, use 100% inspection
If P < BEP but P is variable, use acceptance sampling
If P < BEP and P is stable, don’t inspect.
A car assembly plant receives headlight assemblies from a new supplier in lots of 1,000 units.
The cost of testing a headlight assembly at receiving is $.10. If a defective headlight is
assembled on a car, the cost of disruption to the assembly line to replace the headlight is
$100. It is expected that only 0.05% to 0.1% of the headlight assemblies will be defective.
Determine the extent of inspection for the headlight assemblies.
Example S-1
Solution BEP = $.1/$100 = .001. Because .001 ≈ .05% to .1%, perform acceptance sampling on
the lot.

Non-economic factors favouring acceptance sampling vs. 100% inspection include:

1. Time is short.
2. Destructive testing is required.
3. Fatigue or boredom caused by inspecting large numbers of items leads to
inspection errors.
 The Acceptance-Sampling Problem

Acceptance sampling plan (ASP): ASP is a specific plan that clearly states the rules for
sampling and the associated criteria for acceptance or otherwise.

Acceptance sampling plans can be applied for inspection of

i) finished items,
ii) components,
iii) raw materials
iv) materials in process
v) supplies in storage
vi) maintenance operations,
vii) data or records etc
Acceptance sampling is used when inspecting every item is not physically possible or
would be overly expensive, or when inspecting a large number of items would lead to
errors due to worker fatigue.

Three Aspects of the sampling are important:

1. It is the purpose of acceptance sampling to sentence lots, not to estimate the lot
quality. Most acceptance-sampling plans are not designed for estimation purposes.

2. Acceptance-sampling plans do not provide any direct form of quality control.

Acceptance sampling simply accepts and rejects lots.

3. The most effective use of acceptance sampling is not to “inspect quality into the
product“, but rather as an audit tool to ensure that the output of a process conforms
to requirements.
Acceptance sampling is most likely to be useful in the following situations:

1. When testing is destructive.

2. When the cost of 100% inspection is extremely high.

3. When 100% inspection is not technologically feasible or would require so much

calendar time that production scheduling would be seriously impacted

4. When there are many items to be inspected and the inspection error rate is
sufficiently high that 100% inspection might cause a higher percentage of defective
units to be passed .
5. When the supplier has an excellent quality history, and some reduction in
inspection from 100% is desired, but the supplier’s process capability is sufficiently
low as to make no inspection an unsatisfactory alternative

6. When there are potentially serious product liability risks, and although the
supplier’s process is satisfactory, a program for continuously monitoring the product
is necessary
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling

Some Advantages of Sampling

1. Less expensive because of less inspection compare to entire lot.
2. Less handling of product and hence reduce damage
3. Applicable to destructive testing
4. Fewer personnel are involved in inspection activities
5. Reduces the amount of inspection error
6. The rejection of lot motivate the vendor for quality improvement.
Some Disadvantages of Sampling
1. Risk of accepting a bad lots and rejecting a good lots
2. Less information about the product
3. Need some plan and formulation compare to 100% inspection
 Types of Sampling Plans

What is Sampling Plan

A sampling plan is a plan for acceptance sampling that precisely specifies the parameters of
the sampling process and the acceptance/rejection criteria. The variables to be specified
include the size of the lot (N), the size of the sample inspected from the lot (n), the number
of defects above which a lot is rejected (c), and the number of samples that will be taken.

Single Sampling Plan:

Single sampling plan is the sampling inspection plan in which the lot disposition is based on
the inspection of a single sample of size n.
Double Sampling Plans:
Following an initial sample, a decision based on the information in that sample is made
either to

(1) accept the lot,

(2) reject the lot or
(3) take a second sample .

If the second sample is taken, the information from both the first and second
sample is combined in order to reach a decision whether to accept or reject the lot.
Multiple Sampling Plan:

A multiple-sampling plan is similar to a double-sampling plan except that more than

two samples may be required. A multiple sampling plan will specify each sample size
and two limits for each sample. If, for any sample, the cumulative number of defectives
found (i.e., those in the present sample plus those found in all previous samples) is
greater than or equal to the upper limit specified for that sample, sampling is
terminated and the lot is rejected.

If the cumulative number of defectives is less than or equal to the lower limit, sampling
is terminated and the lot is accepted. If the cumulative number of defectives is
between the two limits, another sample is taken.

The process continues until the lot is either accepted or rejected.

Sequential Sampling Plan:

A further refinement of the double-sampling plan is the sequential-sampling plan, in

which the consumer randomly selects items from the lot and inspects them one by
one. Each time an item is inspected, a decision is made to

(1) reject the lot,

(2) accept the lot,
(3) Or continue sampling, based on the cumulative results so far.

The analyst plots the total number of defectives against the cumulative sample size, and
if the number of defectives is less than a certain acceptance number (c1 ), the consumer
accepts the lot. If the number is greater than another acceptance number (c2), the
consumer rejects the lot.
Figure illustrates a decision to reject a lot after examining the 40th unit. Such charts
can be easily designed with the help of statistical tables that specify the accept or
reject cut-off values c1 and c2 as a function of the cumulative sample size.
Lot Formation
There are several important considerations in forming lots for inspection.

1. Lots should be homogeneous.

2. Larger lots are preferred over smaller ones.
3. Lots should be conformable to the materials-handling systems used in both the
vendor and consumer facilities.

Random Sampling
The selected units for inspection from the lot should be chosen at random, and they
should be representative of all the items in the lot. The random sampling is an
important concept in acceptance sampling plan. Without random sample, bias will be
introduced in the results.
 Probability Distributions for Sampling
There are three probability distributions that may be used to find the probability of
acceptance. These distributions were covered in the Basic Probability chapter and are
reviewed here.

1. The hyper-geometric distribution

2. The binomial distribution
3. The Poisson distribution

Hyper-geometric Distribution

The hyper-geometric distribution is used to calculate the probability of acceptance of a

sampling plan when the lot is relatively small. It can be defined as the true basic
probability distribution of attribute data but the calculations could become quite
cumbersome for large lot sizes.
 The probability of exactly x defective parts in a sample n:

Binomial Distribution

The binomial distribution is used when the lot is very large. For large lots, the non-
replacement of the sampled product does not affect the probabilities. The hyper-geometric
takes into consideration that each sample taken affects the probability associated with the
next sample. This is called sampling without replacement.
The binomial assumes that the probabilities associated with all samples are equal. For
very large lot size N , (say infinity). Under this condition, the distribution of the number of
defectives (d) in a random sample of n items is binomial with parameters n and p ,
where p is the fraction defective items in the lot.

The probability of observing exactly d defectives is

The probability of acceptance is that d is less than or equal to c .

That is
Poisson Distribution

The Poisson distribution is used for sampling plans involving the number of defects or
defects per unit rather than the number of defective parts. If the lot size N is large relative
to sample size n (so that n/N ≤ 0.1) and np < 5, we can approximate the binomial
probabilities by the Poisson probabilities. The probability of observing up to and including c
defectives in a sample of size n from a lot with proportion defectives p is given by cumulative
Poisson formula:

The probability of exactly x defects or defective parts in a sample n:

 The Single Sampling Plan for Attributes

Definition of a Single-Sampling Plan

Suppose that a lot of size N=10, 000 has been submitted for inspection. A single-sampling
plan is
n=89
C=2
defined by the sample size n and the acceptance number c.

Thus, if the lot size is N = 10,000,then the sampling plan means that from a lot of size
10,000 a random sample of n = 89 units is inspected and the number of nonconforming or
defective items d observed. If the number of observed defectives d is less than or equal to c
= 2, the lot will be accepted. If the number of observed defectives d is greater than 2, the
lot will be rejected.
This procedure is called a single-sampling plan because the lot is sentenced based on the
information contained in one sample of size n.
 THE OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC CURVE (OC CURVE)

An important measure of the performance of an acceptance-sampling plan is the

operating characteristic (OC) curve. This curve plots the probability of accepting the
lot versus the lot fraction defective. Thus, the OC curve displays the discriminatory
power of the sampling plan. That is, it shows the probability that a lot submitted with a
certain fraction defective will be either accepted or rejected.

The OC curve shows the probability of acceptance for various values of incoming
quality.

An OC curve is developed by determining the probability of acceptance for several

values of incoming quality. Incoming quality is denoted by p. The probability of
acceptance is the probability that the number of defects or defective units in the
sample is equal to or less than the acceptance number of the sampling plan.
It is easy to demonstrate how the points on this curve are obtained. Suppose that the
lot size N is large (theoretically infinite). Under this condition, the distribution of the
numberof defectives d in a random sample of n items is binomial with parameters n and
p, where p is the fraction of defective items in the lot.

An equivalent way to conceptualize this is to draw lots of N items at random from a

theoretically infinite process, and then to draw random samples of n from these lots.
Sampling from the lot in this manner is the equivalent of sampling directly from the
process. The probability of observing exactly d defectives is
 The probability of acceptance is simply the probability that d is less than or equal to
c, or

For example, if the lot fraction defective is p = 0.01, n = 89, and c = 2, then
The OC curve is developed by evaluating equation (15.2) for various values of p. To
construct OC curve plot a P against the lot fraction defective p . The following Table gives
the OC curve calculation for n = 89 and c = 2 and the corresponding Figure is presented
in Figure 15.2.

If the lots have 1% defective, the probability of acceptance the lot is 0.9397. This means
that if 100 lots from a process that manufactures 1% defective product are submitted to
this plan, one would expect to accept 94 of the lots and reject 6 of them. Similarly, if the
lots have 2% defective, the probability of acceptance the lot is 0.7366. This means that if
100 lots from a process that manufactures 2% defective product are submitted to this
plan, one would expect to accept 74 of the lots and reject 26 of them.
F IGURE 1 5.2 OC curve of the single-sampling plan n = 89, c = 2.
 Effect of n and c on OC Curves
A sampling plan that discriminated perfectly between good and bad lots would have an OC curve that
looks like Fig. 15.3. The OC curve runs horizontally at a probability of acceptance Pa = 1.00 until a level of
lot quality that
. is considered “bad” is reached, at which point the curve drops vertically to a probability of
acceptance Pa = 0.00, and then the curve runs horizontally again for all lot fraction defectives greater
than the undesirable level.

If such a sampling plan could be employed, all lots of “bad” quality would be rejected, and all lots of
“good” quality would be accepted.

Unfortunately, the ideal OC curve in Fig. 15.3 can

almost never be obtained in practice. In theory, it
could be realized by 100% inspection, if the
inspection were error-free.
The ideal OC curve shape can be approached, however, by increasing the sample size.

Figure 15.4 shows that the OC curve becomes more like the idealized OC curve shape as the
sample size increases. (Note that the acceptance number c is kept proportional to n.) Thus, the
precision with which a sampling plan differentiates between good and bad lots increases with
the size of the sample.

The greater is the slope of the OC curve,

the greater is the discriminatory power.

Effect of sample size n on the shape of the

OC curve
Figure 15.5 shows how the OC curve changes as the acceptance number changes. Generally,
changing the acceptance number does not dramatically change the slope of the OC curve. As the
acceptance number is decreased, the OC curve is shifted to the left. Plans with smaller values of
c provide discrimination at lower levels of lot fraction defective than do plans with larger
values of c.

Effect of acceptance number c on the

shape of the OC curve
Acceptable Quality Level (AQL)
The percentage of defects at which a consumer (buyer) is willing to accept lots as “good.”
Buyers (or consumers) are generally willing to accept lots that contain small percentages of
defectives as “good,” especially if the cost related to a few defects is low. Often this
percentage is in the range of 0.1 to 2 percent.

This number(figure) is known as the Acceptable Quality Level (AQL). The percentage just
larger than this is known as the Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD ).

Thus, consumers want quality equal to or better than the AQL, and are willing to live with
poorer quality, but they prefer not to accept any lots with a defective percentage greater
or equal to the LTPD.

The LTPD is the poorest level of quality that the consumer is willing to accept in an
individual lot . Alternate names for the LTPD are the Rejectable Quality Level (RQL) and
the Limiting Quality Level (LQL).
 Sampling plans are not perfect in discriminating between good and bad lots, i.e.,
mistakes will be made in acceptance of bad lots and rejection of good lots.

Consumer’s risk is the chance or probability that a lot will be accepted that
contains a greater number of defects than the LTPD limit. This is the probability of
making a Type II error—that is, accepting a lot that is truly “bad.” consumer’s risk or
Type II error is generally denoted by beta (β). The relationships among AQL, LTPD,
and are shown in Figure 6-13.

On the other hand, Producer’s risk is the chance or probability that a lot containing an
acceptable quality level(AQL) will be rejected. This is the probability of making a Type I
error—that is, rejecting a lot that is “good.” It is generally denoted by alpha (α).
Producer’s risk is also shown in Figure 6-13.
 FIGURE: An OC curve showing producer’s risk (α) and consumer’s risk (β)

Many sampling plans are designed

to have a producer’s risk of 10
percent and a consumer’s risk of 10
percent, although other
combinations are also used. Figure
10 S-3 illustrates an OC curve with
the AQL, LTPD, producer’s risk, and
consumer’s risk.

Note that the probability of

accepting a lot with AQL quality is
1 – α.
Designing a Single-Sampling Plan with a Specified OC Curve

A sampling plan and its operating characteristic (OC) curve have a one-to-one relationship.
Therefore, determining the sample size n and acceptance number c is equivalent to
determining the sampling plan’s OC curve.

One way to determine an OC curve is to specify two points on it, for example, the two
points (AQL, 1 – α) and (LTPD, β).

There are other approaches to determine the sampling plan as well. Two of the important
methods are Dodge-Romig and MIL-STD-105E.
Suppose that we wish to construct a sampling plan such that the probability of
acceptance is (1 − α ) for lots with fraction defective p1, and the probability of
acceptance is β for lots with fraction defective p2.

Assuming that binomial sampling is appropriate, uses the point (AQL, 1 – α), lot size N,
and a chosen inspection level to determine the sampling plan.

We will illustrate these methods below.

We shall use the same formula that was used to calculate probability of acceptance.
For given c ,d, p1 and p2 as below
We can try to solve above equations simultaneously to determine the two unknown
quantities n and c. However, this is not easy because these equations are nonlinear.
Fortunately, Larson has determined a nomograph (a graphical calculating device) that
will provide the solution
 Suppose AQL = .02 with α = 5% and LTPD = .08 with β = 10%. Use Larson’s nomograph
at the end of this supplement to determine n and c.

Larson’s Nomograph on next slide can be used as follows:

The vertical line on the left-hand side is for lot percentage defectives such as AQL and
LTPD. The vertical line on the right-hand side is for the probability of lot acceptance
such as (1 – α) and β.

Connect AQL with (1 – α) and LTPD with β with straight lines. The intersection of
these two lines gives the sample size n and acceptance number c. In this case, n = 90
and c = 3 (see next slide).
 Rectifying Inspection
Acceptance-sampling programs usually require corrective action when lots are rejected.
This generally takes the form of 100% inspection or screening of rejected lots, with all
discovered defective items either removed for subsequent rework or return to the
supplier, or replaced from a stock of known good items. Such sampling programs are called
rectifying inspection programs, because the inspection activity affects the final quality of
the outgoing product.

Suppose that incoming lots to the inspection activity have fraction defective p0 . Some of
these lots will be accepted, and others will be rejected. The rejected lots will be screened,
and their final fraction defective will be zero. However, accepted lots have fraction
defective p0. Consequently, the outgoing lots from the inspection activity are a mixture of
lots with fraction defective p0 and fraction defective zero, so the average fraction defective
in the stream of outgoing lots is p1 , which is less than p0. Thus, a rectifying inspection
program serves to “correct” lot quality.
Average Outgoing Quality is widely used for the evaluation of a rectifying sampling plan. The
average outgoing quality is the quality in the lot that results from the application of rectifying
inspection. It is the average value of lot quality that would be obtained over a long sequence of
lots from a process with fraction defective p.

It is very simple to develop a formula for average outgoing quality (AOQ).

 Average Outgoing Quality (AOQ)
Assume that the lot size is N and that all discovered defectives are replaced with
good units. Then in lots of size N, we have

1. n items in the sample that, after inspection, contain no defectives,

because all discovered defectives are replaced.

2. N − n items that, if the lot is rejected, also contain no defectives.

3. N − n items that, if the lot is accepted, contain p(N − n) defectives.

Thus, lots in the outgoing stage of inspection have an expected number of defective
units equal to Pa p(N − n), which we may express as an average fraction defective,
called the Average Outgoing Quality
The average outgoing quality (AOQ) of the inspected lots is average percentage
defective of accepted lots assuming that rejected lots are 100 percent inspected and
defective items in those lots are replaced with good items. AOQ can be calculated
using the following formula:

In practice, the last term in above equation is often omitted because it is usually close to
1.0 and therefore has little effect on the resulting values. The formula then becomes
To illustrate the use of this equation, suppose that N = 10,000, n = 89, and c = 2, and
that the incoming lots are of quality p = 0.01. Now at p = 0.01, we have Pa = 0.9397, and
the AOQ is

That is, the average outgoing quality is 0.93% defective. Note that as the lot size N
becomes large relative to the sample size n, we may write equation as

AOQ = P × p
 Problem Lets say that we want to develop an OC curve for a sampling plan in which a
sample of n =5 items is drawn from lots of N 1000 items. The accept/reject criteria
are set up in such a way that we accept a lot if no more than one defect (c = 1) is found.

• Solution
Let’s look at the partial binomial distribution in Table 6-2. Since our criteria require us to
sample n 5, we will go to the row where n equals 5 in the left-hand column. The “x”
column tells us the cumulative number of defects found at which we reject the lot. Since
we are not allowing more than one defect, we look for an x value that corresponds to 1.
The row corresponding to n = 5 and x = 1 tells us our chance or probability of accepting
lots with various proportions of defects using this sampling plan. For example, with this
sampling plan we have a 99.74% chance of accepting a lot with 5% defects. If we move
down the row, we can see that we have a 91.85% chance of accepting a lot with 10%
defects, a 83.52% chance of accepting a lot with 15% defects, and a 73.73% chance of
accepting a lot with 20% defects. Using these values and those remaining in the row, we
can con- struct an OC chart for n = 5 and c = 1. This is shown in Figure 6-14.
FIGURE 6-14
OC curve with n = 5 and c
=1
Figure 6–15 shows a graphical representation of the AOQ values. The AOQ varies, depending on
the proportion of defective items in the lot. The largest value of AOQ, called the average outgoing
quality limit (AOQL), is around 15.85%. You can see from Figure 6-15 that the average outgoing
quality will be high for lots that are either very good or very bad. For lots that have close to 30% of
defective items, the AOQ is the highest. Managers can use this information to compute the worst
possible value of their average outgoing quality given the proportion of defective items (p). Then
this information can be used to develop a sampling plan with appropriate levels of discrimination.
Total Amount of Inspection required by the sampling program.

If the lots contain no defective items, no lots will be rejected, and the amount of inspection
per lot will be the sample size n. If the items are all defective, every lot will be submitted to
100% inspection, and the amount of inspection per lot will be the lot size N. If the lot
quality is 0 < p < 1, the average amount of inspection per lot will vary between the sample
size n and the lot size N. If the lot is of quality p and the probability of lot acceptance is Pa,
then the Average Total Inspection per lot will be

ATI = n + (1− Pa )(N − n)

To illustrate the use of above equation consider our previous example with N = 10,000, n = 89,c =
2, and p = 0.01. Then, since Pa = 0.9397, we have
 Double-Sampling Plans
A double-sampling plan is a procedure in which, under certain circumstances, a second
sample is required before the lot can be sentenced. A double-sampling plan is defined
by four parameter
n1 = sample size on the first sample
c1 = acceptance number of the first sample
n2 = sample size on the second sample
c2 = acceptance number for both sample
As an example, suppose n1 = 50, c1 = 1, n2 = 100, and c2 = 3. Thus, a random sample of
n1 = 50 items is selected from the lot, and the number of defectives in the sample, d1, is
observed. If d1 ≤ c1 = 1, the lot is accepted on the first sample. If d1 > c2 = 3, the lot is
rejected on the first sample. If c1 < d1 ≤ c2, a second random sample of size n2 = 100 is
drawn from the lot, and the number of defectives in this second sample, d2, is observed.
Now the combined number of observed defectives from both the first and second
sample, d1 + d2, is used to determine the lot sentence. If d1 + d2 ≤ c2 = 3, the lot is
accepted. However, if d1 + d2 > c2 = 3, the lot is rejected.
The operation of this double-sampling plan with n1 = 50, c1 = 1, n2 = 100, c2 = 3. is illustrated
graphically in Figure below
The principal advantage of a double-sampling plan with respect to single-sampling is
that it may reduce the total amount of required inspection.

Suppose that the first sample taken under a double-sampling plan is smaller than the
sample that would be required using a single-sampling plan that offers the consumer the
same protection.

In all cases, then, in which a lot is accepted or rejected on the first sample, the cost of
inspection will be lower for double-sampling than it would be for single-sampling.

It is also possible to reject a lot without complete inspection of the second sample. (This
is called curtailment on the second sample.)

Consequently, the use of double-sampling can often result in lower total inspection
costs. Furthermore, in some situations, a double sampling plan has the psychological
advantage of giving a lot a second chance. This may have some appeal to the supplier.
Double-sampling has two potential disadvantages.

First, unless curtailment is used on the second sample, under some circumstances
double-sampling may require more total inspection than would be required in a single-
sampling plan that offers the same protection. Thus, unless double-sampling is used
carefully, its potential economic advantage may be lost.

The second disadvantage of double sampling is that it is administratively more complex,

which may increase the opportunity for the occurrence of inspection errors.
Furthermore, there may be problems in storing and handling raw materials or
component parts for which one sample has been taken, but that are awaiting a second
sample before a final lot dis-positioning decision can be made.
The OC Curve for Double Sampling

The OC curve for a double sampling plan is somewhat more involved than the OC curve
for single sampling.
In this section, we describe the construction of type-B OC curves for double sampling. A
double-sampling plan has a primary OC curve that gives the probability of acceptance as
a function of lot or process quality. It also has supplementary OC curves that show the
probability of lot acceptance and rejection on the first sample. The OC curve for the
probability of rejection on the first sample is simply the OC curve for the single-sampling
plan n = n1 and c = c2.
Primary and supplementary OC curves for the plan n1 = 50, c1 = 1, n2 = 100, c2 = 3 are
shown in Fig. We now illustrate the computation of the OC curve for the plan n1 = 50, c1
= 1, n2 =100, c2 = 3. If Pa denotes the probability of acceptance on the combined
samples, and P I a and P II a denote the probability of acceptance on the first and second
samples, respectively, then
To obtain the probability of acceptance on the second sample, we must list the number of
ways the second sample can be obtained.

A second sample is drawn only if there are two or three defectives on the first sample—that is,
if c1 < d1 ≤ c2.
FIGURE OC curves for the double-sampling plan, n1 = 50, c1 = 1, n2 = 100, c2 = 3.
 Average Sample Number Curve for a Double Sampling Plan
The average sample number curve of a double-sampling plan is also usually of interest to
the quality engineer. In single-sampling, the size of the sample inspected from the lot is
always constant, whereas in double-sampling, the size of the sample selected depends on
whether or not the second sample is necessary.

The probability of drawing a second sample varies with the fraction defective in the
incoming lot.
With complete inspection of the second sample, the average sample size in double-
sampling is equal to the size of the first sample times the probability that there will only
be one sample, plus the size of the combined samples times the probability that a second
sample will be necessary.
Therefore, a general formula for the average sample number in double-sampling, if we
assume complete inspection of the second sample, is
where P1 is the probability of making a lot-dispositioning decision on the first sample.

This is P1 = P{lot is accepted on the first sample} + P{lot is rejected on the first sample}

If this equation is evaluated for various values of lot fraction defective p, the plot of ASN
versus p is called an Average Sample Number Curve.

In practice, inspection of the second sample is usually terminated and the lot rejected as
soon as the number of observed defective items in the combined sample exceeds the
second acceptance number c2. This is referred to as curtailment of the second sample. The
use of curtailed inspection lowers the average sample number required in double-
sampling.
Multiple-Sampling Plans

A multiple-sampling plan is an extension of double-sampling in that more than two

samples can be required to sentence a lot. An example of a multiple-sampling plan with
five stages follows.

This plan will operate as follows: If, at the completion of any stage of sampling, the
number of defective items is less than or equal to the acceptance number, the lot is
accepted.
If, during any stage, the number of defective items equals or exceeds the rejection
number, the lot is rejected; otherwise the next sample is taken. The multiple-sampling
procedure continues until the fifth sample is taken, at which time a lot disposition
decision must be made. The first sample is usually inspected 100%, although
subsequent samples are usually subject to curtailment .

The construction of OC curves for multiple-sampling is a straight forward extension of

the approach used in double-sampling. Similarly, it is also possible to compute the
average sample number curve of multiple-sampling plans. One may also design a
multiple-sampling plan for specified values of p1, 1 − α, p2, and β.

The principal advantage of multiple-sampling plans is that the samples required at each
stage are usually smaller than those in single- or-double-sampling; thus, some economic
efficiency is connected with the use of the procedure. However, multiple-sampling is
much more complex to administer.
 Sequential-Sampling Plans
Sequential-sampling is an extension of the double-sampling and multiple-sampling
concept. In sequential-sampling, we take a sequence of samples from the lot and allow
the number of samples to be determined entirely by the results of the sampling process.

In practice, sequential-sampling can theoretically continue indefinitely, until the lot is

inspected 100%.

In practice, sequential-sampling plans are usually truncated after the number inspected is
equal to three times the number that would have been inspected using a corresponding
single-sampling plan.

If the sample size selected at each stage is greater than one, the process is usually called
group sequential-sampling.
If the sample size inspected at each stage is one, the procedure is usually called item-by-
item sequential-sampling. Item-by-item sequential-sampling is based on the Sequential
Probability Ratio Test (SPRT), developed by Wald (1947).

The operation of an item-by-item sequential-sampling plan is illustrated in Fig (next page).

The cumulative observed number of defectives is plotted on the chart. For each point, the
abscissa ( X-axis) is the total number of items selected up to that time, and the ordinate (Y-
axis ) is the total number of observed defectives.

If the plotted points stay within the boundaries of the acceptance and rejection lines,
another sample must be drawn. As soon as a point falls on or above the upper line, the lot
is rejected. When a sample point falls on or below the lower line, the lot is accepted.
Figure : Graphical Performance of Sequential Sampling.
The equations for the two limit lines for specified values of p1 , 1−α , p2 , and β are
Acceptance and rejection numbers must be integers, so the acceptance number is the
next integer less than or equal to XA, and the rejection number is the next integer
greater than or equal to XR. Thus, for n = 45, the acceptance number is 0 and the
rejection number is 3.

Note that the lot cannot be accepted until at least 44 units have been tested. Table 15.3
shows only the first 46 units. Usually, the plan would be truncated after the inspection
of 267 units, which is three times the sample size required for an equivalent single-
sampling plan.
The OC Curve and ASN Curve for Sequential Sampling.

The OC curve for sequential-sampling can be easily obtained. Two points on the curve are (p1,
1 − α) and (p2, β). A third point, near the middle of the curve, is p = s and Pa = h2/(h1 + h2).

The average sample number taken under sequential-sampling is

Rectifying Inspection.

The Average Outgoing Quality (AOQ) for sequential-sampling is given approximately by

AOQ ≈ Pa p

The average total inspection is also easily obtained. Note that the amount of sampling is A/C
when a lot is accepted and N when it is rejected. Therefore, the average total inspection is
 How Much and How Often to Inspect

Consider Product Cost and Product Volume As you know, 100 percent inspection is
rarely possible. The question then becomes one of how often to inspect in order to
minimize the chances of passing on defects and still keep inspection costs manageable.

This decision should be related to the product cost and product volume of what is
being produced. At one extreme are high-volume, low-cost items, such as paper,
pencils, nuts and bolts, for which 100 percent inspection would not be cost justified.
Also, with such a large volume 100 percent inspection would not be possible because
worker fatigue sets in and defects are often passed on.
At the other extreme are low volume, high-cost items, such as parts that will go into a
space shuttle or be used in a medical procedure, that require 100 percent inspection.

Most items fall somewhere between the two extremes just described. For these items,
frequency of inspection should be designed to consider the trade-off between the cost of
inspection and the cost of passing on a defective item. Historically, inspections
were set up to minimize these two costs.

Today, it is believed that defects of any type should not be tolerated and that eliminating
them helps reduce organizational costs. Still, the inspection process should be set up to
consider issues of product cost and volume. For example, one company will probably
have different frequencies of inspection for different products.
Consider Process Stability

Another issue to consider when deciding how much to inspect is the

stability of the process. Stable processes that do not change frequently
do not need to be inspected often. On the other hand, processes that are
unstable and change often should be inspected frequently. For example,
if it has been observed that a particular type of drilling machine in a
machine shop often goes out of tolerance, that machine should be
inspected frequently. Obviously, such decisions cannot be made without
historical data on process stability.

Consider Lot Size

The size of the lot or batch being produced is another factor to consider
in determining the amount of inspection. A company that produces a
small number of large lots will have a smaller number of inspections than
a company that produces a large number of small lots. The reason is that
every lot should have some inspection, and when lots are large, there are
fewer lots to inspect.
 Where to Inspect
Since we cannot inspect every aspect of a process all the time, another important decision
is to decide where to inspect. Some areas are less critical than others.
Following are some points that are considered most important for inspection.

[Link] Materials :

Materials that are coming into a facility from a supplier or distribution centres should be
inspected before they enter the production process. It is important to check the quality of
materials before labour is added to it. For example, it would be wasteful for a seafood
restaurant not to inspect the quality of incoming lobsters only to later discover that its
lobster bisque is bad.

[Link] Products:

Products that have been completed and are ready for shipment to customers should also
be inspected. This is the last point at which the product is in the production facility. The
quality of the product represents the company’s overall quality.
The final quality level is what will be experienced by the customer, and an inspection at
this point is necessary to ensure high quality in such aspects as fitness for use, packaging,
and presentation.

[Link] to Costly Processing :

During the production process it makes sense to check quality before performing a costly
process on the product. If quality is poor at that point and the product will ultimately be
discarded, adding a costly process will simply lead to waste. For example, in the production
of leather armchairs in a furniture factory, chair frames should be inspected for cracks
before the leather covering is added. Otherwise, if the frame is defective the cost of the
leather upholstery and workmanship may be wasted.
THANK YOU