Language

● a system of communication and is influenced by societal factors.

Anthropological Linguistics:
● Focuses on the interplay between language & culture.
● Explores how cultural environments shape language development & use.
Sociolinguistics:
● studies the relationship bet language use and social factors (class, gender,
race, culture)
● Emerged in the mid-20th century.
● Earlier observations on language and society were informal and lacked a
defined methodology.
Growth in the 1960s:
● American linguists began analyzing English usage in a societal context.
● Sociolinguistics gained prominence in both the U.S. and Europe.
Ferdinand de Saussure:
● Saw language as a social behavior, reflecting ideas from sociologist Émile
Durkheim.
● Formal methodologies were developed after Saussure's structuralism.

Traditional dialectology:
● focused on geographical language variation.
● emphasized older, rural, non-mobile speakers to study archaic language
forms.
● Uses questionnaires to elicit one-word answers focused on rural vocabulary
● May not apply in urban settings, & classifications must be explicitly defined
Sociolinguistics/ Urban dialectology:
● shifted to studying socially driven language variation.
● considers diverse groups across age, gender, rural, and urban settings,
emphasizing cities where variation is high.
● Prefers methods that elicit free, spoken speech ti analyze phonology &
grammar
● Require diverse informants based on factors like age, gender, occupation,
income, education, housing

Objective Investigations:
● Random Sampling: to avoid sampling bias
● Techniques should aim to capture the natural, vernacular speech of
informants.
Techniques for Natural Data Collection:
● Emotional Topics: Engaging informants in discussions on emotional or
deeply personal subjects can help them focus on the topic rather than their
speech, reducing self-awareness and producing more authentic linguistic
data.
Principles of Modern Sociolinguistics:
● Clearly define the area of investigation before beginning research.
● Avoid bias in choosing participants for the study.
● Utilize methods like tape recording over questionnaires to allow for better data
accuracy and post-analysis.
● Anonymous Data Collection
● Use "variety" instead of "dialect" to avoid implications of inferiority or contrast
with a "standard" language.
Development of Sociolinguistics:
● American and British linguists pioneered the field, with William Labov leading
significant investigations. (1960s)
William Labov's
● Published an influential study on New York City English (1966).
● Present structural systems & historical language changes are interconnected.
● Language change can be observed in real-time within current language
varieties.
● "Free variation" in language is guided by deliberate speaker choices.
● Speakers may adjust their speech when aware of being observed (Observer’s
Paradox).
● Labov addressed this by developing the Rapid & Anonymous Interview
technique.

Linguistic Variable:
● refers to a specific linguistic feature that varies across speakers & has social
significance.
● differ by location:
● Phonological and Grammatical Variables
● can act as a social or group identifier, often referred to as a shibboleth. (The
term comes from the Old Testament (Book of Judges 12:5-6), where
pronunciation of "shibboleth" was used to distinguish allies from enemies
based on phonetic differences)
● vary socially and stylistically.
Trudgill's study in Norwich revealed: (pronunciation of Walking)
● Lower classes use [n] more frequently.
● All groups shift toward [ŋ] in formal contexts.
Co-Variation:
● occurs when speakers alternate bet two linguistic forms without exclusively
using one.
● Conditions influencing one form over another (social identity, age, gender, or
formality).
● Social influences, like striving for acceptance or regional pride, shape
linguistic choices.
● is often part of language change over time (#the gradual replacement of
"whom" with "who" or the loss of /h/ in urban English).
Markers:
● Show variation based on class, gender, age, and style (e.g., (ng) variable).
● Speakers are aware of their social implications and adjust usage.
Indicators:
● Correlate with social class but do not vary with speech style
● Less socially salient than markers.
Observer’s Paradox and Styles:
● Formal situations or recording can influence speakers to shift styles:
● Casual Style (CS): Vernacular, least formal.
● Formal Style (FS): More conscious speech.
● Reading Passage Style (RPS): Formal due to reading.
● Word List Style (WLS): Most formal, based on isolated word reading.
Index Scores:
● Measure the frequency of variants across styles and social classes.
● Patterns show a gradual rather than absolute shift, emphasizing the
probabilistic nature of language use rather than binary distinctions.
Register:
● a specific style of language used in particular situations (casual vs. formal
interactions).
● can include distinct grammatical rules and lexical choices:
● Speakers may shift registers based on the context:
● "Shifting downwards": Using informal or vernacular modes for casual
interactions.
● Register shifts often reflect adaptation to social settings or audiences.
● Speakers from vernacular-speaking backgrounds might feel less confident
using standard language (They may switch to the standard in formal or
external contexts but might encounter challenges when doing so)
Hypercorrection:
● when speakers overapply linguistic rules from a standard variety in an attempt
to sound more "correct."
● reflects the effort to conform to a prestige variety.
● underscores the influence of social pressures on language use and highlights
the difficulty of fully acquiring features of a non-native variety.

Language as a Dynamic System:

● Language, like other systems, undergoes constant movement and change
over time.
● 19th-century historical linguistics documented large-scale changes in sound
and grammar & overlooked socially motivated (external) changes.
● Sociolinguistics brought attention to small, observable shifts in language use
within contemporary societies, arguing that these shifts accumulate into
large-scale changes over centuries.
Labov’s Three Stages of Language Change:
● Origin: New linguistic variants emerge alongside established ones.
 ● Propagation: New forms gain prominence and older forms decline.
● Conclusion: Remaining variants are either completely replaced or persist as
residual forms.
External Influences on Language Change:
● Social pressures (from higher or lower social groups).
● Literacy levels.
● Prestige of the speakers favoring the new forms.
● The influence of language standards.
S-Curve of Language Change:
● Slow beginning: New forms are adopted by a small group.
● Rapid middle: Forms gain wider acceptance.
● Deceleration: Adoption slows as the change nears completion.

Accommodation:
● Speakers adjust their language to resemble that of a desired group (#higher
social class or urban dialect).
● Can be short-term (in conversations) or long-term (community-wide, leading
to permanent change).
Dissociation:
● Speakers deliberately make their language distinct to distance themselves
from an undesired group.
Both accommodation and dissociation typically occur without speakers’ conscious
awareness, reflecting unconscious linguistic behavior.

James & Lesley Milroy (Social Network in Language Use):

● studies in Belfast (1970s-1980s) adapted the concept of social networks from
sociology to explain linguistic behaviors.
● analyzing the interaction between linguistic variation and social networks in
three areas:
1. Ballymacarett/ 2. The Hammer/ 3. Clonard
● A speaker’s social network is defined by the social ties they maintain within
their community.
● Density: A network is dense if most members know one another; it is
low-density if members are isolated or only know the central speaker.
● Multiplexity: A network is multiplex if members interact in multiple contexts
(#work, leisure, and neighborhood activities).
Dense and Multiplex
● enforce rigid linguistic norms among members, often unconsciously.
● resist external linguistic influence, including prestigious societal norms.
● Members value solidarity, maintaining ties within their local community and
adhering to its vernacular language norms.
Loose-knit Networks:
● Found in suburban middle-class groups.
 ● Members are more exposed to external linguistic norms, often prioritizing
status over solidarity.
● They tend to adopt socially prestigious forms of language.
Solidarity:
● Refers to allegiance to local vernacular norms, emphasizing community ties
over societal prestige.
● High-solidarity varieties serve as identity markers and are difficult for outsiders
to acquire.
Status:
● Speakers seeking status have weaker ties within networks, aspiring for
upward mobility and adopting prestigious language forms.
Gender and Network Effects:
● Young males are more likely to participate in dense multiplex networks and
maintain strong vernacular norms.
● Women and middle-aged individuals tend to prioritize status, toning down
linguistic markers of strong network ties.
Social networks: are smaller and more localized than social classes.
Class bonding: reflects shared socio-political values
Network bonding: arises from geographical proximity & community ties.
● Linguistic features were found to be both qualitative (which variant is used)
and quantitative (how frequently it is used), making both aspects crucial
markers of social networks.
Vernaculars: are inherently variable and resistant to standardization, reflecting their
role in identity maintenance.
Standard norms: are uniform and codified
Vernacular norms: are orally transmitted and contextually understood within
communities.
● Milroy critiqued the overuse of "prestige" as a vague explanatory concept for
language variation and change.
● He argued that the identity function of language—its role in affirming group
membership—is a more effective framework for understanding linguistic
behavior.
Lesley Milroy studied the interaction between gender & network affiliation:
● Men typically used vernacular features as gender markers.
● Women’s use of these features was more influenced by network ties.
● Network scores were calculated based on membership in high-density,
territory-based groups, kinship ties, workplace connections, & leisure-time
associations.
● the interdependence of gender and network strength in shaping linguistic
variation.
Speech Communities
● are groups of people who share a common language or dialect.
1. Nation-States and Language Association:
 ● In Western nations, the association between countries and single languages
emerged with the rise of nation-states
● While this has been beneficial for administration and education, it has
marginalized other languages within these borders.
● Even in nations with a predominant language, dialectal variation exists
alongside the national standard.
2. Multilingual Nations:
● The one-country-one-language concept does not apply universally, especially
in multilingual nations
3. Lingua Francas in Multilingual States:
● In diverse linguistic settings, one language often serves as a lingua franca to
enable communication among speakers of different languages.
4. Impact of Colonialism on Language:
● European languages often became official in post-colonial states.
● Spanish and Portuguese dominate, with indigenous languages in rural areas.
● Countries like Cameroon and South Africa retain colonial languages (English,
French, Afrikaans) alongside native languages.
● Cameroon reflects both British and French influence; South Africa retains
English and Afrikaans with many indigenous languages.
● In the Philippines, English replaced Spanish, but Tagalog (Filipino) has gained
prominence.
● Colonialism shaped modern language use, blending colonial and indigenous
languages.
5. Indigenous and Non-European Lingua Francas:
● Not all lingua francas are European.

Diglossia:
● A linguistic situation where two varieties of a language (or two languages)
coexist, but with a clear division in their social functions.
● High (H) variety: Used in formal, public domains like education, government,
and media.
● Low (L) variety: Used in informal, private settings such as family or friends.
● #Classical Arabic vs regional dialects.
Bilingualism:
● The coexistence of two languages within a community without a clear
functional distribution between them. In such situations, both languages may
be used interchangeably.
Code-Switching:
● A common feature in bilingual communities where speakers alternate
between languages or dialects within a sentence or conversation.
● This can lead to language change if it becomes socially accepted.
Minority Languages:
● Languages spoken by small groups within a country, often alongside a
dominant national language.
Language Split:
● A political situation where two varieties of a language are deliberately
differentiated for national or political reasons, even if they are closely related.
This can involve different writing systems.
Language Maintenance:
● The ability of a community to maintain its language across generations,
especially in immigrant communities.
Language Preservation:
● Efforts by a country or institution to protect and maintain the language in a
“pure” form, often through formal regulation.
Language Death:
● The process by which a language ceases to be spoken, often due to
generational shifts or cultural changes.
Language Revival:
● The process by which a language that has ceased to be spoken is brought
back into use, often through deliberate efforts.
Where do Standards come from?
● The establishment of standard languages has often been influenced by
historical, political, and cultural developments in different countries.
Artificial Languages
● The idea of creating an artificial language for international communication
gained traction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
● to bridge communication gaps between speakers of different native languages
● aiming to simplify or regularize communication across linguistic boundaries.
● #Volapük/ Esperant
● Interlingua: A proposal by Romance language scholars to create a
common-core language that would be comprehensible to speakers of
Romance languages.
● Basic English: a simplified version of English containing only 850 words.
While it was designed for rudimentary communication, its impracticality led to
a rapid decline in interest.

Language & Gender (Robin Lakoff)

● Gender refers to the social roles & behaviors assigned to individuals based
on their biological sex (male or female).
● began gaining prominence in the 1970s with Robin Lakoff, who highlighted
how language reflects gender inequality.
● Difference Approach:
men and women speak differently because they belong to distinct speech
communities, but without linking this to power dynamics.
● Dominance Approach:
language differences reflect social power & control, where male language use
reflects dominance over women.
● The difference-dominance dichotomy became seen as overly simplistic, as
gendered language use is complex and affected by various social factors
(e.g., class, race).
● Studies make generalizations about groups (e.g., men being more competitive
in language), but individuals may not fit these patterns.
● Gender is understood as a social construct beyond biological sex.
● The study of language and gender is non-evaluative; it aims to understand
how language reflects social inequalities, not to judge or value specific
behaviors.
● The discrimination of women, including in language use, is viewed as a
problem that should be addressed.
● Men and women use language differently, influenced by socialization from
childhood (children are taught gender roles by society.)
● Babies are given gendered names, & parents treat them based on their
gender, reinforcing social expectations.
● Cultural Stereotypes of Gender
● Linguistic Indicators (# "girl", “girlie”, "lad")
● Toys and Activities
● Non-conformity to Gender Roles (Boys who act “feminine” (#“sissy”) and girls
who act “boyish” (# “tomboy”) face taunts)
● Boys and girls often engage in separate activities during childhood
● Adolescents are strongly influenced by peer pressure to conform to gender
roles, and those who deviate (e.g., homosexuals) can face stigma and
exclusion.
● adolescents are often the most conformist because they seek acceptance and
fear rejection from their peer group.
● Commercial Reinforcement of Gender Roles (#pink for girls and blue for boys)
● Gendered Clothing
● Gender roles established in childhood & adolescence largely persist into
adulthood
● Adhering to societal gender roles offers benefits: men can assert
dominance in public and access prestigious jobs, while women often benefit
from economic support in domestic roles.
● These roles often align with stereotypes, but for many, they reflect the reality
of Western societies and others. If gender roles were different, society would
be organized differently.
● Public vs. Private Roles
● Unmarked Titles:(#“surgeon” are often gender-neutral in assumption but
implicitly male unless stated otherwise (e.g., "female surgeon"))
● Gender and Employment
● Gender & Power
● Gender roles are socially constructed, not inherent
● Gender roles are often merged with biological sex, making it seem natural.
 ● Across cultures & religions, it has been conventionally accepted that men
should occupy positions of power, such as in leadership roles in government
and public institutions.
● The argument that male dominance is natural is often defended with phrases
like “that’s the way it has always been,” implying that it’s an unquestionable
norm.
● Women advocating for equal rights are sometimes perceived as ungrateful or
as rejecting male protection, which contributes to the marginalization of their
demands for equality.
Language Used by Women
● Lakoff highlighted the lack of power in the language commonly used by
women, suggesting that certain language features reflected this
powerlessness.
Women’s language was perceived to include features like:
● Indirect statements
● Tag questions
● Hedges & alternatives
● High rising intonation
● Emotional or genteel language
● Euphemisms
● These features are general tendencies and do not apply to all women. They
are not inherent in women's speech, & not all women use them.
Standard Language:
● holds the most prestige in a society. It is used in official contexts, education, &
written communication
● Dialects are often viewed as less prestigious than the standard. In some
countries, regional languages may have more status than dialects but still lack
the dominance of the standard.
● Women tend to use more standard forms of language than men, a trend
supported by many studies.
● This is not a criticism of women’s language but a reflection of societal norms.
● traditionally marginalized groups (like women) may adopt the more prestigious
form of language to gain social power by association with the standard.
● In studies such as Trudgill's investigation of English in Norwich, it was
observed that linguistic differences closely aligned with gender.
● Gender differences in language use were found even in children's speech
● Historically, dialects were often associated with working-class male culture,
while women were more likely to avoid dialect and use the standard language
as it was linked to higher status.
● Another contributing factor is the use of strong language (#curses and
swearing), which was traditionally seen as part of the “rough and tough” male
image. Women, in contrast, were expected to use more "genteel" or refined
language and avoid such expressions.
Gender-Neutral Language
Male as the Default:
● The use of "he" as a default pronoun for generic references has been the
norm. While female authors can use "she," it may seem ingratiating for male
authors to do so, causing inconsistency in usage.
● Generic references may use alternatives like "they" to avoid gender-specific
language. This is common in English, as plural anaphora can refer to a
singular subject.
● Animal comparisons often reflect traditional gender roles, e.g., "strong as an
ox" for men and "meek as a lamb" for women.
New generic forms have been created to avoid gender bias:
● Humankind replacing mankind
● Chairperson instead of chairman/chairwoman
● Police officer for policeman
● Flight attendant replacing air hostess
Lexical Replacements:
● Some terms do not have direct neutral alternatives, e.g., "doctor" might
require clarification with "female doctor" or "woman doctor."
● Regional differences exist, with terms that may be acceptable in one
English-speaking country but not in others
Avoiding Sexist Pronouns:
● Strategies like using the plural (e.g., "Anyone interested in taking part should
see their tutor") or gender-neutral pronouns such as "one" or "you" are
employed to avoid overtly gendered language.
● Reformulating certain phrases (e.g., replacing "man the position" with "occupy
the position") also reduces gender bias.
Feminine Forms in Decline:
● Formally marked feminine terms like "actress" are becoming less common,
with terms like "actor" being used for both genders.
● Some specific feminine titles, such as "Baroness" or "Duchess", are retained
due to cultural or traditional significance.
Issues with Address Forms:
● The use of Mrs. and Miss, which emphasize a woman's marital status, is
increasingly rejected, with Ms. used as a neutral alternative.
Overly Precise Desexification:
● Some attempts to neutralize language seem overly precise, such as concerns
about the word "human" (which does not contain "man" in a gendered sense)
or "history" (derived from Latin, not meaning "his story").
● Words like "postman" have become neutralized through regular use, as their
meaning extends beyond a gendered interpretation.

Anthropological Linguistics:
● Studies the relationship bet language, culture, & ethnicity, expanding beyond
language and society in sociolinguistics.
 ● Anthropology: A holistic discipline that studies human societies & cultures,
both in the present (cultural anthropology) and over evolutionary time
(physical anthropology).
● Cultural Anthropology: Focuses on living human societies, their beliefs,
traditions, practices, and social systems.
● Physical Anthropology: Focuses on human evolution and biological aspects
of humanity over long periods.
● Linguistic Relativity: The idea that language influences how speakers
perceive and think about the world
● Kinship Terms: The language used to describe familial relationships, varying
across cultures.
● Colour Terms: Different cultures’ ways of categorizing and perceiving colors.
● Systems of Address: Language variations based on social hierarchies,
relationships, and respect.
● Honorifics: Special speech forms used to show respect or deference.
● Politeness: Cultural norms of politeness, including indirectness & deference.
● Modes of Communication: Variations in language and non-verbal
communication (e.g., body language, tone) across cultures.
Ethnography of Communication:
● Studies cultural differences in communication acts, focusing on verbal and
non-verbal behaviors shaped by socialization and cultural assumptions.
Cultural Assumptions:
● The values & behaviors internalized in childhood guide social & linguistic
behavior but must be reconsidered when encountering other cultures.
Non-Verbal Communication Across Cultures:
Proxemics (Personal Space):
● Different cultures have varying comfort levels with the distance bet speakers.
Kinesics (Body Movement):
● Body language varies significantly even in small geographic ar
Facial Expressions:
● Mediterranean cultures, for instance, may use facial gestures like protruding
the chin and downward mouth corners to express uncertainty or lack of
knowledge.
Eye Contact:
● In many cultures, raising eyebrows & making eye contact signals seeking
approval or asking questions.
● In some African cultures, avoiding eye contact with a perceived superior is a
sign of respect, whereas Europeans may see lack of eye contact as
suspicious.
Touch:
● In Europe, handshakes are common, with women sometimes hugging each
other, but this varies significantly in other regions.
● In East and Southeast Asia, bowing or hands pressed together (as in
Thailand) is the norm.
 ● In Arabic cultures, men should not touch women they don’t know.
Conversation Initiation and Closure:
● The right to initiate a conversation is often reserved for older or higher-status
individuals in many cultures.
● Closing a conversation is less strictly codified but may also be done by the
person with higher social status.
Formulaic Greetings and Farewells:
● Certain cultures have ritualized openings & closings to conversations.
● Common greetings like "hello" and "goodbye" have cultural origins (e.g.,
"goodbye" originally meaning "God be with you").
● Religious formulas are common, such as "Dia dhuit" (Irish for "God be with
you") in Ireland.
Color Terms
● In the late 1960s, anthropologists Brent Berlin and Paul Kay conducted a
study to understand the basic color terms in various languages.
● Their investigation examined 98 languages and aimed to determine which
colors were fundamental across cultures.
Criteria for Basic Color Terms:
● Single Lexeme
● Not Included in Another Term
● Not Limited to Specific Objects
● Well-Known & Early in the Language
Findings:
● Berlin and Kay identified 11 basic colors that appear in a specific implicational
order across languages
● the presence of one color term implies the presence of others. For instance, if
a language has a term for "green," it will also have a term for "red."
● The researchers used color chips (320 equally spaced hues) to determine
how languages match words to colors. They found remarkable consistency in
the focal hue for each color, i.e., the color most universally chosen to
represent a basic term. For example, the focal hue for "red" was consistently
a fire-engine red across languages.
● While there are universal basic color terms, many languages differentiate
between various shades of a color. These distinctions reflect different ways of
encoding the "outside world."
Kinship Terms
● are structured around family relationships, primarily focusing on the nuclear
family (mother, father, siblings), with a special emphasis on the mother-child
relationship.
● differ across cultures, with certain social roles being biologically determined
(like the mother-child relationship) and others (like the father) being more
socially constructed.
 ● Terms for vertical relationships (grandparents, great-grandparents,
grandchildren) are typically derived from the nuclear family, often using
compounds such as "mother-mother" for "grandmother."
● Horizontal relationships (between members of the same generation, such
as siblings, aunts, and uncles) are also recognized.
● Many languages use general terms like "cousins" for children of a parent's
siblings. In some languages (e.g., French), distinctions are made based on
gender, with cousins (masculine) and cousines (feminine) used.
● Some languages, like German, differentiate bet neutral and familiar terms for
family members. (Großvater (grandfather) vs. Opa (familiar term for
grandfather))
● In English, informal terms like mom and dad are often extended to
grandparents, e.g., grandma and grandpa.
● In some languages, kinship terms distinguish between paternal and maternal
relationships.
Compound Terms:
● Nephew/Niece: Terms like laan-shaai (nephew) and laan-sao (niece)
combine the word for grandchild (laan) with gender-specific suffixes.
● In-laws: Thai kinship terms can also reflect relationships through marriage,
such as phaw-ta (father-in-law, from father + maternal grandfather), indicating
the two generations and sides of the family.
Counting Systems
● vary across cultures and languages, particularly in the base or numerical
system used.
● Most languages use base 10, which is related to the ten fingers on human
hands. This system is also reflected in the term digit, derived from the Latin
digitus, meaning "finger."
● some cultures use alternative systems, such as base 20. This system is
based on both fingers and toes, indicating a different cultural perception of
toes, which may either be treated as separate from fingers or, in some
languages, as "fingers of the foot."
● #in French, numbers like eighty-six are expressed as "quatre vingt six"
(literally "four-twenty-six"), indicating the use of 20 as a base.
● While languages like English and German distinguish between "fingers" and
"toes," others like Latin, Turkish, and Irish call toes the "fingers of the foot."

Language, Society, & Culture

● Cyclical Relationship: Society and culture influence the language we speak,
& the language we use shapes society & culture.
● Pronouns and Formality
● Cultural Rituals
● Learning Through Experience: Studying abroad or stepping outside one's
comfort zone helps individuals learn about the intersection of language,
culture, and social norms.
Conventions:
● explicit rules, like "Look at me when I'm talking to you."
Norms
● implicit expectations, such as politely initiating the end of a conversation by
saying, “I should be going.”
Social Roles in Communication:
● influence the way we speak. For example, saying “As a longtime member of
this community...” helps people understand the speaker's background, which
shapes the interpretation of their message.
Turn-Taking in Conversations:
● a central social norm in conversations, where people alternate speaking to
contribute meaningfully.
● There are verbal and nonverbal cues that guide when someone’s turn to
speak begins or ends.
Adjacency Pairs:
● related units of communication that typically occur together, like questions &
answers, greetings & responses, or compliments & thanks.
● Failure in adjacency pairs can lead to confusion
Scripted & Ritualized Elements:
● Conversations often begin with standard greetings and light, "safe"
exchanges, followed by more in-depth discussions.
● Topic Changes: Proper social norms require that conversations progress
smoothly, and changing topics without acknowledgment of the current topic
may be considered rude or dismissive.
Ending Conversations:
● involves social norms. Abruptly walking away can be seen as a breach of
etiquette.
● In many cultures (like the U.S.), it’s typical to say you need to leave before
actually doing so, often followed by a series of polite exit signals to end the
interaction smoothly.
While the norms discussed are common in U.S. communication, the interpretation
and practice of silence, turn-taking, and conversation closure can vary greatly across
cultures.
Language & Culture
● Culture is not solely determined by language or nationality.
● People who speak the same language can still experience cultural differences
based on intersecting cultural identities & personal experiences.
● While languages may vary in complexity or sound, no one language is
inherently more effective for communication than another.
● From birth, individuals are socialized into their cultural identities, learning both
explicit and implicit lessons.
● The language we speak shapes how we conceptualize the world.
● The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: language influences but does not fully
determine our perception of reality.
 ● Language can lead to awkward or even disastrous situations in cross-cultural
contexts.
● CSpecific Reinforcement:
In some cultures, phrases like “Good girl” or “Good boy” are used for positive
reinforcement, a practice with historical roots in Puritan beliefs. Other cultures
do not have direct equivalents for such phrases.
● Disastrous Cross-Cultural Mistakes
Dialects: are versions of languages with distinct vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation.
Accents: refer to distinct pronunciation styles within a language, and multiple
accents can exist within a single dialect.
● American English has dialects influenced by region, class, and ancestry.
These variations impact how we perceive others.
● People tend to view dialects similar to their own more positively and those that
differ negatively.
● Many speakers believe their own dialect is "normal" while viewing others'
dialects as unusual.
● Tone of voice often has a stronger impact than word choice in shaping
perceptions.
Social Norms:
● Social norms and the meaning of words can differ across cultures.
● Example: In American English, "thank you" acknowledges receiving
something, but in British English, it can mean "yes," and in French, "merci"
can mean "no."
● Powerful language differs by culture (swearing may be seen as powerful in
Western cultures, but immature and weak in Japan)
Gender & Language Use:
● Contrary to stereotypes, men & women communicate similarly, with only small
differences in personal disclosures.
● Research shows that the level of disclosure is similar between men and
women in cross-gender communication.
● The stereotype that men interrupt more than women is not supported by
research; both genders interrupt at similar rates in cross-gender
conversations.

Communication Accommodation Theory (Giles, Taylor, & Bourhis, 1973):

● People adjust their communication style depending on the gender of their
conversation partner.
● In same-gender interactions, people tend to follow gendered communication
norms, but in cross-gender conversations, these differences are less
pronounced.
● Explores why and how people modify their communication to fit situational,
social, cultural, & relational contexts
 ● Convergence can make others feel more at ease and improve social
connections.
● Divergence may be used to assert identity or intentionally create distance
from others.
# African American women may use unique verbal patterns to highlight their
racial identity
Code-Switching (Martin & Nakayama, 2010):
● changing accents, dialects, or languages during communication (People may
code-switch for various reasons, such as to adapt to a specific social setting
or to modify their accent for professional purposes.
# Southern individuals might adjust their accent in professional settings to
avoid stereotypes or negative impressions.
● In multilingual settings, code-switching can occur frequently within
conversations or throughout the day.
● Globalization and outsourcing pressures lead to more instances of
code-switching, especially for call center workers
● In India, some call center workers undergo "accent-neutralization" training and
learn about Western culture to accommodate Anglo-American customers'
preferences (Pal, 2004).
● The expectation for code-switching may be influenced by cultural biases and
power dynamics.

Cultural Bias in Language:

● a skewed, typically negative, view or portrayal of a group based on their
cultural identity.
● often manifests in daily language, sometimes unconsciously, & can relate to
race, gender, age, sexual orientation, & ability.
● can stem from stereotypes and myths, shaping the way we talk about others.
● Bias can be both intentional (purposefully harmful language) or unintentional
(unaware use of biased terms or assumptions).
● It's crucial to understand that meaning in communication is co-created, & even
unintentional bias can have harmful effects.
● Being aware of cultural bias in language isn't the same as adhering to
"political correctness," which can be seen as overemphasizing sensitivity
without addressing the root causes of bias.
● The goal is not to eliminate all potential offense but to foster ethical
communication & increase cultural competence.
● Certain euphemisms for race, like referring to someone as "urban" or a
neighborhood as "inner city," can carry implicit biases (often associated with
poverty or certain racial groups, reinforcing stereotypes)
● Using adjectives such as "articulate" or "well-dressed" when describing Black
individuals can unintentionally reinforce negative stereotypes, despite the
words being positive.
 ● Terms like "nonwhite" set up whiteness as the standard, positioning white
individuals as the default or norm against which all other races are compared.
● Generalizing racial identities by assigning labels like "Chinese" to all people of
Asian descent or "Mexican" to all Latinos reinforces stereotypes & erases the
diversity within those racial groups.
● While terms like "people of color" are sometimes used to promote solidarity
among nonwhite groups, individuals often prefer specific racial labels to
reflect their unique identities more accurately, especially for multiracial
individuals or those with distinct cultural backgrounds.
Gender & Language Bias:
● Terms like "opposite gender" reinforce the idea that men and women are polar
opposites, which isn't accurate as men & women can have successful
relationships and interactions.
● The term "other gender" is more accurate as it acknowledges that gender
identity and communication are influenced by social and cultural norms rather
than being binary opposites.
● The generic use of "he" to refer to both genders is biased. Instead, using
gender-neutral pronouns like "they" or "their" or alternating between
masculine & feminine pronouns for examples can help avoid bias.
● Certain occupations have historically been associated with one gender. To
avoid this, use gender-neutral alternatives like:
● Waitress → Server/ Chairman → Chairperson /Mankind → People
/Cameraman → Camera Operator/ Mailman → Postal Worker/ Sportsmanship
→ Fair Play
● Using "Ms." instead of "Miss" or "Mrs." helps eliminate the gender bias that is
linked to a woman's marital status, as there is no equivalent for men.
Age & Language Bias
● Language often assumes that younger people are reckless or inexperienced,
which can perpetuate negative stereotypes about their abilities or
decision-making.
● Terms like "elderly" can imply weakness or frailty, which is inaccurate. The
term "older people" is more neutral and does not carry negative connotations.
● While terms like "grandmother" or "grandfather" can be used to describe older
people, they can also be applied to younger individuals. Alternatives like
"retirees" or "people over sixty-five" can be used to avoid stereotypes.
● Referring to adults over eighteen as "boys" or "girls" is generally seen as
inappropriate, as it infantilizes them and dismisses their maturity and
adulthood.
Ability & Language Bias
● People with disabilities are increasingly recognized as a diverse cultural or
social identity group, and the term "able-bodied" is often used for those
without disabilities.
 ● Referring to people without disabilities as "normal" implies that individuals with
disabilities are abnormal, which reinforces harmful stereotypes and
misconceptions about disability.
● The term "disability" is preferred over "handicap" as it reflects the condition
more accurately. "Handicap" often suggests that the person is inherently
disadvantaged, while disability can be linked more to societal & environmental
barriers.
● It's important to use person-first language, such as "person with paraplegia"
instead of labeling someone as a "paraplegic," which reduces them to their
disability.
● Language surrounding disabilities should avoid portraying individuals as
victims of their condition. Using terms that evoke pity or depict lives as
"gloomy" or "dreadful" can perpetuate inaccurate & harmful stereotypes.

Chapter (3):
Main Focus:
● Examines language heterogeneity due to gender differences in She Stoops to
Conquer (1773) by Oliver Goldsmith.
● Emphasizes social construction of gender over biological sex, highlighting
how linguistic performance reflects societal roles (Robson & Stockwell, 2005).
Theoretical Foundations:
1. Spolsky (2004):
● Focuses on “gender stereotypes in language.”
● Language practices, beliefs, & management differ across contexts.
2. Bucholtz (2003):
● Defines “gender-based research in interactional sociolinguistics.”
● Views discourse as a social phenomenon.
3. Hudson (1991):
● Sociolinguistics studies “language in relation to society.”
● Highlights conversational differences between genders in the 18th-century
English speech community.
4. Coates (1997):
● Argues linguistic variation is structured, not random.
● Critiques theoretical linguists for neglecting real-world linguistic diversity.
5. Trudgill (1981):
● Links linguistic variables to speakers' social characteristics.
● Posits societal norms shape gender-based language differences.
6. Romaine (1978):
● Gender-based speech differentiation drives linguistic change.
Levels of Analysis (Hudson, 1991):
● Sex-markers or sex-based differences in: Syntax/ Lexis/ Phonology/
Pragmatics.
● Speech reflects power, solidarity, and social distance influenced by shared
experiences, sex, and social traits.
Ethnographic Approach:
1. Hymens (1967; 1974):
● Introduced the “ethnography of speaking,” analyzing beliefs about language
choices.
2. Sebeok & Danesi (2000):
● Systems Analysis (SA) framework to study linguistic models and
meaning-making.
● Language as a pre-determined macro-code shaping individual worldviews.
Empirical and Theoretical Balance:
● Rejects “armchair” sociolinguistics, which relies on theoretical assumptions
(Hudson, 1991).
● Combines empirical evidence and theoretical reasoning to analyze gendered
language in She Stoops to Conquer.
Study Structure:
Section 1.1:
● Explores mixed-gender interactions and how language reflects male and
female identities.
Section 2.1:
● Reviews She Stoops to Conquer to contextualize language differences
socially.
Sections 3.1 to 6.1:
● Sociolinguistic analysis at the syntactic, lexical, phonological, and pragmatic
levels.
Section 7.1:
● Concludes male-female linguistic differences align with theoretical
hypotheses.
Key Themes:
Mixed Interaction:
● Gender roles influence linguistic differences (Coates, 1997).
● Language as a variable phenomenon shaped by social factors (Trudgill,
1981).
Heterosexual Market (Eckert & McConnell-Ginet, 2003):
● Language choices reflect gender identity in social “markets.”
Social Context Importance:
● Ignoring context oversimplifies linguistic variation (Trudgill, 1981).
● Social practices shape linguistic participation and meaning (Thibault, 2004).
Application to Goldsmith’s Play:
● Social Heteroglossia (Bakhtin, 1981):
Language reflects diverse social practices in its historical context.
● The play is treated as sociolinguistic evidence rather than for stylistic merit
(Peikola & Skaffari, 2005).
Gendered Linguistic Behavior:
Women’s Speech Competence:
 ● Women are seen as mastering discourse rules tied to their gender (Bucholtz,
2003).
Social Expectations:
● Women use more “correct” forms due to societal norms of stricter behavior
(Trudgill, 1981).
Normative Behavior:
● Women’s speech aligns with societal expectations for refinement (Romaine,
1978).

Scholars List
Ferdinand de Saussure:
● Viewed language as a social behavior, influenced by sociological ideas from
Émile Durkheim.
● Introduced structuralism, which laid the foundation for formal linguistic
methodologies that analyze language systems systematically.
William Labov:
● Conducted a seminal study on New York City English (1966), exploring
structural systems & their historical changes.
● Proposed that language change can be observed in real-time by studying
current language varieties.
● Coined the term "free variation," showing that speakers’ linguistic choices are
deliberate and context-dependent.
● Addressed the Observer’s Paradox (speech changes when people know they
are being observed) with the Rapid & Anonymous Interview technique.
● Stages of Language Change
● External Influences on Language Change: Social pressures, literacy, speaker
prestige, and the influence of language standards.
James & Lesley Milroy:
● Developed the concept of Social Networks in Language Use, analyzing how
social ties and interactions influence language patterns and variability.
Robin Lakoff:
● Explored language and gender, emphasizing that women’s language use
often reflects societal expectations of politeness, uncertainty, and inferiority.
Brent Berlin and Paul Kay:
● Conducted a study on basic color terms across languages, exploring how
cultures categorize and name colors in their vocabularies.
Giles, Taylor, & Bourhis (1973):
● Proposed the Communication Accommodation Theory, examining how
speakers adjust their language to align with or diverge from their audience
during interaction.
Martin & Nakayama (2010):
● Studied code-switching, which involves shifting between languages or dialects
within a conversation based on social, cultural, or situational contexts.
Spolsky (2004):
 ● Concept of “gender stereotypes in language”; views language practices,
beliefs, and management as varied across social contexts.
Bucholtz (2003):
● Positions discourse as a social phenomenon and defines “gender-based
research in interactional sociolinguistics.”
Robson & Stockwell (2005):
● Focuses on the social construction of gender through linguistic performance
reflecting societal roles and expectations.
Hudson (1991):
● Defines sociolinguistics as studying “language in relation to society”;
emphasizes conversational differences between men and women, identifies
"sex-based differences" in language, and rejects purely theoretical
sociolinguistics.
Coates (1997):
● Argues linguistic variation is structured, not random, and critiques theoretical
linguists for ignoring real-world heterogeneity in favor of “ideal
speaker-hearer” models.
Trudgill (1981):
● Links linguistic variables to social characteristics of speakers; hypothesizes
that societal norms shape language differences between genders.
Romaine (1978):
● Suggests gender-based speech differentiation plays a key role in linguistic
change and is influenced by societal expectations.
Hymens (1967; 1974):
● Introduced the “ethnography of speaking,” focusing on analyzing beliefs and
practices around language choices in social settings.
Sebeok & Danesi (2000):
● Propose a Systems Analysis framework to explore linguistic models and their
functions; introduce the concept of a pre-determined macro-code shaping
language usage.
Eckert & McConnell-Ginet (2003):
● Discuss the “heterosexual market” metaphor, explaining how language
choices reflect gender identity.
Bakhtin (1981):
● Developed the idea of “social heteroglossia,” where language reflects diverse
social practices within specific historical contexts.
● Highlighted the interplay between language and societal meaning-making.
Thibault (2004):
● Emphasizes the importance of social practices in shaping linguistic meaning
and participation within communities.
Peikola & Skaffari (2005):
● Argue for analyzing historical texts like She Stoops to Conquer for their
societal and linguistic context rather than stylistic elements.
Chomsky:
 ● Distinguished between homogeneous (idealized, uniform language systems)
and heterogeneous (real-world language variation).
● Criticized for focusing on an idealized speaker-hearer model, overlooking
natural linguistic diversity.
Peter Stockwell:
● Focused on cognitive stylistics, linking linguistics with reader interpretation.
● Analyzed how language structure and usage shape audience perception and
meaning construction.
Ruben Beltran:
● Examined sociolinguistic patterns in communication.
● Advocated for studying how social contexts and interactions influence
language use & identity formation.