HEAT EXCHANGERS
Introduction
The application of the principles of heat transfer to the design of equipment
to accomplish a certain engineering objective is of extreme importance, for
in applying the principles to design, the individual is working toward the
important goal of product development for economic gain. Eventually,
economics play a key role in the design and selection of heat exchange
equipment, and the engineer should bear this in mind when embarking on
any new heat transfer design problem. The weight and size of heat
exchangers used in space or aeronautical applications are very important
parameters, and in these cases cost considerations are very frequently
subordinated insofar as material and heat exchanger construction costs are
concerned; however, the weight and size are important cost factors in the
overall application in this fields and thus may still be considered as economic
variables.
A particular application will dictate the rules which one must follow to obtain
the best design commensurate with economic considerations, size, weight,
etc. An analysis of all these factors is beyond the scope of the succeeding
discussions, but it is well to remember that they all must be considered in
practice. The discussion on heat exchangers will take the form of technical
analysis; i.e., the methods of predicting heat exchanger performance, along
with the discussion of the methods which may be used to estimate the heat
exchanger size and type necessary to accomplish a particular task. In this
respect, the discussion will be limited to heat exchangers where the primary
modes of heat transfer are conduction and convection. This is not to imply
that radiation is not important in heat exchanger design, for in many space
applications it is the predominant means available for effecting an energy
transfer.
Classifications of Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers may be classified according to:
1. Flow Configuration
(a) Parallel Flow – the hot and cold fluids are flowing in the same
direction.
(b) Counter Flow – the hot and cold fluids are flowing in opposite
directions.
(c) Cross Flow – the hot and cold fluids are flowing at right angle with
one another.
2. Application
(a) No Phase Change – the fluids that are exchanging heat energy do
not change phases.
(b) Phase Change – one of the fluid changes phases as heat transfer
takes place.
Fluid B
Fluid A Fluid A
(parallel flow) (counter flow)
Fluid B
(a)
Fluid B Shell Baffles
Fluid A
Tubes
(b)
Fluid B
Baffles
Fluid A
(c)
Warm water
Steam
Cold water
(d)
Figure 1 – Various heat exchanger configurations. (a) Parallel and
Counterflow.
(b) Shell-and-tube. (c) Cross flow. (d) Direct-contact.
Shown in Figure 1 are various heat exchanger configurations. A tube-in-tube
(or double pipe) heat exchanger (as shown in Fig. 1-a) maybe of the parallel
and counter flow type; likewise a shell-and-tube heat exchanger (Fig. 1-b)
may be of the parallel or counter flow design. A cross flow heat exchanger is
shown in Fig 1-c and a good example of this configuration is the radiator in
automobiles. A direct contact heat exchanger (Fig. 1-d) is one where the hot
and cold fluids mixed; an open-heater is an example of such and is usually
classified as a no change phase type. Condensers are considered as phase
change type and may be of the shell-and-tube design with parallel flow or
counterflow configuration. Another example of a heat exchanger is the
regenerator, and is considered a no phase change type. It is usually massive
and is use to store heat on a cyclic basis.
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
In the discussion of the transfer of heat through walls from one fluid to
another, it has been on the tacit assumption that the hot fluid remains at a
constant temperature T1 and the cold fluid remains at a constant
temperature T2. However, in many instances, either the cold fluid or the hot,
or both, undergo a change of temperature in passage through the heat
exchanger.
For purposes of explanation, consider a double pipe type of heat exchanger
(Fig. 1-a). Let the hot fluid flow through the annular space and the cold fluid
through the inner pipe. As the temperatures of the fluid change, the
difference between the temperatures of the fluids changes. Thus, different
differences between the temperatures of the hot and cold fluids at different
sections of the heat exchanger take place. In such cases, the logarithmic
mean temperature difference (LMTD) is used in place instead of (T 1 – T2).
Since the rate of change of temperature of the substance is not constant, the
LMTD is not the same as the arithmetic mean.
Temp. Temp.
Thin Thin
hot
T hout ΔT A
hot
ΔTA ΔTB
Thout
Tcout Tcout
cold ΔTB
Tcin
cold
Tcin
Length of Tube Length
of Tube
(a) Parallel Flow (b) Counter Flow
Figure 2 – Temperature variations in a parallel and counter flow
heat exchanger.
At this point, consider the two types of flow, parallel flow, in which case the
fluids flow in the same direction through the heat exchanger, and counter
flow, where the fluids flow in opposite directions. In a general way, the
variation of temperatures is as indicated in Figure 2. In case of parallel flow,
both fluids enter at section A, and as fluids pass to section B the
temperatures approach one another. At and near section A (Fig. 2a), the
temperature difference is a maximum, and consequently the rate of flow of
heat and the rate of decrease of temperature difference are a maximum. As
the temperatures of the fluids approach one another, the rates of change of
temperatures decrease and the curves flatten out. In Fig. 2b, a counter flow
arrangement, the cold fluid enters at section B, leaves at A. In contrast to
parallel flow, heat transfer is taking place between the fluids at the moment
when each is in its coldest state, and when each is in its hottest state. The
transfer of heat in a counter flow exchanger tends to conserve available
energy and makes possible a higher final temperature of the fluid being
heated than obtainable with parallel flow.
The equation for finding the logarithmic mean temperature difference is
∆ T A −∆ T B
∆ T m=
∆T A
ln
∆TB
and this value of the log mean temperature difference is between sections A
and B when the temperature difference at A is ΔTA, and the difference at B is
ΔTB. It does not matter which end of the heat exchanger is taken as section
A or B; the same result will be obtained. Hence this equation applies to either
case and it also serves whenever the temperature of either fluid is constant,
as during evaporation or condensation. When ΔTA is equal to or nearly
equal to ΔTB, use the arithmetic average for ΔTm. The equation therefore
for finding the heat transfer in a heat exchanger is
Q=UA (∆ T m)
In taking values of U for curved walls, notice whether the basis is on the
inside Ai or outside Ao.
Correction Factor
The logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is so far applicable if
the heat exchanger has a simple geometry. When the construction becomes
more complex, the LMTD must be modified by a correction factor. The
determination of the correction factor is usually obtained from diagrams
indicating the type of heat exchanger it used for. Some of these diagrams
are available from books and will be introduced in due time.
Examples:
1445./p. 135 – Faires
Air enters a preheater at 25 oC and leaves at 110 oC. The hot gas leaves at
130 oC. Find the temperature of the hot gas entering when the logarithmic
mean temperature difference is 67.4 C and (a) the flow is parallel (b) the flow
is counter-current.
Given: air preheater
Tcin = 25 oC
Tcout = 110 oC
Thout = 130 oC
ΔTm =67.4 oC
Required:
(a) Thin = ? (for parallel flow)
(b) Thin = ? (for counter flow)
Solution:
(a) For parallel flow
Temp.
Thin
gas
130 oC
ΔTA ΔTB
110 oC
air
25 Co
Length of tube
For the LMTD,
∆ T A −∆ T B
∆ T m=
∆T A
ln
∆TB
( T hin−25 )−( 130−110 )
67.4=
( T hin −25 )
ln
20
Since the equation cannot be simplified, use trial and error method to solve
for Thin.
Let: Thin = 170 oC
( 170−25 )−( 20 )
67.4=
145
ln
20
67.4 ≠ 63.1
Let: Thin = 190 oC
( 190−25 )−( 20 )
67.4=
165
ln
20
67.4 ≠ 68.7
Interpolate:
63.1 170
67.4 Thin
68.7 190
∴ T hin=185.4 ° C
(b) For counter flow
Temp.
Thin
gas
ΔTA
130 oC
110 C
o
ΔTB
air
25 oC
Length of tube
For the LMTD:
∆ T A −∆ T B
∆ T m=
∆T A
ln
∆TB
( T hin−110 )− (130−25 )
67.4=
( T hin−110 )
ln
105
Let: Thin = 170 oC
( 170−110 )−( 105 )
67.4=
60
ln
105
67.4 ≠ 80.4
Let: Thin = 145 oC
( 14 5−110 )−( 105 )
67.4=
35
ln
105
67.4 ≠ 63.7
Interpolate:
63.7 145
67.4 Thin
80.4 170
∴ T hin=150. 5 ° C
1448/p.135 – The oil (cp = 1 795 W-s/kg-K) from an oil-cooled electric
transformer is cooled from 79.4 oC to 29.4 oC at the rate of 1 360.5 kg/h. This
is done in an oil-water het exchanger that receives 2 948 kg/h of water at
15.6 oC. For the exchanger, U = 295 W/m 2-K. Find the exit water temperature
and heating area required (a) for counter flow and (b) for parallel flow.
Given: oil-water heat exchanger
Thin =79.4 oC
Thout = 29.4 oC
Cpo = 1 795 W-s/kg-K
ṁ o = 1 360.5 kg/h
ṁ w = 2 948 kg/h
Tcin = 15.6 oC
U = 295 W/m2-K
Required:
Tcout = ?
A = ? (for counter flow and for parallel flow)
Solution:
For the exit water temperature:
Q̇w =Q̇ o
ṁw c pw ( T cout−T cin )= ṁo c po ( T hin−T hout )
ṁo c po ( T hin −T hout )
T cout = +T cin
ṁ w c pw
T cout =
( 1360.5 )(1.795
kg
h kg−K )
kJ
( 79.4−29.4 ) ° C
+15.6 ° C
(2 948 h )( 4.186 kg−K )
kg kJ
T cout =25.5 ° C
For the area:
(a) Counter flow
Temp.
79.4 oC
oil
25.5 oC 29.4 oC
water
15.6 oC
Length of tube
∆ T A −∆ T B ( 79.4−25.5 )−( 29.4−15.6 )
∆ T m= =
∆T A 53.9
ln ln
∆TB 13.8
∆ T m=29.4 ° C ( ¿° K )
Since:
Q=UA ∆ T m
A=
Q
=
( kg
1 360.5 x
1h
h 3 600 s )( 1795
kg−K )
J
( 79.4−29.4 ) K
( )
U ∆T m W
295 2
( 29.4 K )
m −K
2
A=3.91 m
(b) For parallel flow
Temp.
79.4 oC
oil
29.4 oC
25.5 oC
water
15.6 oC
Length of tube
∆ T A −T B (79.4−15.6 )−( 29.4−25.5 )
∆ T m= =
∆T A 63.8
ln ln
∆TB 3.9
∆ T m=21.4 ° C ( ¿° K )
∴ A=
Q
=
( kg
1 360.5 x
1h
h 3 600 s )(
1 795
J
kg−K )
( 79.4−29.4 ) K
(295 m W−K ) ( 21.4 K )
U ∆Tm
2
2
A=5.37 m
