IMPS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY

NAME: ARNAB PAUL

DEPARTMENT: CIVIL ENGINEERING
ROLL NO: 17001323006
REGISTRATION NO: 231700120021
YEAR: 3rd SEM: 5th SESSION: 2024-25
SUBJECT: ENGG. HYDROLOGY / CE(PC) 502
TOPIC: RUNOFF PROCESS
NAME OF THE GUIDE: MR. PRADEEP SEN
 TECHNICAL REPORT
ON
“A STUDY ON RUNOFF PROCESS”
Submitted for the partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of
Bachelor Of Technology in Civil Engineering

IMPS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Submitted To-
MR. PRADEEP SEN
Submitted By-
ARNAB PAUL
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the report “A

STUDY ON RUNOFF PROCESS”
submitted for the Degree of Bachelor
of Technology in Civil Engineering at
IMPS College of Engineering &
Technology, is my original work.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Mr. Pradeep Sen

for his support and guidance in
completing my technical report on the
topic “A Study on Runoff Process”. It
was a great learning experience.
INTRODUCTION
What is Runoff?
Runoff refers to the portion of precipitation,
snowmelt, or irrigation water that flows over
the land surface and eventually reaches rivers,
lakes, or other water bodies.
It occurs when the ground is saturated,
impervious, or when the rate of precipitation
exceeds the soil's infiltration capacity.

Importance of Runoff in Hydrology

Runoff is a key process in the hydrological
cycle, linking precipitation to surface water
bodies.
It plays a crucial role in replenishing rivers,
lakes, and reservoirs, which are vital for water
supply, agriculture, and ecosystems.
In engineering hydrology, runoff estimation is
essential for designing drainage systems,
flood control structures, and water
management plans.
Key Role in Water Management
Runoff affects the availability of water
resources, influencing water supply for
irrigation, municipal use, and industry.
Excessive runoff can lead to flooding, while
insufficient runoff can cause droughts and
water scarcity.
Proper management of runoff is essential for
maintaining the balance between water
supply and preventing water-related hazards
like floods and erosion.
Types of Runoff
1. Surface Runoff (Overland Flow)
Definition: Surface runoff is the water that
flows over the land surface when the soil is
unable to absorb all the rainwater.
Causes: When rainfall intensity exceeds the
infiltration rate of the soil. Impervious
surfaces like roads and pavements in urban
areas contribute to increased surface runoff.
Impact: Can lead to flooding in low-lying
areas. Carries pollutants such as sediments,
chemicals, and debris to water bodies.
2. Subsurface Runoff (Throughflow or
Interflow)
Definition: Subsurface runoff occurs when
water infiltrates the soil and flows laterally
through the upper soil layers toward streams
or rivers.
Causes: Happens in soils with moderate
infiltration capacity but high lateral
movement of water.
Impact: Helps maintain stream flow during
periods of little rainfall. Can contribute to
delayed flooding as subsurface water
gradually enters rivers.
3. Baseflow (Groundwater Runoff)
Definition: Baseflow is the portion of runoff
that comes from groundwater seeping into
rivers and streams.
Causes: Occurs when groundwater slowly
discharges into rivers and streams through the
process of infiltration.
Impact: Provides a continuous flow to rivers,
especially during dry seasons. Helps sustain
ecosystems dependent on consistent water
availability.
Factors Affecting Runoff
1. Rainfall Characteristics
Intensity: The rate at which rain falls. High-
intensity rainfall can exceed the infiltration
capacity of soil, leading to more surface
runoff.
Duration: Longer storms increase the
likelihood of runoff as soil becomes saturated
over time.
Distribution: Uneven rainfall distribution can
cause localized runoff in specific areas,
leading to flash floods or erosion.
2. Soil Properties
Infiltration Rate: The ability of soil to absorb
water. Soils with high infiltration rates (e.g.,
sandy soils) produce less runoff, while soils
with low infiltration rates (e.g., clay soils)
generate more runoff.
Porosity: Determines how much water the soil
can hold. Soils with high porosity can retain
more water, reducing runoff.
Permeability: How easily water can flow
through soil. Permeable soils allow more
infiltration, minimizing surface runoff.
3. Land Use and Land Cover
Urbanization: Impervious surfaces such as
roads, buildings, and parking lots reduce
infiltration, leading to higher surface runoff
and flash floods.
Vegetation Cover: Dense vegetation increases
water absorption and reduces runoff by
slowing down the movement of water and
allowing more time for infiltration.
Agriculture: Plowed fields and certain farming
practices can increase surface runoff and soil
erosion.
4. Topography
Slope: Steeper slopes lead to faster runoff as
water flows quickly downhill, reducing the
time for infiltration.
Surface Roughness: Rougher terrain (e.g.,
forests, grasslands) slows down water
movement, promoting infiltration and
reducing runoff. Smooth surfaces (e.g.,
concrete or asphalt) allow water to flow more
quickly, increasing runoff.
Runoff Coefficients
What is a Runoff Coefficient?
The runoff coefficient (denoted as C) is a
dimensionless number that represents the
ratio of runoff to the total precipitation
received.
It is used in hydrological calculations to
estimate the portion of rainfall that will
appear as surface runoff.
The value of the runoff coefficient depends on
various factors like land use, soil type, and
surface slope.
Runoff Coefficient Formula:
C = (Runoff volume) / (Rainfall volume)
Typical Runoff Coefficients for Different
Surfaces:
Urban Areas:
Concrete or Asphalt: 0.7 to 0.95
Residential Areas: 0.4 to 0.6
Industrial Areas: 0.6 to 0.9
These values are higher due to impervious
surfaces that prevent infiltration, resulting in
greater surface runoff.
Natural Surfaces:
Forests: 0.1 to 0.3
Meadows or Grasslands: 0.2 to 0.5
Agricultural Land: 0.3 to 0.6 (depending on
crop and tillage practices)
Natural surfaces allow for more infiltration,
thus producing lower runoff coefficients.
Bare Soil or Rocky Surfaces:
Bare Soil: 0.5 to 0.7
Rocky Terrain: 0.2 to 0.5
Bare or exposed soils, especially if compacted
or on a slope, produce higher runoff values
due to reduced infiltration capacity.
Importance of Runoff Coefficient in
Hydrology
Design of Stormwater Management Systems:
Engineers use runoff coefficients to estimate
the amount of runoff that will need to be
managed in urban areas to prevent flooding.
Flood Risk Assessment: High runoff
coefficients indicate areas that are more
prone to flooding due to higher volumes of
surface water.
Environmental Impact: Helps in understanding
how land use changes, such as deforestation
or urbanization, affect water flow and
increase runoff, potentially leading to erosion
and water pollution.
Runoff Measurement
1. Direct Measurement Techniques
Runoff is often measured to assess the flow of
water in streams, rivers, and urban drainage
systems. These measurements are crucial for
flood forecasting, water management, and
design of hydraulic structures.
a. Weirs A weir is a barrier built across a
stream or river to measure discharge. How it
works: Water flows over a notch or opening in
the weir, and the flow rate can be calculated
by measuring the height of the water over the
notch (head).
Types of weirs:
V-notch (triangular weir): Used for low flow.
Rectangular weir: Used for larger flows.
Advantages: Simple and inexpensive for
measuring small to moderate flow rates.
b. Flumes A flume is a specially shaped open
channel used to measure flow in natural or
man-made channels.
How it works: It constricts the flow, causing a
change in velocity and depth, from which the
discharge can be calculated.
Types of flumes:
Parshall flume: Commonly used for irrigation
and stormwater applications.
Advantages: Accurate for a wide range of flow
conditions, and self-cleaning due to the high
velocity.
c. Stream Gauging Stream gauges are installed
in rivers to monitor water levels and flow
rates continuously.
How it works: A gauge measures the water
level (stage), and a relationship between the
stage and discharge (rating curve) is used to
estimate flow.
Advantages: Provides continuous data for
flood warning systems and long-term
hydrological studies.
2. Indirect Measurement Techniques
a. Remote Sensing Satellites and drones are
used to estimate runoff and surface water
flow by capturing images of water bodies,
floodplains, and snowmelt areas.
How it works: Remote sensing can detect
changes in surface water extent, which,
combined with weather data, can be used to
estimate runoff volumes.
Advantages: Useful for large-scale water
resource monitoring, especially in remote or
inaccessible areas.
b. Hydrological Models Hydrological models
simulate runoff based on precipitation, land
cover, and soil data.
How it works: These models use input data
such as rainfall, temperature, and soil
characteristics to predict the amount of runoff
generated over time.
Examples: SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment
Tool)
HEC-HMS (Hydrologic Modelling System)
Advantages: Allows prediction of runoff in
ungauged basins and helps in water resource
planning.
3. Importance of Accurate Runoff
Measurement
Flood Prediction: Helps in forecasting
potential flood events and designing
appropriate flood defences.
Water Resource Management: Ensures
sustainable management of water resources
for agriculture, drinking water, and industry.
Design of Infrastructure: Accurate data is
crucial for the design of dams, stormwater
systems, and drainage channels.
Environmental Monitoring: Measures runoff-
related pollution, sediment transport, and
erosion, aiding in environmental protection
efforts.
Impact of Runoff on Flooding
1. How Runoff Leads to Flooding
Excessive runoff occurs when the ground is
unable to absorb the water from rainfall,
snowmelt, or other sources, leading to
surface flow.
When large volumes of water collect in rivers,
streams, or low-lying areas, the capacity of
these water bodies can be exceeded, resulting
in flooding.
Floods are more likely when:
Heavy rainfall occurs in a short period (flash
floods).
Snowmelt rapidly increases surface runoff
during warmer seasons.
Urban areas with impervious surfaces reduce
infiltration, increasing surface runoff.
2. Urban Runoff and Flooding
Urbanization significantly increases the risk of
flooding due to:
Impervious surfaces (roads, pavements,
buildings) that prevent water from soaking
into the ground, leading to higher volumes of
runoff.
Lack of green spaces that could naturally
absorb water.
Inadequate or overwhelmed stormwater
drainage systems.
Flash Flooding in Cities:
Due to the rapid accumulation of runoff,
urban areas are more prone to flash floods,
where water levels rise quickly, causing
damage to infrastructure, vehicles, and
buildings.
3. Natural Causes of Flooding Due to Runoff
Riverine Flooding: Occurs when rivers
overflow their banks due to excessive runoff
from prolonged rainfall or snowmelt. This
leads to widespread flooding of surrounding
areas, especially floodplains.
Coastal Flooding: In coastal areas, high tides
and storm surges can compound with runoff
from inland precipitation, causing extensive
flooding.
Mountainous Areas: In areas with steep
slopes, runoff moves rapidly downhill, leading
to flash floods and increased sediment
transport.
4. Managing Runoff to Prevent Flooding
Stormwater Management Systems: Cities
install drainage systems like storm sewers,
retention ponds, and detention basins to
manage runoff and reduce flooding risks.
Green Infrastructure: Use of green roofs,
permeable pavements, rain gardens, and
constructed wetlands to absorb runoff,
allowing water to infiltrate the ground instead
of flowing over impervious surfaces.
Flood Control Structures:
Levees and Dikes: Built along rivers to contain
floodwaters.
Dams and Reservoirs: Store excess runoff and
release it gradually to prevent downstream
flooding.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, understanding the runoff
process is critical in engineering hydrology as
it helps manage water resources, mitigate
flood risks, and design effective drainage
systems. By accurately predicting runoff,
engineers can ensure proper water
management in urban areas, agricultural land,
and natural ecosystems, ultimately
contributing to sustainable development and
environmental protection.
REFERENCES

A textbook of “ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY” by

K Subramanya.

Thank You