Physics Notes

Yuan Chenyang
March 7, 2015

1 Measurement 3 3 Special Relativity 6

1.1 Instrument Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . 3 3.1 Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3.2 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Propagation of error . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3.2.1 Lorentz Transform . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.2 Fundamental Effects . . . . . . . . 6
2 Mechanics 3 3.2.3 Minkowski Diagrams . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3.3 Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3.3.1 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . 3 3.3.2 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3.4 4-vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3.1 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3.4.1 Different 4-vectors . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3.2 Constraining Forces . . . . . . . . 3
2.3.3 Fictitious Forces . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 Electricity and Magnetism 7
2.4 Conservation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.5 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4.1.1 Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.5.1 Virial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4.1.2 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.5.2 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4.1.3 Work and Energy . . . . . . . . . 7
2.6 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4.1.4 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.7 Lagrangian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4.1.5 Image Charges . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.7.1 Multiple Coordinates . . . . . . . . 4 4.1.6 Uniqueness Theorems . . . . . . . 7
2.7.2 Forces of Constraint . . . . . . . . 4 4.2 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2.1 Lorentz Force Law . . . . . . . . . 7
2.7.3 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . 4
4.2.2 Biot-Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.7.4 Noether’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2.3 Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.8 Hamiltonian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2.4 Magnetic Vector Potential . . . . . 8
2.8.1 Liouville’s Theorem . . . . . . . . 4
4.3 Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.8.2 Poisson Brackets . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.3.1 Electric Currents . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.9 Central Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.3.2 Electromotive Force . . . . . . . . 8
2.9.1 Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.3.3 Faraday’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.10 Uniform Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.3.4 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.11 Rotational Dynamics (Constant L̂) . . . . 5 4.3.5 Displacement Current . . . . . . . 8
2.11.1 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . 5 4.4 Electric Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.11.2 General Motion . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.11.3 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 Oscillations and Waves 8
2.11.4 Angular Impulse . . . . . . . . . . 5 5.1 Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.11.5 Parallel-axis Theorem . . . . . . . 5 5.1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . 8
2.11.6 Perpendicular-axis Theorem . . . . 5 5.1.2 Damped Oscillators . . . . . . . . 8
2.11.7 Moments of Inertia . . . . . . . . . 5 5.1.3 Driven Oscillators . . . . . . . . . 8
2.12 General Rotational Motion . . . . . . . . . 5 5.1.4 Coupled Oscillators . . . . . . . . 9
2.12.1 Angular Velocity . . . . . . . . . . 5 5.1.5 Small Oscillations . . . . . . . . . 9
2.12.2 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . 5 5.2 Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.12.3 Principle Axes . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5.2.1 String with Fixed Ends . . . . . . 9
2.12.4 Euler’s Equations . . . . . . . . . 6 5.2.2 D’Alembert’s Solution . . . . . . . 9
1
 5.2.3 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . 9
5.2.4 Poynting Vector . . . . . . . . . . 9

6 Optics 9
6.1 Geometric Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.2 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.3 Physical Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.3.1 Double Slit: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.3.2 Single Slit: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.3.3 Intensity in Diffraction Patterns . 10

7 Thermodynamics 10
7.1 Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.2 Kinetic Theory of Gases . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.2.1 Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.2.2 Internal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.2.3 Maxwell Distribution . . . . . . . 10
7.2.4 Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.3 Heat Teansfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.4 Thermodynamic Processes . . . . . . . . . 10
7.4.1 Isochoric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.4.2 Isobaric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.4.3 Isothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.4.4 Adiabatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.5 Heat Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.6 Second Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . 11
7.7 Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.7.1 Macroscopic Definition . . . . . . . 11
7.7.2 Microscopic Definition . . . . . . . 11

8 Quantum Mechanics 11
8.1 Blackbody Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8.2 Schrödinger’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8.2.1 Normalization . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8.2.2 Expectation Values . . . . . . . . . 11
8.3 Time Independent Solution . . . . . . . . 11
8.3.1 Integral Form . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.4 Momentum Space Wavefunction . . . . . . 12
8.5 1-D Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.5.1 Free Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.5.2 Infinite Well . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.5.3 Finite Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.5.4 Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . 12
8.6 Linear Algebra Formalism . . . . . . . . . 12
8.6.1 Postulate 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.6.2 Postulate 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.6.3 Postulate 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.6.4 Postulate 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.6.5 Postulate 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2
1 Measurement 2.2.1 Polar Coordinates 2.3.3 Fictitious Forces
1.1 Instrument Uncertainty Differentiation of unit vectors: For any vector A in a moving frame,
All instruments have uncertainties: r̂˙ = θ̇θ̂ we calculate its time derivative in a
1. Analogue Instruments: Half the ˙ frame rotating at ω respect to the
θ̂ =−θ̇r̂ stationary frame:
smallest measurement unit Velocity and acceleration in polar form: dA dA
2. Digital Instruments: The smallest r =rr̂ = +ω×A
significant figure dt stat dt mov
v = ṙ = ṙr̂+rθ̇θ̂ Let r be the position vector of the
3. Human reaction time: ±0.10s
object in an accelerated frame and R
1.2 Significant Figures a= v̇ =(r̈− θ̇2r)r̂+(rθ̈+2ṙθ̇)θ̂ be the vector to the origin of the accel-
1. Adding or subtracting: Follow term 2.3 Dynamics erated frame, then the possible forces
with least decimal place that acts on r in the moving frame are:
F =mẍ d2r F d2R
2. Multiplying or Dividing: Follow = − −ω×(ω×r)
term with least significant figure Faction =−Freaction dt2 m dt2
Free body diagram techniques: dω
1.3 Propagation of error −2ω×v− r
1. ΣFnet =0 for massless pulleys dt
For any f(a,···) the general formula for 2. Conservation of string 1. Translational force: −m ddtR
2
2
∆f is: s Solving differential equations in 1- 2. Centrifugal force: −mω×(ω×r)
∂f
2 dimension: 3. Coriolis force: −2mω×v
∆f = ∆a +···
∂a 1. F =f(t) 4. Azimuthal force: −m dωdt r
Z v(t) Z t
Some specific examples: m dv0 = f(t0)dt0 2.4 Conservation Laws
1. f =a±b v0 t0
Energy WNC =0
p
∆f = (∆a)2 +(∆b)2 Z x(t) Z t
2. f =ab or f = ab m dx0 = v(t0)dt0 Momentum ΣFnet =0
s x0 t0 Angular Momentum Στnet =0
∆a 2
  2
∆f ∆b 2. F =f(x)
= + dv dv dx dv
f a b a= = =v 2.5 Energy
dt dt dx dx
2 Mechanics Z v(x) Z x For a force in one dimension:
m v0dv0 = f(x0)dx0 dṙ
2.1 Statics mṙ =F (r)
v0 x0 dr Z r
When all objects are motionless (or 3. F =f(v) Z 1
m|ṙ|2 =E+ F (r0)·dr0
v(t)
dv0
Z t
have constantX velocity), 2
m 0)
= dt0 r0
Fnet =0 v0 f(v t0 We can then define potential energy:
Z r
U(r)=− F (r0)·dr0
X
τnet =0 2.3.1 Friction
r0
Four basic forces to consider: Kinetic and static friction: Work-Energy theorem:
Z r2
Tension Pulling force felt by a rope, fk =µk N
string, etc. Every piece of rope feels WAB = F (r0)·dr0
fs ≤µsN r1
a pulling force in both directions. Static friction does no work.
Wtotal =∆KE
Friction Parallel to surface of contact,
can be static or kinetic. 2.3.2 Constraining Forces Conservative forces are forces that only
Normal Perpendicular to surface of For any rigid body, there are 6 degrees depend on position. For conservative
contact, prevents object from falling of freedom (DF ). There can be con- forces: I
through surface. straining forces (C) acting on the body. F ·dr =0
Gravity Force acting between two ob- • Statics: C +DF =6
jects with mass. Always acts down- • Dynamics C +DF ≥6 ∇×F =0
wards for objects on surface of earth. F =−∇U
There are 3 assumptions made for a
2.2 Kinematics body moving without any constraint: WC =−∆U
1. fij krij For non-conservative forces:
∆x dx
v = lim = = ẋ 2. rij is constant for any 2 points in WNC =∆(K +U)=∆E
∆t→0 ∆t dt
a rigid body Where E is defined as the mechanical
dv d2x
a= = 2 = ẋ= ẍ 3. f12 +f21 =0 energy of the system.
dt dt 3
2.5.1 Virial Theorem 2.7.1 Multiple Coordinates The following equations of motion can
then be obtained:
If we have a collection of particles at If we have a Lagrangian in n coordi- ∂H
positions ri, and each of them experi- nates L(t,q1,q˙1,···,qn,q˙n), we simply get =−ṗi
∂qi
ences a force Fi, their average kinetic n Euler-Lagrange equations: ∂H
energy is given by:  
d ∂L ∂L = q̇i
= ∂pi
1 DX E
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
hT i=− Fi ·ri ∂H ∂L
2 =−
∂t ∂t
For one particle: 2.7.2 Forces of Constraint
  2.8.1 Liouville’s Theorem
1 dU If we have an equation of constraint
hT i=− ·r The Hamiltonian formulation gives two
2 dr f(x)=0, we can use Lagrange multipli-
first order ordinary differential equa-
ers to get the equations of motion, and
2.5.2 Power tions, which can always be uniquely
along with the constraint equations
solved when given initial conditions
Power is the rate of work done per unit solve for λ:
  (p0,q0). Thus no two phase space orbits
time: ∂L ∂f d ∂L
+λ = with different initial conditions cross,
dW ∂xi ∂xi dt ∂ ẋi and consequently any volume in phase
P=
dt The the forces of constraint are: space is constant under time evolution.
Mechanical power: ∂f
I I Fic =λ 2.8.2 Poisson Brackets
d d dr ∂xi
P= F ·dr = F · dt The Poisson bracket binary operation
dt dt dt
2.7.3 Conservation of Energy is defined as:
=F ·v ∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
If we take the total time derivative of {f(p,q,t),g(p,q,t)}= ∂q ∂p − ∂p ∂q
2.6 Momentum the Lagrangian, we get: If p and q are the solutions to Hamil-
 
Momentum is defined as: dL ∂L ∂L d ∂L tonian’s equations:
= +q̈i + q̇i
dt ∂t ∂ q̇i dt ∂ q̇i q̇ ={q,H}
p=mv
If the Lagrangian is explicitly indepen- ṗ={p,H}
When there is no net force on the
system, dent of time, we have the following d ∂f
conserved quantity, which is the energy f(p,q,t)={f,H}+
X dp dt ∂t
Fnet =0⇒ =0 of the system:
dt   2.9 Central Forces
d ∂L
⇒p is conserved q̇i −L =0 For any two objects subject to a central
dt ∂ q̇i
Impulse is defined as: force,
Z t2 Z t2
dp 2.7.4 Noether’s Theorem F (r)=µr̈−µrθ̇2
I= F (t)dt= dt L=µr2θ̇
t1 t1 dt A “symmetry” is a change of coordi-
I =p(t2)−p(t1)=∆p Where µ=(m1m2)/(m1 +m2) is their
nates that does not result in a first or-
reduced mass. Because angular mo-
For perfectly elastic collisions of two der change in the Lagrangian. For each mentum L is constant, we can look at
objects in 1-D, relative velocity is symmetry, there is a conserved quantity. central forces systems in 1-dimension.
constant. If the Lagrangian is invariant in first
L2
order under the change of coordinates: Veff(r)= +V (r)
v1 −v2 =−(v10 −v20 ) 2µr2
qi →qi +Ki(q) 1
For other collisions in 1-D, we have the E =Veff + µṙ2
coefficient of restitution e: The following quantity is conserved: 2
0 0 If we let q(θ)= 1r , we get the following
 
v2 −v1 d ∂L
e=− 0≤e≤1 Ki(q) equation in polar coordinates:
v2 −v1 dt ∂ q˙i µ
q00(θ)+q(θ)+ 2 2 F (r)=0
2.7 Lagrangian Mechanics Lq
2.8 Hamiltonian Mechanics
2.9.1 Gravity
The Lagrangian method is based on The Hamiltonian H(p,q,t) for multiple
the principle of stationary action. coordinates is defined as: For any two point masses of m1 and
m2 in empty space, the gravitational
L(ẋ,x,t)=T −V H=piq̇i −L(q,q̇,t)
  force between them is:
d ∂L ∂L ∂L Gm1m2
− =0 pi = F= r̂
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x ∂ q̇i 4 |r|2
Where r is the position vector of one 2. The origin is not accelerating 4. Solid disk of radius r perpendicular
mass respect to the other, and G is the 3. (R − r0) is parallel to r0, the to axis: 12 mr2
gravitational constant. position of the origin in a fixed
5. Hollow sphere with radius r: 23 mr2
F =mg coordinate system
For a mass m at the Earth’s surface, dL X 6. Solid sphere with radius r: 25 mr2
2
where g = 9.81m/s pointing down- = τext
dt
wards. When there is no external torque, 2.12 General Rotational Mo-
tion
2.10 Uniform Circular Motion we have the conservation of angular
momentum. For any body moving in space, its
For a point mass moving in uniform τext =Iα motion can be written as a sum of its
circular motion, we define: dω translational motion and a rotation
v Where α= dt is the angular accelera-
ω= tion. about an axis at a particular time.
r
The centripetal acceleration a and the 2.12.1 Angular Velocity
2.11.4 Angular Impulse
force required to keep the object in its
circular path: Angular impulse is defined as: The angular velocity vector ω points
v2 along the axis of rotation, with a mag-
Z t2
2
a= =ω r Iθ = τ (t)dt=∆L nitude equal to its angular speed. Its
r t1
mv2 direction is determined by convention
F= =mω2r If we have a force F (t) applied at a
of the right hand rule. For an object
r constant distance R from the origin,
rotating at ω, the time derivative of
2.11 Rotational Dynamics τ (t)=R×F (t)
any vector r fixed in the body frame is:
(Constant L̂) Iθ =R×I dr
v = =ω×r
2.11.1 Angular Momentum ∆L=R×(∆p) dt
Angular velocities add like vectors. Let
The angular momentum of a point 2.11.5 Parallel-axis Theorem S1, S2 and S3 be coordinate systems. If
mass is defined as:
Let an object of mass M rotate about S1 rotates with ω1,2 with respect to S2,
L=r×p
its center of mass with the same fre- and S2 rotates with ω2,3 with respect
For a flat object lying on a 2-D plane quency ω as the center of mass rotates to S3, then S1 rotates instantaneously
rotating with
Z angular Z speed ω: about the origin (with radius R): with respect to S3 at:
L= r×p= r2ωẑdm 2
Lz =(MR +ICM)ω ω1,3 =ω1,2 +ω2,3
If we define the moment of inter- Thus if the moment of inertia of an
2.12.2 Angular Momentum
tia object is I0 about a particular axis, its
R 2about the z-axis to be Iz = Z
(x +y2)dm, we have: moment of inertia about a parallel axis
L= r×(ω×r)dm
Lz =Iz ω separated by R is:
Z Z 2 2 I =MR2 +I0 =Iω
1 r ω
T= mv2 = dm I is the moment of inertia tensor:
2 2 2.11.6 Perpendicular-axis The- R 2 2 R R 
1 orem (y R+z ) R − xy −R zx
= Iz ω2  − xy (z2R+x2) R − yz 
2 For flat 2-D objects in the x-y plane,
(x2 +y2)
R
For the z-component of L and kinetic − zx − yz
and orthogonal axes x, y and z:
energy T .
Iz =Ix +Iy The kinetic energy of the object is
2.11.2 General Motion
2.11.7 Moments of Inertia given by:
For an object with a moving center of
Z
1
mass, and rotating at ω about it, Center of mass for anRobject of mass M: T= ||ω×r||2dm
2
L=rCM ×pCM +ICMωẑ rdm 1 1
RCM = = ω·Iω = ω·L
1 2 1 M 2 2
T = mvCM + ICMω2 Common moments of inertia (taken To find the angular momentum for an
2 2
about center of mass unless stated): object of mass M in general motion,
2.11.3 Torque
1. Point mass at r from axis: mr2 let the position of its center of mass be
Torque is defined as: R, its velocity be V . Then:
τ =r×F 2. Rod of length L about center:
1 2 L=M(R×V )+LCM
Using an origin satisfying any of the 13 mL
The kinetic energy of the object is:
following conditions to calculate L, 3. Rod of length L about one end:
1 1
1. The origin is the center of mass 1
3 mL
2 T = MV 2 + ω0LCM
5 2 2
Where ω0 and LCM are measured Loss of simultaneity 3.3.2 Energy
about the center of mass along axes Lv
parallel to the fixed-frame axes. ∆t= 2 E 2 =p2c2 +m2c4
c
2.12.3 Principle Axes Two events separated by L and ∆t For massive particles:
in the rest frame will appear simul- mc2
A principle axis is an axis of rotation E =γmc2 = q
taneous to an observer moving at 2
ω̂ such that Iω̂ = I ω̂. An object can 1− vc2
v.
rotate about a principle axis at con-
For massless particles(such as photons):
stant angular velocity with no external Longitudinal velocity addition
hc
torque. An orthonormal set of principle u+v E =pc=
axis exists for every object. vx0 = λ
1+uv/c2
2.12.4 Euler’s Equations Where u is the velocity of an object 3.4 4-vectors
When an object is instantaneously in the frame traveling at v respect ~ = (A0, A1, A2, A3) is a
A 4-vector A
rotating about an axis ω, we can relate to the lab frame, and vx0 is the x-
quantity that transforms as follows:
the rate of change of angular momen- velocity of the object viewed by the
lab frame. A00 =γ(A0 +βA1)
tum in the frame of the principle axes
and the lab frame by: A01 =γ(A1 +βA0)
Transverse velocity addition
dL dL uy A02 =A2
= +ω×L 0
v =
dt lab dt body y
γv (1+uxv/c2) A03 =A3
This gives us Euler’s equations, where
Where uy and ux are velocity compo- The dot product of two 4-vectors is in-
ωi and τi are components of ω and
nents of an object in the frame trav- variant under Lorentz transformations:
torque projected onto the principle
eling at v respect to the lab frame, ~ B
A· ~ =A1B1 +A2B2 +A3B3 −A0B0
axes respectively:
and vy0 is the y-velocity of the object ~ 0 ·B
~0
τ1 =I1ω˙1 −(I2 −I3)ω2ω3 =A
viewed by the lab frame.
τ2 =I1ω˙2 −(I3 −I1)ω3ω1
Longitudinal Doppler effect 3.4.1 Different 4-vectors
τ3 =I1ω˙3 −(I1 −I2)ω1ω2 s
1+β 4-position (cdt, dx, dy, dz) 4-vectors
f 0 =f originate from the invariant interval
3 Special Relativity 1−β
ds.
0 is the frequency observed
3.1 Postulates Where f ~ 2 =(cdt,dx,dy,dz)2
ds
of a moving source emitting at fre-
1. The speed of light has the same quency f in its rest frame. =dx2 +dy2 +dz2 −c2dt2
value in all inertial frames 4-velocity γv (c, v) To obtain other
2. Physical laws remain the same in 4-vectors, we can multiply invariant
all inertial frames 3.2.3 Minkowski Diagrams quantities to the 4-position vector,
Space-time diagrams with x and ct such as proper time:
3.2 Kinematics
axes. Some properties are: dt
3.2.1 Lorentz Transform dτ =
γ
0 0 1. Light travels at 45◦ to horizontal.
x=γ(x +βct ) ds
2. x0 and ct0 axes of another moving ~v =
0 dτ
y =y frame are θ to the x and ct axes 
0 dx dy dz
z =z respectively, with =γv c, , ,
0 0 dt dt dt
ct=γ(βx +ct ) tan(θ)=β
=γv (c,v)
Where γ = q 1 v2 and β = vc . 3. Units on axes of the moving and 4-momentum E ,p
As mass is
1− 2 c
c
stationary frames are related by: invariant,
3.2.2 Fundamental Effects s
x0 ct0 1+β 2 ~p =m~v
Length contraction = = 2
x ct 1−β =(γv mv,γv mc)
l
l0 = 
E

γ = ,p
Where l is the proper length. 3.3 Dynamics c
3.3.1 Momentum For photons in x-direction, the
Time dilation
4-momentum  vector is:
t0 =γt
mv h h
Where t is the proper time. p=γv mv = q ~p = , ,0,0
6 1− v
2 λ λ
c2
 ω


4-wave c ,k For electromagnetic For any surface charge in an electric (because the electric field is propor-
waves, field E, the field felt by an area element tional to Q), and we define the constant
2π ω on the surface is: of proportionality capacitance:
k= = 1
λ c Efelt = (Eabove +Ebelow) Q
h 2 C=
p= =~k V
λ 4.1.2 Electric Potential The work done by charging a capacitor
E =hf =~ω is:
ω  As the line integral of the electrostatic Z Q
~p =~ ,k field is path independent, we can define q Q2
W= dq =
c the potential at a point 0 C 2C
Z r r:
~k = ~p 1
~  V (r)=− E·dl = CV 2
4-acceleration γv4 vax,ax, γy2 , γaz2
a O 2
v v Where O is a standard reference point,
d~v usually set to infinity. The potential 4.1.5 Image Charges
~a =
dτ  of a point charge can then be found, In certain special cases, a charge placed
4 ay az and with the superposition principle next to a grounded conductor has
=γv vax,ax, 2 , 2
γ v γv we can find the potential of any charge equivalents.
4-force γv 1c dE


dt ,f distribution:
1. A point charge and a conducting
~ = d~p
F V=
1 q
dτ 4π0 r sheet: An opposite charge in the
 mirror image position.
dE ρ(r0) 0
Z
=γv ,f 1
V (r)= dτ 2. A point charge and a conducting
dt c 4π0 V r sphere, or an infinite line charge
Taking the gradient of the potential:
4 Electricity and Magnetism and conducting cylinder: Opposite
E =−∇V image charge and charge forms the
4.1 Electrostatics ρ
∇2V =− Apollonius sphere/cylinder.
Coulomb’s law The force between a 0
point charge q and test charge Q: 4.1.3 Work and Energy 4.1.6 Uniqueness Theorems
1 Qq
F= r̂ First uniqueness theorem The
The work needed to bring a charge Q
4π0 r2
Where r=r−r is the displacement from infinity toZaapoint a is:
0 solution to Laplace’s equation
vector from Q at r and q at r0. (∇2V = 0) in some volume V is
W= F ·dl uniquely determined if V is specified
Superposition principle The inter- ∞
action between any two charges is
Z a on the boundary surface S.
=−Q E·dl Second uniqueness theorem In
unaffected by any other charges ∞ a volume V surrounded by con-
4.1.1 Electric Field =QV (a) ductors and containing a specified
The energy in a continuous charge charge density ρ, the electric field
The electric field of a point charge is
distribution is: Z is uniquely determined if the total
defined as: 1
F 1 q W= ρV dτ charge on each conductor is given.
E= = 2
r̂ 2
Q 4π0 r Z
For a continuous volume charge distri- 
= E 2dτ 4.2 Magnetostatics
bution ρ(r0), we can use the superpo- 2
sition principle to get: Where the integral is taken over all 4.2.1 Lorentz Force Law
1
Z
ρ(r0) space. The force felt by:
E(r)= 2
r̂dτ 0
4π0 V r 4.1.4 Conductors 1. A point charge q moving at velocity
Taking the divergence of E, we get
A perfect conductor has an unlimited v through a magnetic field B:
Gauss’ law:
ρ(r) supply of free charges. F =qv×B
∇·E = 1. E =0 and ρ=0 inside a conductor
0 2. A line current I:
I
Qenc 2. Any conductor is an equipotential Z
E·da= 3. Just outside a conductor, E is F =I (dl×B)
S 0
Taking the curl of E: perpendicular to the surface.
3. A general volume current J per
∇×E =0 If we charge up two conductors with unit area perpendicular to flow:
I +Q and −Q, the potential between Z
E·dl=0 them is proportional to the charge Q F = (J ×B)dτ
7
4.2.2 Biot-Savart Law 4.3.2 Electromotive Force 4.4 Electric Circuits
The magnetic field created by a steady For an electric field applied in a mate- 5 Oscillations and Waves
line current: rial:
Many questions involve solving linear
J =σE
Z
µ0 dl×r̂
B(r)= I differential equations. For such equa-
4π r2 Where σ is the conductivity constant tions, linear combinations of solutions
depending on the material. This leads will also be a solution.
4.2.3 Magnetic Fields to Ohm’s law:
V =IR 5.1 Oscillations
Unlike in electrostatics, conductors
do not screen magnetic fields. The l 5.1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion
R=
magnetic field is divergence-free: σA
The power delivered: We have a spring force, F =−kx.
∇·B =0
r
P =V I =I 2R 2 k
I ẍ+ω x=0, where ω =
B·da=0 The electromotive force (emf) E is the m
line integral of the force per unit charge x(t)=Acos(ωt+φ)
Taking the curl of the magnetic field driving the current: I
gives Ampere’s Law: 5.1.2 Damped Oscillators
E = E·dl
∇×B =µ0J In addition to the spring force, we now
E =V for an ideal source.
I have a drag force Ff = −bv, and the
B·dl=µ0Ienc 4.3.3 Faraday’s Law total force F =−kx−bẋ.
The energy stored in an magnetic field Faraday’s law states that a changing ẍ+2γ ẋ+ω2x=0
is: magnetic flux Φ induces an electric Where 2γ = b/m and ω2 = k/m. Let
field:
Z p
1 Ω= γ 2 −ω2.
U= B2dτ
I
dΦ
2µ0 E = E·dl=− x(t)=e−γt(AeΩt +Be−Ωt)
dt
4.2.4 Magnetic Vector Poten- dB Underdamping (Ω2 <0)
∇×E =−
tial dt x(t)=e−γt(Aeiω̃t +Be−iω̃t)
4.3.4 Inductance
For any magnetic field B, we define =e−γtCcos(ω̃t+φ)
the vector potential A such that: If we have two current loops 1 and 2, p
Where ω̃ = ω2 −γ 2. The system
B =∇×A the flux Φ2 through loop 2 is propor-
will oscillate with its amplitude de-
tional to the current through loop 1:
Taking the curl of the magnetic field creasing over time. The frequency
Φ2 =M21I1 of oscillations will be smaller than
and applying Ampere’s law, we get:
Where M21 =M12 is the mutual induc- in the undamped case.
∇2A=−µ0J tance between these two loops. We can Overdamping (Ω2 >0)
Z
µ0 J also define an self inductance L, for a
A= dV
single loop: x(t)=Ae−(γ−Ω)t +Be−(γ+Ω)t
4π r
Φ=LI The system will not oscillate, and
4.3 Electrodynamics dI the motion will go to zero for large t.
E =−L Critical damping (Ω2 =0) We have
4.3.1 Electric Currents dt
When a steady current I is flowing γ =ω, and:
For Ne particles of charge e moving through an inductor with inductance ẍ+2γ ẋ+γ 2x=0
at an average velocity hvi, the current L, the energy stored in the inductor is: In this special case, x=te−γt is also
density is: 1 a solution:
U = LI 2
J =−Neehvi 2 x(t)=e−γt(A+Bt)
If ρ is the charge density, the current 4.3.5 Displacement Current Systems with critical damping go to
I is given by: In order for the continuity equation to zero the quickest.
Z
∂ hold under changing magnetic fields,
I =− ρdτ
∂t V we must consider another displacement 5.1.3 Driven Oscillators
When the total charge is conserved, we current when using Ampere’s law: We have to solve differential equations
have the continuity equation: dE of this form:
JD =0
dt N
∂ρ(t) X
∇·J =− ∇×B =µ0(J +JD ) ẍ+2γ ẋ+ax= Cneiωnt
∂t 8 n=1
We first find particular solutions for All such functions f are the solutions For Maxwell’s equations to hold, the
each n, by guessing solutions of the to the wave equation: E and B fields and their direction of
form xpn (t)=Aeiωnt: ∂ 2u 1 ∂ 2u propagation are mutually perpendicu-
−Aωn2 +2iAγωn +Aa=Cn = lar. Also, the amplitudes E0 and B0
∂x2 v2 ∂t2
Cn Where v is the speed of propagation. are related by: B0 = 1c E0.
xpn (t)= eiωnt
−ωn2 +2iγωn +a 5.2.1 String with Fixed Ends 5.2.4 Poynting Vector
Using the superposition principle, the
If the equation is subject to the follow- The Poynting vector S is defined as:
final solution is a linear combination of 1
the general solution and the particular ing initial and boundary conditions: S = E×B
ux(0,t)=ux(L,t)=0 µ0
solutions, with the combination con- This vector points in the direction of
stants determined by initial conditions. u(x,0)=f(x) propagation of the wave, and S · da
5.1.4 Coupled Oscillators ut(x,0)=g(x) is the energy per unit time passing
The solution for these conditions is: through da.
Normal modes are states of a system ∞
where all parts are moving with the
X nπ 6 Optics
u(x,t)= sin x·
same frequency. General strategy to L
n=1 6.1 Geometric Optics
find normal modes:  nπα nπα 
ansin t+bncos t Results from Fermat’s principle of least
1. Write down the n equations of mo- L L
Z L time:
tions corresponding to the n degrees 2 nπx
of freedom the system has. an = g(x)sin dx θincidence =θreflection
nπα 0 L
2. Substitute xi = Aieiωt into the n1sinθ1 =n2sinθ2
2 L
Z
nπx Sign convention:
differential equations to get a sys- bn = f(x)sin dx
tem of linear equations in Ai, with L 0 L • Light rays travel from left to right
i=1,2,···,n 5.2.2 D’Alembert’s Solution • f is positive if surface makes rays
3. Non-trivial solutions exist if and only more convergent
if the determinant of the matrix is For an infinite string, it can be proved • Distances are measured from the
zero. Solve for ω, and subsequently that any solution to the wave equation surface (left is negative)
find Ai can be written as a superposition of • so is negative for real objects
The motion of the system can then be two waves of velocity v, one travelling • si is positive for real images
decomposed into linear combinations to the left, the other travelling to the • y above optical axis is positive
of its normal modes. right. For the initial conditions: 1 1 1
+ =
u(x,0)=f(x) so f si
5.1.5 Small Oscillations yi si
ut(x,0)=g(x) M = =−
For an object at a local minimum of The solution of the wave equation is: yo so
a potential well, we can expand V (x)  For thin lenses and mirrors:
1 1 2
about the equilibrium point: u(x,t)= f(x+vt)+f(x−vt) =
0 2 f R
V (x)=V (x0)+V (x0)(x−x0)
1 x+vt 0 0 For composite thinlenses: 
Z 
1 + g(x )dx 1 1 1
+ V 00(x0)(x−x0)2 +··· v x−vt =(n−1) +
2! f R1 R2
As V (x0) is an additive constant, and 5.2.3 Electromagnetic Waves Lens formed by interface of two mate-
V 0(x0)=0 by definition of equilibrium, rials with different n:
1 Maxwell’s equations in vacuum: n2 −n1 n2 n1
V (x)≈ V 00(x0)(x−x0)2 dB = +
2 ∇×E =− R si so
dV dt
F =− =−V 00(x0)(x−x0) ∇·E =0
6.2 Polarization
dx r
dE For polarized light:
V 00(x0) ∇×B =µ00
ω= dt E =E0cosθ
m
∇·B =0 I =I0cos2θ
5.2 Wave Equation
Plugging the equations in and simpli- For unpolarized light:
A wave is a disturbance of a continuous fying, we get: I0
hIi=I0hcos2θi=
medium that propagates with a fixed 1 dB 2
shape at constant velocity. In one ∇2B = Brewster angle at which all reflected
µ00 dt
dimension: light at an interface is polarized:
1 dE nt
u(z,t)=u(z−vt,0)=f(z−vt) ∇2E = tanθi =
9 00 dt
µ ni
6.3 Physical Optics Where α is the coefficient of linear For any two particles, their average
expansion. For area expansion, use ap- relative speed is:
Interference is the superposition of
proximately 2α. For volume expansion,
r
wave amplitudes when waves overlap. √ 16kT
use approximately 3α. hvreli= 2hvi=
πm
6.3.1 Double Slit: From this, we can get the mean free
7.2 Kinetic Theory of Gases
Occurs when slits are of negligible path of a particle, the average distance
7.2.1 Ideal Gas Law a particle travels before hitting another
width, distance between slits compara-
ble to wavelength, such that diffraction An ideal gas’ molecules are treated as particle:
effects are insignificant. For bright non-interacting point particles. For an 1
lm = √
fringes: ideal gas of N particles at pressure P , 4π 2r2n
dsinθ =mλ volume V and temperature T : Where n is the number density of the
mλ P V =NKB T particle and r is its radius.
ym =R m∈Z For a non-ideal gas, the Van der Waals
d 7.2.4 Diffusion
For incident medium’s refractive index correction to the ideal gas law is:
  n 2 For a substance undergoing diffusion
ni, reflection medium’s refractive in- P +a (V −bn)=nRT dc
due to a concentration gradient dx , the
dex nr , if ni < nr , the reflected wave V
diffusive flux J is:
undergoes a π2 phase shift. Where a and b are constants. dc
J =DA
6.3.2 Single Slit: 7.2.2 Internal Energy dx
Occurs when size of slit is compara- Different gases at the same temper- 7.3 Heat Teansfer
ble to wavelength. Location of dark ature have the same average kinetic
For heat transfer through a material
fringes when wavelets at distance a2 energy. Thus we define temperature
with length l, area A and thermal
destructively interfere: of a substance to be its average kinetic
conductivity K between two heat
mλ energy. For a monatomic ideal gas:
sinθ = reservoirs T1 >T2:
d 1 3
mhv2i= kT dQ KA(T1 −T2)
mλ 2 2 =
ym =x m∈Z For a gas molecule with r atoms, dt l
a For a blackbody at temperature T
its total kinetic energy, center of
6.3.3 Intensity in Diffraction mass kinetic energy and internal vibra- radiating heat away:
Patterns dQ
tional/rotational energy are given by: =σAT 4
3r dt
For double slit interference: ETotal = kT The heat transfered by changing the
2
 
πdsinθ temperature of a solid of mass m with
I =Imaxcos2 3
λ ECOM = kT heat capacity c is:
For single slit diffraction: 2
3(r−1) ∆Q=mc∆T
2
EInternal = kT

sin(πasinθ/λ)
I =Imax 2 7.4 Thermodynamic Processes
πasinθ/λ The equipartition theorem states that
Double slit including effects of diffrac- each degree of freedom a molecule has In all the process described below,
tion: contributes an extra 21 KT of kinetic the heat Q that goes into the gas is
positive, and the work done on the
 
πdsinθ energy.
I =Imaxcos2 gas W is positive. The first law of
λ
7.2.3 Maxwell Distribution thermodynamics states that the change
sin(πasinθ/λ) 2
 
· For an ideal gas, the distrubution of of internal energy U is:
πasinθ/λ its velocities is: U =Q+W
 m  3 mv2
7 Thermodynamics f(v)=4πv2
2 −
e 2kT U(γ−1)=NkT
2πkT Where γ = Cp/Cv is the ideal gas
If two objects are in thermal equilib- From this distribution, we can get the
rium with a third system, then they average speed of a particle: constant and Cv =Cp −k.
are in equilibrium with each other. 7.4.1 Isochoric
r
8kT
hvi=
7.1 Thermal Expansion πm In this constant volume process:
The most probable velocty is the max- W =0
For linear expansion, the change in imum point of the distribution:
length is: r Q=NCv ∆T
2kT
∆L=αL0∆T vmp = U =Q
10 m
7.4.2 Isobaric • No heat engine can working be- If we denote the complex conjugate
tween two temperatures T1 and T2 of the wave function to be Ψ∗, the
In a constant pressure volume expan-
can have a higher efficiency than a conjugate of Schrödinger’s equation is:
sion from V1 to V2:
reversible engine. ∂Ψ∗ ~2 2 ∗
W =P (V1 −V2) −i~ = ∇ Ψ −V Ψ∗
7.7 Entropy ∂t 2m
Q=NCp∆T At time t, the probability of finding a
U =NCv ∆T 7.7.1 Macroscopic Definition particle from x=a to x=b is:
Z b Z b
7.4.3 Isothermal Entropy is the measure of disorder. |Ψ(r,t)|2dr = ΨΨ∗dr
If heat is added reversibly into a sys- a a
For an isothermal expansion from V1 tem at temperature T , the increase in
to V2:   entropy in the system is: 8.2.1 Normalization
V1 dQ
W =NkT ln dS = All wave functions must be normalized,
V2 T so that the probability of finding the
Q=−W Entropy is a state function that doesn’t particle over all space is 1:
U =0 depend on the path travelled. The Z ∞
total entropy change in the system and |Ψ(r,t)|2dr =1
−∞
7.4.4 Adiabatic surroundings for a reversible process is
Once a function is normalized, it re-
zero. For an irreversible process, the
For an adiabatic process, mains normalized as time evolves:
Z total entropy change is always positive. d ∞
Z
W =− P dV At T =0, S =0. This is the third law ΨΨ∗dr =0
dt −∞
of thermodynamics.
Q=0
7.7.2 Microscopic Definition 8.2.2 Expectation Values
U =W
Integrating the work done, we get the Boltzmann defined entropy of a system An expectation value of an observed
following relation: by counting the number of indistin- quantity is the average of the measure-
guishable microstates w inside: ment performed on many “copies” of
P V γ =constant
S =klnw the system at the same time.
Z ∞
7.5 Heat Engines
8 Quantum Mechanics hxi= x|Ψ(x,t)|2dx
The efficiency of a heat engine that Z−∞∞
takes in QH and gives out QL while 8.1 Blackbody Radiation = Ψ∗xΨdx
doing work W , its efficiency is given by: Ideal blackbodies have a continuous −∞
|W | emission spectrum, with the energy den- dhxi
η= sity ρ(λ,T ) as a function of wavelength hpxi=m
|QH |
and temperature given by Plank’s Z ∞dt  
|QL| ∗ ∂
=1− distribution: = Ψ −i~ Ψdx
|QH | 8πhc 1 −∞ ∂x
The efficiency of a heat pump that uses ρ(λ,T )= 5 hc/λKT In general, the expectation value of any
λ e −1
W to pump QL from the col reservoir Integrating over this distribution, we quantity is: Z
is: find the total emission power as a
|QL| hQ(r,p)i= Ψ∗Q(r,−i~∇)Ψdr
η= function of temperature:
|W | R(T )=σT 4
All reversible engines operating be- 8.3 Time Independent Solution
Where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann con-
tween the same two temperatures have
stant. Finding the wavelength with the If V is independent of time, we solve
the same efficiency as a Carnot engine,
peak emission at a given temperature, Schrödinger’s equation by separating
as you can fit many infinitisimally small variables. Let:
we arrive at Wien’s law:
Carnot cycles into any reversible cycle: Ψ(x,t)=ψ(x)φ(t)
λmaxT =b
TL
ηcarnot =1− Where b is a constant. Then the equation can be written as:
TH
8.2 Schrödinger’s Equation ∂φ ~2 2
7.6 Second Law of Thermody- i~ψ =− ∇ φ+V φψ
∂t 2m
namics Ψ(x,t) is a complex wave function of 
i~ ∂φ
 
~2 2

time and position, the one-dimensional + ∇ −V (x) =0
• A process whose only net result is Schrödinger’s equation is given by: φ ∂t 2mψ
to take heat from a reservoir and As the two terms in the equation are
∂Ψ ~2 2
convert it to heat is impossible. i~ =− ∇ Ψ+V Ψ independent of each other and they
∂t 2m
11
sum to zero, they must be constant. If 8.5.2 Infinite Well Where Hn are the Hermite polynomi-
we let: For an infinite well, als:
i~ ∂φ
E=
( H0 =1 H1 =2ξ
φ ∂t 0 |x|<a
V (x)= H2 =4ξ2 −2 H3 =8ξ3 −12ξ
φ(t)=e −iEt/~ ∞ |x|>a
H4 =16ξ4 −48ξ2 +12
The time independent solution is given The general solution is the same as
by: that of the free particle, but since
ψ(a)=ψ(−a)=0, we have 8.6 Linear Algebra Formalism
~2 2
− ∇ +V (x)ψ =Eψ
( 1
√ cos nπx


2m 2a n=1,3,··· 8.6.1 Postulate 1
a
If we define the Hamiltonian operator ψn(x)= 1 nπx


√ sin n=2,4,··· To an ensemble of physical systems,
~2 2 a 2a
Ĥ=− 2m ∇ +V , one can assign a wave/state function
The energy En is proportional to n2:
Ĥψ =Eψ ~2π2n2 which contains all the information that
The separated solutions can then be E n = can be known of that ensemble ψ.
8ma2
combined:X This function is in general complex.
8.5.3 Finite Well One can multiply it with an arbitary
Ψ(r,t)= CE (t0)e−iE(t−t0)/~ψE (r)
For an finite well, complex number without changing its
E ( physical meaning. For N particles
8.3.1 Integral Form −V0 |x|<a ψ(r1,r2,···,rN ), ψ∗ψ gives the proba-
V (x)=
0 |x|>a bility density that #1 is at r1, #2 is at
If we integrate the time-independent
Schrödinger’s equation about ± for For −V0 ≤E <0, we have the following r2, etc. We represent the state vector
small , the Eψ term disappears and equations: as |ψi and the adjoint vector as hψ|:
d2ψ(x)
Z
we get: +α2ψ(x)=0, hψ1|ψ2i= ψ1∗ψ2dr =hψ2|ψ1i∗
 + Z + dx 2
dψ 2m
= V (x)ψ(x)dx
r
dx − ~2 − 2m hψ1|cψ2i=chψ1|ψ2i
α= (V0 −|E|)
From this we see that the derivative of ~2 hcψ1|ψ2i=c∗hψ1|ψ2i
ψ is continuous if V (x) is finite. d2ψ(x) hψ3|ψ1 +ψ2i=hψ3|ψ1i+hψ3|ψ2i
−β 2ψ(x)=0,
dx2 hψ|ψi=1
8.4 Momentum Space Wave- r
function 2m|E|
β=
~2
The position space and momentum For x>0, the even solutions are: ψ1 and ψ2 are orthogonal if and only
space representations of a wavefunction
( if hψ1|ψ2i=0.
Acos(αx) x∈[0,a]
can be interchanged with a Fourier ψ(x)= 8.6.2 Postulate 2
transform: Ce−βx x>a
ψ(x,t)= The odd solutions
( are: The principle of superposition: if
Z ∞ Bsin(αx) x∈[0,a] ψ1 and ψ2 are solutions to the
1 ψ(x)=
√ eiPxx/~Φ(Px,t)dPx Ce−βx x>a Schrödinger’s equation, so is ψ =
2π~ −∞ c1ψ1 +c2ψ2.
φ(Px,t)= After solving for boundary conditions,
Z ∞ we get: 8.6.3 Postulate 3
1 −iPx x/~
√ e Ψ(x,t)dx αtan(αa)=β Every dynamical variable is as-
2π~ −∞
αcot(αa)=−β sociated with a linear operator.
8.5 1-D Examples A = A(r1, ··· , rn, p1, ··· , pn, t) =
8.5.1 Free Particle Â(r1,···,rn,i~∇1,···,i~∇n,t).
8.5.4 Harmonic Oscillator
For the free particle V (x)=0. We have For a harmonic oscillator, 8.6.4 Postulate 4
the general solution: ~2 d2 m 2 2 The only result of a precise measure-
ikx −ikx Ĥ=− + ω x
ψ(x)=Ae +Be 2m dx 2 ment is one of the eigenvalues of the
p mω 2
After normalization, we have the fol- Substituting ξ = associated linear operator Â:
~ x, we get solu-
lowing solution: tions: Âψn =anψn
Z ∞  2
  mω  1
1 i kx− ~k t 2 1
Hn(ξ)e−ξ /2 √
4
Ψ(x,t)= √ φ(k)e 2m
dk ψn(x)= To have real eigenvalues, Â must be
2π −∞ π~ 2nn!
Z ∞   Hermitian:
1 1
φ(k)= √ Ψ(x,0)e−ikxdx En = n+ ~ω,n=0,1,··· hψn|Âψni=hÂψn|ψni=anhψn|ψni
2π −∞ 2 12
8.6.5 Postulate 5

If a system of measurements is made

of the dynamical variable A on an
ensemble of identical systems each
described by the same |ψi, the average
value is given by:

hψ|Âψi
hÂi=
hψ|ψi 13