Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that
cause harm.[1] Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas)
or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the
components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally
occurring contaminants.
Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events, the word
pollution generally implies that the contaminants have a human source – that is, a
source created by human activities, such as manufacturing, extractive industries,
poor waste management, transportation or agriculture. Pollution is often classed as
point source (coming from a highly concentrated specific site, such as a factory,
mine, construction site), or nonpoint source pollution (coming from a widespread
distributed sources, such as microplastics or agricultural runoff).
Many sources of pollution were unregulated parts of industrialization during the
19th and 20th centuries until the emergence of environmental regulation and
pollution policy in the later half of the 20th century. Sites where historically
polluting industries released persistent pollutants may have legacy pollution long
after the source of the pollution is stopped. Major forms of pollution include air
pollution, water pollution, litter, noise pollution, plastic pollution, soil
contamination, radioactive contamination, thermal pollution, light pollution, and
visual pollution.[2]
Pollution has widespread consequences on human and environmental health, having
systematic impact on social and economic systems. In 2019, pollution killed
approximately nine million people worldwide (about one in six deaths that year);
about three-quarters of these deaths were caused by air pollution.[3][4][5][6][7] A
2022 literature review found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have
exceeded planetary boundaries and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.
[8][9] Pollutants frequently have outsized impacts on vulnerable populations, such
as children and the elderly, and marginalized communities, because polluting
industries and toxic waste sites tend to be collocated with populations with less
economic and political power.[10] This outsized impact is a core reason for the
formation of the environmental justice movement,[11][12] and continues to be a core
element of environmental conflicts, particularly in the Global South.
Because of the impacts of these chemicals, local and international countries'
policy have increasingly sought to regulate pollutants, resulting in increasing air
and water quality standards, alongside regulation of specific waste streams.
Regional and national policy is typically supervised by environmental agencies or
ministries, while international efforts are coordinated by the UN Environmental
Program and other treaty bodies. Pollution mitigation is an important part of all
of the Sustainable Development Goals.[13]
Definitions and types
Various definitions of pollution exist, which may or may not recognize certain
types, such as noise pollution or greenhouse gases. The United States Environmental
Protection Administration defines pollution as "Any substances in water, soil, or
air that degrade the natural quality of the environment, offend the senses of
sight, taste, or smell, or cause a health hazard. The usefulness of the natural
resource is usually impaired by the presence of pollutants and contaminants."[14]
In contrast, the United Nations considers pollution to be the "presence of
substances and heat in environmental media (air, water, land) whose nature,
location, or quantity produces undesirable environmental effects."[15]
Smog in the center of Moscow, Russia in August 2010
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular
contaminants relevant to each of them:
Air pollution: the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor
vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized
by their micrometre size PM10 to PM2.5.
Electromagnetic pollution: the overabundance of electromagnetic radiation in their
non-ionizing form, such as radio and television transmissions, Wi-fi etc. Although
there is no demonstrable effect on humans there can be interference with radio-
astronomy and effects on safety systems of aircraft and cars.
Light pollution: includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical
interference.
Littering: the criminal throwing of inappropriate man-made objects, unremoved, onto
public and private properties.
Noise pollution: which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise
as well as high-intensity sonar.
Plastic pollution: involves the accumulation of plastic products and microplastics
in the environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, or humans.
Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground
leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy
metals, MTBE,[16] herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic
physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture
and deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment.)
Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human
influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.
Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway
billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash,
municipal solid waste or space debris.
Water pollution, caused by the discharge of industrial wastewater from commercial
and industrial waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface waters;
discharges of untreated sewage and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from
treated sewage; and releases of waste and contaminants into surface runoff flowing
to surface waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may
contain chemical fertilizers and pesticides, as well as human feces from open
defecation).[17][18][19]
Natural causes
Air pollution produced by ships may alter clouds, affecting global temperatures.
One of the most significant natural sources of pollution are volcanoes, which
during eruptions release large quantities of harmful gases into the atmosphere.
Volcanic gases include carbon dioxide, which can be fatal in large concentrations
and contributes to climate change, hydrogen halides which can cause acid rain,
sulfur dioxides, which are harmful to animals and damage the ozone layer, and
hydrogen sulfides, which are capable of killing humans at concentrations of less
than 1 part per thousand.[20] Volcanic emissions also include fine and ultrafine
particles which may contain toxic chemicals and substances such as arsenic, lead,
and mercury.[21]
Wildfires, which can be caused naturally by lightning strikes, are also a
significant source of air pollution. Wildfire smoke contains significant quantities
of both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, which can cause suffocation. Large
quantities of fine particulates are found within wildfire smoke as well, which pose
a health risk to animals.[22]
Human generation
Deaths caused as a result of fossil fuel use (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly
exceed those resulting from production of renewable energy (rectangles barely
visible in chart).[23]
Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution.[24][25][26]
China, United States, Russia, India,[27] Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in
air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical
plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries,[28] petrochemical plants, nuclear
waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs,
poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and
other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices
which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying
of pesticides and herbicides.[29]
About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year.[30] The
United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons.[31] Americans
constitute less than 5% of the world's population, but produce roughly 25% of the
world's CO2,[32] and generate approximately 30% of world's waste.[33][34] In 2007,
China overtook the United States as the world's biggest producer of CO2,[35] while
still far behind based on per capita pollution (ranked 78th among the world's
nations).[36]
An industrial area, with a power plant, south of Yangzhou's downtown, China
Chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium – found in
rechargeable batteries, and lead – found in lead paint, aviation fuel, and even in
certain countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic, and benzene are some of the most
frequent soil contaminants. A series of press reports published in 2001,
culminating in the publication of the book Fateful Harvest, revealed a widespread
practise of recycling industrial leftovers into fertilizer, resulting in metal
poisoning of the soil.[37] Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many
chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater),
emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally
discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little
control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of
polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as
TCDD.[38]
Pollution can also occur as a result of natural disasters. Hurricanes, for example,
frequently result in sewage contamination and petrochemical spills from burst boats
or automobiles. When coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved, larger-scale and
environmental damage is not unusual. When accidents occur, some pollution sources,
such as nuclear power stations or oil ships, can create extensive and potentially
catastrophic emissions.[39]
Plastic pollution is choking our oceans by making plastic gyres, entangling marine
animals, poisoning our food and water supply, and ultimately inflicting havoc on
the health and well-being of humans and wildlife globally. With the exception of a
small amount that has been incinerating, virtually every piece of plastic that was
ever made in the past still exists in one form or another. And since most of the
plastics do not biodegrade in any meaningful sense, all that plastic waste could
exist for hundreds or even thousands of years. If plastic production is not
circumscribed, plastic pollution will be disastrous and will eventually outweigh
fish in oceans.[40]
Greenhouse gas emissions
Main article: Greenhouse gas emissions
Historical and projected CO2 emissions by country (as of 2005).
Source: Energy Information Administration.[41][42]
Carbon dioxide, while vital for photosynthesis, is sometimes referred to as
pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the
Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the connection
between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as
those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-
term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical
increases in the acidity of ocean waters, and the possible effects of this on
marine ecosystems.
In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more
than 120 countries, confirmed that humans have been the primary cause of global
warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the
consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But to change the
climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur within
decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).[43]
Effects
Human health
Further information: Soil pollution § Health effects, Toxic hotspots, List of
pollution-related diseases, and Air pollution § Health effects
Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution[44]
[45][46]
Pollution affects humans in every part of the world. An October 2017 study by the
Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health found that global pollution, specifically
toxic air, water, soil and workplaces, kills nine million people annually, which is
triple the number of deaths caused by AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined, and
15 times higher than deaths caused by wars and other forms of human violence.[47]
The study concluded that "pollution is one of the great existential challenges of
the Anthropocene era. Pollution endangers the stability of the Earth's support
systems and threatens the continuing survival of human societies."[7]
Adverse air quality can kill many organisms, including humans. Ozone pollution can
cause respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation, chest pain,
and congestion. A 2010 analysis estimated that 1.2 million people died prematurely
each year in China alone because of air pollution.[48] China's high smog levels can
damage the human body and cause various diseases.[49] In 2019, air pollution caused
1.67 million deaths in India (17.8% of total deaths nationally).[50] Studies have
estimated that the number of people killed annually in the United States could be
over 50,000.[51] A study published in 2022 in GeoHealth concluded that energy-
related fossil fuel emissions in the United States cause 46,900–59,400 premature
deaths each year and PM2.5-related illness and death costs the nation $537–$678
billion annually.[52] In the US, deaths caused by coal pollution were highest in
1999, but decreased sharply after 2007. The number dropped by about 95% by 2020, as
coal plants have been closed or have scrubbers installed.[53]
In 2019, water pollution caused 1.4 million premature deaths.[54] Contamination of
drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries is an issue, for
example, over 732 million Indians (56% of the population) and over 92 million
Ethiopians (92.9% of the population) do not have access to basic sanitation.[55] In
2013 over 10 million people in India fell ill with waterborne illnesses in 2013,
and 1,535 people died, most of them children.[56] As of 2007, nearly 500 million
Chinese lack access to safe drinking water.[57]
Acute exposure to certain pollutants can have short and long term effects. Oil
spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss,
high blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to
developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Older people are
significantly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or
lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious
risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological problems,
intellectual disabilities and behavioural problems.[58] Chemical and radioactive
substances can cause cancer and birth defects.
Socio economic impacts
The health impacts of pollution have both direct and lasting social consequences. A
2021 study found that exposure to pollution causes an increase in violent crime.
[59] A 2019 paper linked pollution to adverse school outcomes for children.[60] A
number of studies show that pollution has an adverse effect on the productivity of
both indoor and outdoor workers.[61][62][63][64]
Environment
Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Pollution has been found to be present widely in the natural environment. A 2022
study published in Environmental Science & Technology found that levels of
anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded planetary boundaries and now
threaten entire ecosystems around the world.[8][9]
There are a number of effects of this:
Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass
through trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process.
Global carbon dioxide emissions by jurisdiction (as of 2015)
Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH
of the Earth's oceans as CO2 becomes dissolved.
The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems
in many ways.
Invasive species can outcompete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive
plants can contribute debris and biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and
chemical compositions of an environment, often reducing native species
competitiveness.
Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can
change the species composition of ecosystems.
Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out
photosynthesis and leads to the production of tropospheric ozone which damages
plants.
Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other
organisms in the food web.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of
soil.
Organic pollution of watercourses can deplete oxygen levels and reduce species
diversity.
Regulation and monitoring
This section is an excerpt from Regulation and monitoring of pollution.[edit]
To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations
worldwide have enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as well
as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution. At the local level, regulation
usually is supervised by environmental agencies or the broader public health
system. Different jurisdictions often have different levels regulation and policy
choices about pollution. Historically, polluters will lobby governments in less
economically developed areas or countries to maintain lax regulation in order to
protect industrialisation at the cost of human and environmental health.[citation
needed]
The modern environmental regulatory environment has its origins in the United
States with the beginning of industrial regulations around Air and Water pollution
connected to industry and mining during the 1960s and 1970s.[65]
Because many of pollutants have trans-boundary impacts, the UN and other treaty
bodies have been used to regulate pollutants that circulate as air pollution, water
pollution or trade in wastes. Early international agreements were successful at
addressing Global Environmental issues, such as Montreal Protocol, which banned
Ozone depleting chemicals in 1987, with more recent agreements focusing on broader,
more widely dispersed chemicals such as persistent organic pollutants in the
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants created in 2001, such as
PCBs, and the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 which initiated collaboration on addressing
greenhouse gases to mitigate climate change. Governments, NPOs, research groups,
and citizen scientists monitor pollution with an expanding list of low-cost
pollution monitoring tools.[66][67]
Control
A litter trap catches floating waste in the Yarra River, east-central Victoria,
Australia.
Air pollution control system, known as a thermal oxidizer, decomposes hazard gases
from industrial air streams at a factory in the United States.
A dust collector in Pristina, Kosovo
Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It refers to the
control of emissions and effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution
control, the waste products from overconsumption, heating, agriculture, mining,
manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate
or disperse, will degrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution
prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than pollution control. In the
field of land development, low impact development is a similar technique for the
prevention of urban runoff.
Policy, law and monitoring/transparency/life-cycle assessment-attached economics
could be developed and enforced to control pollution.[68] A review concluded that
there is a lack of attention and action such as work on a globally supported
"formal science–policy interface", e.g. to "inform intervention, influence
research, and guide funding".[4]
In September 2023 a Global Framework on Chemicals aiming to reduce pollution was
agreed during an international conference in Bonn, Germany. The framework includes
28 targets, for example, to "end the use of hazardous pesticides in agriculture
where the risks have not been managed" by 2035.[69]
Practices
Recycling
Reusing
Waste minimisation
Mitigating
Pollution prevention
Compost
Devices
Air pollution control
Green wall
Smog Tower
Thermal oxidizer
Bioremediation
Dust collection systems
Baghouses
Cyclones
Electrostatic precipitators
Scrubbers
Baffle spray scrubber
Cyclonic spray scrubber
Ejector venturi scrubber
Mechanically aided scrubber
Spray tower
Wet scrubber
Sewage treatment
Sedimentation (Primary treatment)
Activated sludge biotreaters (Secondary treatment; also used for industrial
wastewater)
Aerated lagoons
Constructed wetlands (also used for urban runoff)
Industrial wastewater treatment
API oil-water separators[28][70]
Biofilters
Dissolved air flotation (DAF)
Powdered activated carbon treatment
Ultrafiltration
Vapor recovery systems
Phytoremediation
Cost
Pollution has a cost.[71][72][73] Manufacturing activities that cause air pollution
impose health and clean-up costs on the whole of society. A manufacturing activity
that causes air pollution is an example of a negative externality in production. A
negative externality in production occurs "when a firm's production reduces the
well-being of others who are not compensated by the firm."[74] For example, if a
laundry firm exists near a polluting steel manufacturing firm, there will be
increased costs for the laundry firm because of the dirt and smoke produced by the
steel manufacturing firm.[75] If external costs exist, such as those created by
pollution, the manufacturer will choose to produce more of the product than would
be produced if the manufacturer were required to pay all associated environmental
costs. Because responsibility or consequence for self-directed action lies partly
outside the self, an element of externalization is involved. If there are external
benefits, such as in public safety, less of the good may be produced than would be
the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to
others. Goods and services that involve negative externalities in production, such
as those that produce pollution, tend to be overproduced and underpriced since the
externality is not being priced into the market.[74]
Pollution can also create costs for the firms producing the pollution. Sometimes
firms choose, or are forced by regulation, to reduce the amount of pollution that
they are producing. The associated costs of doing this are called abatement costs,
or marginal abatement costs if measured by each additional unit.[76] In 2005
pollution abatement capital expenditures and operating costs in the US amounted to
nearly $27 billion.[77]
Dirtiest industries
The Pure Earth, an international non-for-profit organization dedicated to
eliminating life-threatening pollution in the developing world, issues an annual
list of some of the world's most polluting industries. Below is the list for 2016:
[78]
Lead–acid battery recycling
Mining and extractive metallurgy
Lead smelting
Tanning
Artisanal mining
Landfills
Industrial parks
Chemical industry
Manufacturing
Dyeing
A 2018 report by the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy and GRAIN says that
the meat and dairy industries are poised to surpass the oil industry as the world's
worst polluters.[79]
Textile industry
This section is an excerpt from Chemical waste § Textile industry.[edit]
Indigo color water pollution in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 2005
The textile industry is one of the largest polluters in the globalized world of
mostly free market dominated socioeconomic systems.[80] Chemically polluted textile
wastewater degrades the quality of the soil and water.[81] The pollution comes from
the type of conduct of chemical treatments used e.g., in pretreatment, dyeing,
printing, and finishing operations[82] that many or most market-driven companies
use despite "eco-friendly alternatives". Textile industry wastewater is considered
to be one the largest polluters of water and soil ecosystems, causing
"carcinogenic, mutagenic, genotoxic, cytotoxic and allergenic threats to living
organisms".[83][84] The textile industry uses over 8000 chemicals in its supply
chain,[85] also polluting the environment with large amounts of microplastics[86]
and has been identified in one review as the industry sector producing the largest
amount of pollution.[87]
A campaign of big clothing brands like Nike, Adidas and Puma to voluntarily reform
their manufacturing supply chains to commit to achieving zero discharges of
hazardous chemicals by 2020 (global goal)[88][89] appears to have failed.
The textile industry also creates a lot of pollution that leads to externalities
which can cause large economic problems. The problem usually occurs when there is
no division of ownership rights. This means that the problem of pollution is
largely caused because of incomplete information about which company pollutes and
at what scale the damage was caused by the pollution.
Fossil fuel related industries
Outdoor air pollution attributable to fossil fuel use alone causes ~3.61 million
deaths annually, making it one of the top contributors to human death, beyond being
a major driver of climate change whereby greenhouse gases are considered per se as
a form of pollution (see above).[90]
Socially optimal level
See also: Right to a healthy environment
Society derives some indirect utility from pollution; otherwise, there would be no
incentive to pollute. This utility may come from the consumption of goods and
services that inherently create pollution (albeit the level can vary) or lower
prices or lower required efforts (or inconvenience) to abandon or substitute these
goods and services. Therefore, it is important that policymakers attempt to balance
these indirect benefits with the costs of pollution in order to achieve an
efficient outcome.[91][additional citation(s) needed]
A visual comparison of the free market and socially optimal outcomes
It is possible to use environmental economics to determine which level of pollution
is deemed the social optimum. For economists, pollution is an "external cost and
occurs only when one or more individuals suffer a loss of welfare". There is a
socially optimal level of pollution at which welfare is maximized.[92] This is
because consumers derive utility from the good or service manufactured, which will
outweigh the social cost of pollution until a certain point. At this point the
damage of one extra unit of pollution to society, the marginal cost of pollution,
is exactly equal to the marginal benefit of consuming one more unit of the good or
service.[93]
Moreover, the feasibility of pollution reduction rates could also be a factor of
calculating optimal levels. While a study puts the global mean loss of life
expectancy (LLE; similar to YPLL) from air pollution in 2015 at 2.9 years
(substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct
violence), it also indicated that a significant fraction of the LLE is unavoidable
in terms of current economical-technological feasibility such as aeolian dust and
wildfire emission control.[94]
In markets with pollution, or other negative externalities in production, the free
market equilibrium will not account for the costs of pollution on society. If the
social costs of pollution are higher than the private costs incurred by the firm,
then the true supply curve will be higher. The point at which the social marginal
cost and market demand intersect gives the socially optimal level of pollution. At
this point, the quantity will be lower and the price will be higher in comparison
to the free market equilibrium.[93] Therefore, the free market outcome could be
considered a market failure because it "does not maximize efficiency".[74]
This model can be used as a basis to evaluate different methods of internalizing
the externality, such as tariffs, a Pigouvian tax (such as a carbon tax) and cap
and trade systems.
History
Further information: History of environmental pollution and Legacy pollution
Prior to 19th century
Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from
prehistoric times, when humans created the first fires. According to a 1983 article
in the journal Science, "soot" found on ceilings of prehistoric caves provides
ample evidence of the high levels of pollution that was associated with inadequate
ventilation of open fires."[95]
Metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air
pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate
increases in pollution associated with Greek, Roman, and Chinese metal production.
[96]
Air pollution in the US, 1973
The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of many horses in concentrated areas
made the cities the primary sources of pollution. King Edward I of England banned
the burning of mineral coal by proclamation in London in 1306, after its smoke
became a problem;[97] the fuel was named sea-coal at the time, getting its name
from the fact that it was delivered form overseas (as opposed to charcoal, which
was referred to as "coal").
19th century
The Industrial Revolution gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it
today. London also recorded one of the earliest extreme cases of water quality
problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858, which led to the construction
of the London sewerage system soon afterward. Pollution issues escalated as
population growth far exceeded the ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste
problem. Reformers began to demand sewer systems and clean water.[98]
In 1870, the sanitary conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. August
Bebel recalled conditions before a modern sewer system was built in the late 1870s:
Waste-water from the houses collected in the gutters running alongside the curbs
and emitted a truly fearsome smell. There were no public toilets in the streets or
squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called. In
the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive....As a
metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until
after 1870.[99]
20th and 21st century
The primitive conditions were intolerable for a world national capital, and the
Imperial German government brought in its scientists, engineers, and urban planners
to solve the deficiencies and forge Berlin as the world's model city. A British
expert in 1906 concluded that Berlin represented "the most complete application of
science, order and method of public life," adding "it is a marvel of civic
administration, the most modern and most perfectly organized city that there
is."[100]
The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal gave
rise to unprecedented air pollution, and the large volume of industrial chemical
discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. Chicago and
Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in
1881. Pollution became a significant issue in the United States in the early
twentieth century, as progressive reformers took issue with air pollution caused by
coal burning, water pollution caused by bad sanitation, and street pollution caused
by the three million horses who worked in American cities in 1900, generating large
quantities of urine and manure. As historian Martin Melosi notes, the generation
that first saw automobiles replacing horses saw cars as "miracles of cleanliness".
[101] By the 1940s, automobile-caused smog was a significant issue in Los Angeles.
[102]
Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century when the
short-lived Office of Air Pollution was created under the Department of the
Interior. The cities of Los Angeles experienced extreme smog events and Donora,
Pennsylvania, in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.[103]
Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during
the Industrial Revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog
of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with
fears triggered by reports of radioactive fallout from atomic warfare and testing.
[104] Then a non-nuclear event – the Great Smog of 1952 in London – killed at least
4000 people.[105] This prompted some of the first major modern environmental
legislation: the Clean Air Act of 1956.
Pollution began to draw significant public attention in the United States between
the mid-1950s and early 1970s, when Congress passed the Noise Control Act, the
Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act.[106]
Smog pollution in Taiwan
Severe incidents of pollution helped increase consciousness. PCB dumping in the
Hudson River resulted in a ban by the EPA on consumption of its fish in 1974.
National news stories in the late 1970s – especially the long-term dioxin
contamination at Love Canal starting in 1947 and uncontrolled dumping in Valley of
the Drums – led to the Superfund legislation of 1980.[107] The pollution of
industrial land gave rise to the name brownfield, a term now common in city
planning.
The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which can
remain lethally radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Karachay –
named by the Worldwatch Institute as the "most polluted spot" on earth – served as
a disposal site for the Soviet Union throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Chelyabinsk,
Russia, is considered the "Most polluted place on the planet".[108]
Nuclear weapons continued to be tested in the Cold War, especially in the earlier
stages of their development. The toll on the worst-affected populations and the
growth since then in understanding the critical threat to human health posed by
radioactivity has also been a prohibitive complication associated with nuclear
power. Though extreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for
disaster suggested by incidents such as those at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and
Fukushima pose a lingering specter of public mistrust. Worldwide publicity has been
intense on those disasters.[109] Widespread support for test ban treaties has ended
almost all nuclear testing in the atmosphere.[110]
International catastrophes such as the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the
coast of Brittany in 1978 and the Bhopal disaster in 1984 have demonstrated the
universality of such events and the scale on which efforts to address them needed
to engage. The borderless nature of the atmosphere and oceans inevitably resulted
in the implication of pollution on a planetary level with the issue of global
warming. Most recently, the term persistent organic pollutant (POP) has come to
describe a group of chemicals such as PBDEs and PFCs, among others. Though their
effects remain poorly understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they have
been detected in various ecological habitats far removed from industrial activity,
such as the Arctic, demonstrating diffusion and bioaccumulation after only a
relatively brief period of widespread use.
Litter on the coast of Guyana
The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a concentration of plastics in the North Pacific
Gyre. It and other garbage patches contain debris that can transport invasive
species and that can entangle and be ingested by wildlife.[111] Organizations such
as 5 Gyres and the Algalita Marine Research Foundation have researched the Great
Pacific Garbage Patch and found microplastics in the water.[112]
Pollution introduced by light at night is becoming a global problem, more severe in
urban centres, but contaminating also large territories, far away from towns.[113]
Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public
over time have given rise to environmentalism and the environmental movement, which
generally seek to limit human impact on the environment.
