Unit 6
Do you Speak
Chemistry?
Term 1 syllabus
Contents Page No.
Unit 6: Do you Speak Chemistry? 01 - 32
6.1 Periodic Table 1-4
6.2 Symboles and Elements 5 - 14
6.3 Valency and Chemical Formula 15 - 22
6.4 Chemical Equations: Balancing 23 - 32
Introduction:
In order to understand the periodic table, we need to do a short recap of the terms
elements and symbols that we have already done in the previous grade by looking here
We know that every element has a name. Different symbols are used to symbolise each
of these elements, which is a shortened way to express each element. We use one or two
letters to denote the element’s name rather than writing it out whole. The symbol of an
element represents one atom of the element.
A. What is the Periodic Table1?
A table of the chemical elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number, usually
in rows, so that elements with similar atomic structure (and hence similar chemical
properties) appear in vertical columns, is known as the periodic table. In other words,
the periodic table is a tabular collection of chemical elements arranged according to
increasing atomic number, starting with hydrogen and going up to oganesson, which
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has the highest atomic number. The next question that comes to our minds is: What is
atomic number?The quantity of protons in the nucleus of an element's atom is known
as the element's atomic number. Oganesson possesses 118 protons compared to
hydrogen's one.
A point to be kept in mind here is that the Periodic Table in the present form not only
accommodates all the elements discovered so far but also provides a framework for
future findings.The remaining spaces on the bottom row were ultimately filled when the
four most recent additions to the table (the synthetic elements nihonium, moscovium,
tennessine, and oganesson) were formally acknowledged in 2016. Now certain
laboratories are already searching for element 119, which would be the first in a
brand-new row2.
B. What are periods and groups in the periodic table?
A period is a horizontal row of the periodic table where elements are filled from left to
right based on their increasing atomic number3. A group is a vertical column of the
periodic table where elements with similar properties are grouped together e.g., all
elements in group 18 are unreactive4.In all there are 7 periods and 18 groups in the
periodic table.
C. Why is it important to understand the periodic table to learn Chemistry?
● The periodic table provides a systematic arrangement of elements based on their
increasing atomic number, usually in rows, so that elements with similar atomic
structure (and hence similar chemical properties and chemical behaviour) appear
in vertical columns. E.g. the elements of group 1 (lithium, sodium, potassium,
rubidium, cesium, and francium ) have 1 electron in their valence shell.
● It allows us to classify elements into groups and periods, making it easier to study
and comprehend the vast array of elements.
● The periodic table allows us to make predictions about the properties of elements
based on their position. Elements within the same group often exhibit similar
chemical behaviours and characteristics, providing a framework for
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understanding and predicting their properties, such as reactivity,
electronegativity [the tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.],
and atomic size.
● To summarise, the periodic table is important because it is organised to provide a
great deal of information about elements and how they relate to one another in
one easy-to-use reference5
Let us view this Website6 which will give us an in depth view of various aspects of this
table.
For the website
in this section please refer to the student website of this lesson.
In fact in the coming years too, various aspects of this table will really be of great help to
us when we get more acquainted with the world of Inorganic Chemistry.
Glossary
● Atomic number- The number of protons present in the atom of an element.
● Protons- It is a stable subatomic particle with a unit positive charge.
● Framework- The basic structure of something that gives it shape and strength.
● Inorganic Chemistry- Inorganic chemistry is concerned with the properties and
behaviour of inorganic compounds, which include metals, minerals, and
organometallic compounds.
● Electronegativity - The tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.
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Summary
● The periodic table is a tabular collection of chemical elements arranged according
to increasing atomic number, starting with hydrogen and going up to oganesson,
which has the highest atomic number.
● A period is a horizontal row of the periodic table where elements are filled from
left to right based on their increasing atomic number. A group is a vertical column
of the periodic table where elements with similar properties are grouped
together.
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A. What is the purpose of chemical symbols in Chemistry, and how are they
derived?
● Elements are pure substances. Each element has a name. These elements are
represented by different symbols, which is a shorthand method of representing
an element. Instead of writing out the name of an element, we represent an
element’s name with one or two letters and not spell out their full names. The first
letter of the symbol is capitalised and, if a second letter is present, it is written
in lowercase. This helps to differentiate between different elements and ensures
consistency in communication1.
● Chemical symbols are derived from a variety of sources, including the element's
English name, its Latin or German name, or its discoverer's name. Here are some
common ways in which chemical symbols are derived:
a. Element name abbreviation: In many cases, the chemical symbol is
derived from the element's name or its English name abbreviation. For
example, the chemical symbol for Sulphur is "S".
b. Latin name: Some chemical symbols are derived from the Latin name of
the element. For instance, the chemical symbol for sodium is "Na," derived
from the Latin word "natrium."
c. Discoverer's Name: The last element (discovered till date) of the periodic
table named oganesson, was discovered by a team led by Yuri Oganessian
and hence the name.Its symbol is Og.
d. German name: The element Tungsten has the symbol W, derived from its
German name Wolfram.
● Chemical symbols are used extensively in formulas, equations, and the periodic
table to represent elements. They allow for efficient and universal communication
of chemical information among scientists, researchers, and educators.
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Let us look at the importance of symbols from another angle. Take a look at the
following:
The image above shows some symbols that were used in alchemy during the 1700s.
These symbols were quite popular during the time of alchemy, which was a precursor to
modern chemistry that existed after the Renaissance. A scientist named Geoffroy
published the 'table of affinities' in 1718, which made these symbols well-known.
Geoffroy thought that these symbols could help people understand how different
substances react with each other in chemical reactions.
However, as time went on, more and more scholars started to dislike these symbols.
They found them mysterious, hard to remember, and confusing. In 1813, a scientist
named Berzelius came up with a new system of chemical symbols, which is quite similar
to the modern one we use today . Unlike the old alchemy symbols, these new symbols
were designed to be clear and easy to use, making it much simpler for scientists to
communicate and work with them2.
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The following table represents the names and symbols of the first 40 elements in the
periodic table:
7
8
9
10
11
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To summarise the importance of symbols we can mention that without them it would
have been a herculean task to represent the above 118 elements and the innumerable
compounds that they form3.
We may try out this:
For the simulation
in this section please refer to the student website of this lesson.
Glossary
● Element- Elements are pure substances. Each element has a name.
● Symbol- Symbol is a shorthand method of representing an element.
● Alchemy- A form of chemistry in the Middle Ages which involved trying to
discover how to change ordinary metals into gold.
● Renaissance- Renaissance is the French word 'rebirth'. The Renaissance was a
period in European history which led to a revival in classical learning and wisdom.
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Summary
● Instead of writing out the name of an element, we represent an element’s name
with one or two letters and not spell out their full names.
● The first letter of the symbol is capitalised and, if a second letter is present, it is
written in lowercase.
● Names and symbols of 118 elements: (refer to site for link)
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A. What Is valency?
In order to understand the meaning of the term valency let us try to understand the
atomic structure in brief. We have already studied the subatomic particles like electrons,
protons and neutrons in the previous class. So let us try to understand their locations
within an atom.
Fig. 3.1 Bohr’s atomic model of a nitrogen atom showing a central nucleus where protons and neutrons exist.
The electrons orbit the shells outside the nucleus1.
Based on calculations and observations that are backed by experiments, the atom is
found to have a central nucleus where the protons and neutrons are found to exist. The
electrons orbit the nucleus in shells or orbits, which are at certain distances from the
nucleus2.
Each of these shells have a fixed capacity for holding electrons.The innermost shell is
filled first. This shell can contain a maximum of two electrons. The second shell can hold
a maximum of eight electrons. When this is filled, electrons go into the third shell, which
also holds a maximum of eighteen electrons. Then the fourth shell begins to fill3.
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Fig. 3.2 Capacity of electron shells for holding electrons. The first shell (innermost shell) can hold 2
electrons, the second shell can hold 8 electrons, the third shell can hold 18 electrons while the fourth
shell can hold 32 electrons.
We can get an idea about the filling of electrons in different shells or orbits by looking at
the examples given below.
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In order to achieve the most stable configuration i.e. of a noble gas, the atom of an
element tries to gain or lose electrons. Valency of an element is the number of electrons
that an atom of the element loses or gains or shares during a chemical reaction, in order
to complete its octet/duplet or we can say that valency of an element is the combining
capacity of that element. We are to keep in mind that a duplet (as in Helium) or an octet
(as in all the other noble gases) in the valence or outermost electron shell are the most
stable configurations that every element strives to achieve.
The number of electrons in the outermost shell is called valence electrons and the
outermost shell is called the valence shell.
It is important to know the atomic number and electronic configuration of an element to
find its valency4. In order to understand deeply the concept of valency, let us watch this
video:
For the video
in this section please refer to the student website of this lesson.
B. How can the molecular formula of a compound be derived with the
knowledge of valency?
In order to learn to write the molecular formula of a compound, we need to keep in mind
the following points:
● Elements in the same group of the periodic table have the same valency6. We
need to take help from the following valency table in order to memorise the
valencies of different elements.
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Fig. 3.3 The valency table showing the valencies of elements in the same group having the same valency7.
In chemistry, a compound is a substance made up of two or more different chemical
elements. When the elements come together, they react with each other to gain stability
and form chemical bonds that are difficult to break. These bonds form as a result of
sharing or exchanging electrons between atoms.
● When atoms of an element give or take electrons,
Fig. 3.4 Formation of sodium cation by loss of an electron; formation of chloride anion by gain of an electron8.
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the number of electrons in their shells become less or more as seen above. Atoms with
charges are called ions. Cations are positively-charged ions (atoms or groups of atoms
that have more protons than electrons due to having lost one or more electrons). Anions
are negatively-charged ions (meaning they have more electrons than protons due to
having gained one or more electrons).
Fig. 3.5 A neutral atom forms a cation by the loss of electron (s) and the neutral atom can form an anion by gain
of electron(s).
In order to understand better, let us watch this video:
For the video
in this section please refer to the student website of this lesson.
● To find the formula of an ionic compound, first we identify the cation and write
down its symbol and charge. Then, we identify the anion and write down its
symbol and charge. Finally, we combine the two ions to form an electrically
neutral compound. [NaCl – (sodium chloride) cation: Na+, anion: Cl-]
● Once we know the valencies of the elements [using the valency table given above
and the list given here], we use the "cross-valency" method [Let us watch this
video for reference] to determine the formula. Cross-multiply the valencies of the
elements to give subscripts. The subscripts should be in their simplest ratio to
represent the compound's formula.
For the video
in this section please refer to the student website of this lesson.
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Let us summarise the above method of writing molecular formula in 5 steps, which is
also called as the S.V.S.D.F. system6
1. S- The symbols of elements involved are written down.
2. V- Beneath each symbol, as a subscript, we write its valency.
3. S- We swap the valencies over.
4. D- If the valencies can be simplified, we divide them both by the smaller of the
two numbers. If one of the numbers is already one, then they cannot be divided
and simplified any further.
5. F- We write the formula.
Let us try writing the formula of: Aluminium oxide and carbon sulphide.
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The table below has a few more examples:
Glossary
● Duplet- The word octet refers to the number eight
● Octet- The word duplet is related to “doublet” and refers to a pair or to the
number two.
● Molecular formula- A chemical formula that gives the total number of atoms of
each element present in a molecule.
● Chemical bond- A chemical bond may be defined as the force of attraction
between any two atoms, in a molecule, to form chemical compounds .
● Subatomic - Smaller than or within an atom.
● Electronic configuration - It is defined as the arrangement or distribution of
electrons in various shells or orbits around the nucleus of an atom.
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Summary
● Electronic configuration
● The atom is found to have a central nucleus where the protons and neutrons are
found to exist.
● The electrons orbit the nucleus in shells or orbits, which are at certain distances
from the nucleus.
● Each of the electron shells have a fixed capacity for holding electrons.
● The first shell (innermost shell) can hold 2 electrons, the second shell can hold 8
electrons, the third shell can hold 18 electrons while the fourth shell can hold 32
electrons.
● In order to achieve the most stable configuration i.e. of a noble gas, the atom of an
element tries to gain or lose electrons.
● Valency of an element is the number of electrons that an atom of the element
loses or gains or shares during a chemical reaction, in order to complete its
octet/duplet or we can say that valency of an element is the combining capacity of
that element.
● The S.V.S.D.F. system for writing molecular formula has 5 steps:
1. S- The symbols of elements involved are written down.
2. V- Beneath each symbol, as a subscript, we write its valency.
3. S- We swap the valencies over.
4. D- If the valencies can be simplified, we divide them both by the
smaller of the two numbers. If one of the numbers is already one,
then they cannot be divided and simplified any further.
5. F- We write the formula.
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A. What is a chemical reaction?
While chemical reactions have been happening on Earth since ancient times, it wasn't
until the 18th century that early chemists began to grasp their nature. Phenomena such
as fermentation, where sugars undergo chemical conversion into alcohol, had been
observed for centuries, yet the underlying chemistry remained a mystery. What exactly
were these transformations, and how could they be controlled? These inquiries only
found answers during the shift from alchemy to the emergence of chemistry as a
quantitative and experimental science.
Have you ever realised that chemical processes occur constantly in our surroundings,
whether it's igniting a match, starting a car, or simply inhaling1?
Fig. 4.1 Some examples of chemical reactions taking place in our daily lives
Regardless of the specific reaction, in each instance, a new substance(s) (product(s) is
generated, often accompanied by a noticeable change and/or energy release, when two
or more substances (reactants) interact with each other. Eg Oxygen reacts with
hydrogen to give water. Here oxygen and hydrogen are the reactants and water is the
product.
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Fig. 4.2 In this chemical reaction two hydrogen molecules and an oxygen molecule break their bonds and
rearrange to form new bonds giving rise to a water molecule during the chemical reaction.
We can summarise as follows: A chemical reaction is a reaction in which the bonds are
broken within reactant molecules, and new bonds are formed within product
molecules in order to form a new substance. Substances that start a chemical reaction
are called reactants. Substances that are produced in the reaction are called products.
Reactants and products can be elements or compounds.
We can watch this video to summarise what we have learnt :
For the video
in this section please refer to the student website of this lesson.
B. What is the role of valence electrons in chemical reactions?
An atom's electrons are commonly categorised into two groups: valence and core
electrons. Valence electrons reside in the atom's outermost shell or highest energy
level, whereas core electrons occupy the innermost shell or lowest energy levels. This
distinction has a significant impact on how these two electron types function in chemical
reactions. In essence, valence electrons can engage in the creation of chemical bonds,
while core electrons are unable to do so. Despite not participating in bonding, core
electrons exert an influence on an atom's chemical reactivity3. The more the number of
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core electrons, the lesser the influence of the nucleus on the valence electrons. As a
result they are more reactive.
Fig. 4. 3 Valence electron and shell
The primary factor influencing an atom's chemical reactivity is the number of valence
electrons it possesses. Atoms that possess a full set of valence electrons are generally
unreactive in chemical reactions, while atoms with one or two valence electrons tend to
exhibit high reactivity3. Here it would lead to better understanding if we could
familiarise ourselves with the duplet and octet rules.
● Duplet rule: The duplet rule asserts that an element achieves stability when its
atom possesses a valence shell containing precisely two electrons. To reach this
state of stability, elements engage in processes involving the loss, gain, or sharing
of electrons, ultimately leading to the formation of chemical bonds. H, He and Li
are the only elements that follow this rule.
● Octet rule: The octet rule asserts that elements strive for increased stability by
having eight electrons in their valence shell. As a result, elements engage in
bonding with other elements to attain this electron configuration. The following
video on octet rule will help us have a deeper understanding of this rule:
For the video
in this section please refer to the student website of this lesson.
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C. What is a chemical equation and why is it important to balance chemical
equations ?
● A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the
form of symbols and formulae where the reactant entities are given on the left
hand side and the product entities on the right hand side. If reactants or products
are more than one then + sign is written between them. An arrow points from the
reactant to the products which is drawn between reactants and products.
Example of a chemical equation:
● A balanced chemical equation always obeys the law of conservation of mass.
According to this law the mass can neither be created nor destroyed but can be
transformed from one form to another, that is the mass remains constant . It can
also be stated as ‘In a chemical reaction mass of products must be equal to the
mass of reactants’5.
● A reaction is said to be balanced when the total mass of atoms on both sides of
the chemical reaction is equal.
● The advantages of writing chemical equation is that it is the shortest way of
explaining chemical reaction but disadvantages are that a chemical equation does
not tell us the physical state of the reactants and the products in the reaction nor
it tells actual concentration or dilution of the reactants. It doesn't inform what are
the other requirements(heat, pressure etc.) to start the reaction.
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D. How are chemical reactions represented on paper?
There are two ways of representing a chemical reaction on paper using an equation:
1. With the help of Word Equations:
Word equations provide a fast and straightforward method for summarising
chemical reactions. Consider the following description of this reaction: Calcium
carbonate powder combined with a dilute hydrochloric acid solution, resulting in
the formation of a solution containing calcium chloride, liquid water, and carbon
dioxide gas6. Watch this reaction here:
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2. With the help of Chemical Equations:
Chemical equations or Symbol equations are concise ways of representing
chemical reactions using symbols and formulae.
Now, hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water. This can be written in the form
of an incomplete chemical equation as follows:
H2 + O2 →H2 O
Here the → sign indicates a net forward reaction. Substances on its left hand side
are the reactants and those on its right hand side are the products. Now, this
equation is not aligned with the law of conservation of mass since the number of
oxygen atoms on either side are unequal. So in order to make them equal, can we
change the subscripts [A subscript is a small number written at the bottom of
the symbol. It depicts the number of atoms of the element present in the
molecule.]? No, we cannot as we cannot change the formula of a compound as it is
unique for any particular substance.
In order to incorporate the two oxygen atoms as reactants, let's consider having
two water molecules as the resulting products.
H2 + O2 →2H2 O
This 2 is called as a coefficient of water. [In Chemistry, the coefficient is the
number in front of the formula] Now the number of hydrogen on both sides have
become unequal. So we place a coefficient 2 in front of hydrogen. Now the law of
conservation of mass is satisfied as the number of each of the elements present in
the chemical equation on both sides are equal. We call it a balanced equation. (as
shown below)7.
Let us watch this video as a part of revision:
For the video
in this section please refer to the student website of this lesson.
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At times, symbols [like s for solid, l for liquid, g for gas, aq for an aqueous solution of the
substance] are used for representing the states of the reactants and products.
We can watch the following video in order to understand the steps involved in the
balancing of chemical equations.
For the video
in this section please refer to the student website of this lesson.
The following are a few examples translating statements of chemical reactions into
balanced chemical equations:
1. Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to produce ammonia.
N2 + 3H2→2NH3
2. Magnesium hydroxide reacts with nitric acid to give magnesium nitrate and
water.
Mg(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + 2H2O
3. Sodium chlorate decomposes to give sodium chloride and oxygen.
2NaClO3 → 2NaCl + 3O2
4. Aluminium reacts with oxygen to give aluminium oxide.
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
5. Hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc to give zinc chloride and hydrogen.
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
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Let us summarise the important steps involved in the balancing of chemical equations:
Let us watch this simulation:
For the simulation
in this section please refer to the student website of this lesson.
Let us finally wind up by reading this piece of information related to chemists:
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Glossary
● Fermentation- It is a chemical process by which molecules such as glucose are
broken down anaerobically. More broadly, fermentation is the foaming that
occurs during the manufacture of wine and beer, a process at least 10,000 years
old. The frothing results from the evolution of CO2 gas,
● Quantitative- Connected with the number or amount of something.
● Alcohol - The organic compounds which are derived by replacing a hydrogen atom
of a hydrocarbon by hydroxy(OH) group are called 'Alcohol'
● Entities - Something having its own identity.
Summary
● A chemical reaction is a reaction in which the bonds are broken within reactant
molecules, and new bonds are formed within product molecules in order to form a
new substance.
● Substances that start a chemical reaction are called reactants. Substances that
are produced in the reaction are called products.
● An atom's electrons are commonly categorised into two groups: valence and core
electrons.
● Valence electrons reside in the atom's outermost shell or highest energy level,
whereas core electrons occupy the innermost shell or lowest energy levels.
● The primary factor influencing an atom's chemical reactivity is the number of
valence electrons it possesses.
● Duplet rule: The duplet rule asserts that an element achieves stability when its
atom possesses a valence shell containing precisely two electrons.
● Octet rule: The octet rule asserts that elements strive for increased stability by
having eight electrons in their valence shell.
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● A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the
form of symbols and formulae where the reactant entities are given on the left
hand side and the product entities on the right hand side.
● A balanced chemical equation always obeys the law of conservation of mass.
● The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor
destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another, that is the mass
remains constant.
● Two ways of representing a chemical reaction on paper using an equation are:
1. With the help of word equations.
2. With the help of chemical equations.
● Chemical equations or Symbol equations are concise ways of representing
chemical reactions using symbols and formulae.
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