HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 4
CONTENTS
vMeaning of development;
vFactors influencing development;
vContexts of development;
vOverview of developmental stages:
vPrenatal development, Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence (particularly issues of identity, health,
social participation), Adulthood and Old age.
WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?
WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?
DEVELOPMENT IS PATTERN OF
PROGRESSIVELY, ORDERLY AND
PREDICTABLE CHANGES THAT BEGINS AT
CONCEPTION AN CONTINUES
THROUGHOUT LIFE
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE OF
DEVELOPMENT
• DEVELOPMENT IS PLASTIC- CAN BE
MODIFIED WITHIN THE PERSON
• DEVELOPMENT IS INFLUENCED BY
HISTORICAL CONDITIONS
• DEVELOPMENT IS A CONCERN FOR NO OF
DISCPLINES
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS
vGROWTH- INCREASE IN THE SIZE OF BODY
vDEVELOPMENT- PROGRESSIVE AND ORDERLY CHANGES THAT TAKES PLACE
DURING THE LIFE SPAN
vMATURATION- CHANGES THAT FOLLOW AN ORDERLY SEQUENCE LARGELY
DICTATED BY THE GENETIC BLUEPRINT
vEVOLUTION REFERS TO SPECIES SPECIFIC CHANGES. THE EVOLUTIONARY
CHANGES ARE PASSED FROM ONE GENERATION TO THE NEXT WITHIN A SPECIES.
FACTORS
INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT
HEREDITY
ENVIRONMENT
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENOTYPE AND PHENOTYPE?
WHAT IS EXACTLY THE DIFFERENCE?
FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT
HEREDITY
• Genetic transmission is very complex. Most characteristics that we observe in humans are combinations of
larger number of genes.
• The actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage is known as GENOTYPE.
• PHENOTYPE is the way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observable and measurable characteristics.
Phenotypes include physical traits, such as height, weight, eye and skin colour, and many of the psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, creativity, and personality.
• Genes provide a distinct blueprint and timetable for the development of an individual.
• ENVIRONMENT
• Parents also play an important role in deter mining the type of environment their children will encounter
• For example, if parents are intelligent and are good readers they would provide their children with books to
read, with the likely outcome that their children would become good readers who enjoy reading.
There is a general consensus among psychologists that development is a product of
complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). Heredity can best be
viewed as something that sets a range within which an individual’s development is actually
shaped by the support and opportunities of the environment.
CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT
BRONFRENBRENNER’S VIEW
DURGANAND SINHA’S VIEW
BRONFRENBRENERS CONTEXTUAL
VIEW OF DEVELOPMENT
DURGANAND SINHA’S VIEW
OUTER CIRCLE INNER CIRCLE
• RELIGION • HOME, SCHOOL
• CULTURE • NEIGHBOURHOOD
OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
vHuman life proceeds through different stages. Developmental stages are
assumed to be temporary and are often characterised by a dominant feature
or a leading characteristic, which gives each period its uniqueness.
vIt may be noted that certain patterns of behaviour and certain skills are
learned more easily and successfully during certain stages. These
accomplishments of a person become the social expectations of that stage of
development. They are known as DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS.
PRENATAL PERIOD
THE PERIOD FROM CONCEPTION TO
BIRTH IS KNOWN AS PRENATAL PERIOD
IT IS ABOUT 40 WEEKS
PRENATAL PERIOD IS AFFECTED BY
MATERNAL CHARACTERSTICS LIKE
MOTHER’S AGE, NUTRITION, EMOTIONAL
STATE
TERATOGENS- THEY ARE AGENTS THAT
CAUSES DEVIATION TO NORMAL
DEVELOPMENT ( DRUGS, POLLUTIONS
ETC)
INFANCY
INFANCY(0-2 YEARS)
• ACTIVITIES OF A NEW BORN: BREATHES, SUCKS, SWALLOWS,
DISCHARGES BODY WASTE
• DURING FIRST WEEK,THEY CAN DETECT WHAT DIRECTION
IS THE SOUND COMING FROM
• CAN DISTINGUISH THEIR MOTHERS VOICE FROM THAT OF
OTHERS
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
• It occurs at a rapid pace in first year and gradually slows down.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
vThe newborn’s movements are governed by
reflexes — which are automatic, built-in responses
to stimuli.
v They are genetically-carried survival
mechanisms.
vBasic motor skills include grasping and
reaching for objects, sitting, crawling, walking
and running.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT- REFLEXES
REFLEXES ARE AUTOMATIC, BUILT IN
REACTION TO STIMULI
REFLEXES ARE ADAPTIVE MECHANISMS
SOME REFLEXES ( BLINKING, COUGHING)
PERSIST THROUGHOUT LIFE TIME, WHILE
OTHERS DISAPPEAR AS THE BRAIN
FUNCTIONING MATURE
ROOTING REFLEX
MORO REFLEX
• The Moro reflex is an infantile reflex normally
present in all infants/newborns up to 3 or 4 months
of age as a response to a sudden loss of support,
when the infant feels as if it is falling. It involves
three distinct components: spreading out the arms
(abduction) pulling the arms in (adduction)
GRASP REFLEX
Palmar grasp reflex is a primitive reflex found in infants of
humans and most primates. When an object is placed in
an infant's hand and the palm of the child is stroked, the
fingers will close reflexively, as the object is grasped via
palmar grasp
BABINSKI REFLEX
• Babinski reflex is one of the normal
reflexes in infants. Reflexes are responses
that occur when the body receives a
certain stimulus. The Babinski reflex
occurs after the sole of the foot has been
firmly stroked. The big toe then moves
upward or toward the top surface of the
foot. The other toes fan out.
SENSORY ABILITIES
• The newborn’s vision is estimated to be lower than the adult vision. By 6 months it improves
and by about the first year, vision is almost the same as that of an adult. They are colour
deficient and full colour vision develops by 3 months of age.
• Infants can hear immediately after birth.
• Newborns respond to touch and they can even feel pain.
• Both smell and taste capacities are also present in the newborn.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• INFANT ACTIVELY CONSTRUCT THEIR MINDS
• UNDERSTANDS THE WORLD THROUGH THEIR SENSES AND INTERACTION WITH THE
WORLD AROUND THEM THROUGH- TOUCHING, HEARING, MOUTHING AND
GRASPING
• THIS STAGE IS REFERED TO AS SENSORY MOTOR STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
Language Development
• The basis of verbal communication seems to be present in infants. Vocalisation begins with the
infant’s babbling, sometime between 3 to 6 months.
SOCIO EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• INFANT PRERFERS
FAMILIAR FACES AND
RESPONDS TO PARENTS
BY COOING/ BABBLING
• SHOW PREFERS FOR
THEIR MOTHER’S
COMPANY
• BUILDS THE CONCEPT
OF ATTACHMENT
SOCIO- EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
CLASSIC EXPERIMENT BY HARLOW
AND HARLOW
ERIKSONS CONCEPT OF TRUST VS
MISTRUST
CHILDHOOD- EARLY
MIDDLE/LATE
EARLY CHILDHOOD YEARS
PRE SCHOOL YEARS
2-7 YEARS
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
• BRAIN AND HEAD GROWS MORE
RAPIDLY
• AS CHILD GROWS OLDER, BODY FAT
DECREASES, CHILD LOOKS SLIMMER
• GOOD EYE HAND COORDINATION,
HOLDING A PENCIL
• FINE MOTOR COORDINATION
• PREFERENCE FOR RIGHT OR LEFT
DEVELOPS
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• OBJECT PERMANANCE IS
COMPLETELY DEVELOPED
• CHILDREN DRAW IMAGES
OF TREES, DRAW DESIGNS ,
FIGURES TO REPRESENT
PEOPLE, DOGS HOUSES ETC
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
SOME IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
• Cognitive development in early childhood focuses on Piaget’s stage of preoperational
thought.
• Symbolic thought develops; object permanence is established; the child cannot coordinate
different physical attributes of an object.
• Logical thinking does not start. They live in imaginary world.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT- PRE OPERATIONAL
STAGE
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRE- OPERATIONAL STAGE
• Symbolic thought develops- The child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is
not physically present. For ex children draw designs/ figures to represent people, trees, house etc.
• Egocentrism (self-focus)-A salient feature of preoperational thought is egocentrism (self-focus),
i.e. children see the world only in terms of their own selves and are not able to appreciate others’
point of view.
• Animism -Children because of egocentrism, engage in animism -thinking that all things are living,
like oneself. They attribute life-like qualities to inanimate objects.
• Stage of intuitive thought- Children want answers to all their questions. Ex- Why is the sky
blue? Such questions help the child to know why things are as they are.
• Centration - children having a tendency for centration, i.e. focusing on a single characteristic or
feature for understanding an event.
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• During the early years of childhood, some important developments in the self take place.
• According to Erikson, This stage is marked as SENSE OF INITIATIVE OR SENSE OF
GUILT . Giving freedom and opportunities for play like cycling, running, skating, etc. and
answering children’s questions will create a sense of support for the initiative taken.
• In contrast, if they are made to feel that their questions are useless, and games played by them
are stupid, the children are likely to develop feelings of guilt over self-initiated activities, which
may persist through the children’s later life also.
• (A gender role is a set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should think, act and
feel. Parents are important influences on gender socialisation especially in the early years of
development.The “gender typing” occurs when individuals are ready to encode and organise
information along the lines of what is considered appropriate or typical for males and females in a
society.)
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save
her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy
some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was
much more than the Heinz could afford.
• Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to
the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest
of the money later.
• The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money
from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the
chemist’s and stole the drug.
KOHLBERG ASKED A SERIES OF QUESTIONS SUCH AS:
1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions, Kohlberg hoped to
discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The sample comprised 72 Chicago
boys aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at three-yearly intervals for 20 years
(Kohlberg, 1984).
Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. What Kohlberg was mainly
interested in was not whether the boys judged the action right or wrong, but the reasons given
for the decision. He found that these reasons tended to change as the children got older.
• Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning: PRE-CONVENTIONAL,
CONVENTIONAL, AND POST-CONVENTIONAL. Each level has two sub-stages.
vLEVEL 1 – AT THE PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
• Our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking
their rules.
vLEVEL 2 - CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
• At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards
of valued adult role models.
• Authority is internalized but not questioned.
vLEVEL 3 - POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
• Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual
rights and justice.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT- KOHLBERG
MIDDLE/LATE CHILDHOOD(7- 12 YEARS)
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL THOUGHT
CONCRETE OPERATIONS ( 7 TO 11
YEARS)
• ALLOWS THE CHILD TO FOCUS ON
DIFFERENT CHARACTERSTICS OR OBJECTS
AND NOT FOCUS ON ONE ASPECT
• THE CHILD LEARNS THAT THERE ARE
DIFFERENT WAYS OF LOOKING AT THINGS
• DECLINE OF EGOCENTRISM
• CHILD BECOMES MORE FLEXIBLE
• UNDERSTANDS ABSTRACT THINGS
• DEVELOPMENT OF VOCABULARY AND
GRAMMAR
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
• EMERGENCE OF LOGICAL THOUGHT- As the child grows and is approximately between 7
and 12 years of age (the period of middle and late childhood) intuitive thought is replaced by logical
thought.
• This is the stage of CONCRETE OPERATIONAL THOUGHT, Concrete operations are also
mental actions that are reversible.
• Concrete operations allow the child to focus on DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS and not
focus on one aspect of the object.
• There is DECLINE OF HER/HIS EGOCENTRISM.
• THINKING BECOMES MORE FLEXIBLE, AND children can think about alternatives when
solving problems, or mentally retrace their steps if required.
• Is able to perform IRREVERSIBLE MENTAL OPERATIONS on representations of objects.
SOCIO EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• CHILDREN LEARNS INDEPENDENCE
AND LOVES DOING THINGS BY
THEMSELVES
• THEY ENJOY FREEDOM AND
OPPURTUNITIES TO PLAY LIKE
CYCLING, RUNNING, SKATING ETC
• ANSWERING THEIR QUESTIONS
GIVES THEM COMFORT, HOWEVER IF
THEY ARE MADE TO FEEL THAT THEIR
QUESTIONS ARE USELESS AND
GAMES PLAYED BY THEM ARE
STUIPED, THEY DEVELOP FEELINGS
OF GUILT
MORAL DEVELOPMENT- KOHLBERG
ADOLSCENECE – 13 TO 19 YEARS
ADOLSCENCE
• BEGINS WITH PUBERTY- WHEN SEXUAL
MATURITY THE ABILITY TO REPRODUCE IS
ATTAINED
• SOMETIMES THESE YEARS ARE PROBLEMATIC
AND CONFUSING
• END OF CHILDHOOD
• PHYSICAL CHANGES IN THE BODY
• DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
CHARACTERISTICS
• MENARCHE- ONSET OF MENSTURATION
• INTEREST IN OPPOSITE SEX
• PREOCUPIED WITH THEIR LOOKS
• NEED TO DEVELOP REALISTIC IMAGE OF
THEMSELVES
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
• Adolescence is commonly defined as the stage of life that begins at the onset of
puberty, when sexual maturity, or the ability to reproduce is attained. It has been
regarded as a period of rapid change, both biologically and psychologically.
• The hormones released during puberty result in the development of primary and secondary
sexual characteristics.
• The primary sex characteristics include those directly related to reproduction. In girls,
rapid growth in height usually begins about two years before menarche, the onset of
menstruation. The growth spurt generally begins at the age of 12 or 13 for boys and at the age
of 10 or 11 for girls.
• Secondary sex characteristics include features that give masculine or feminine looks. ex.
pubic hair, development of breasts in girls.
• Physical development during adolescence is also accompanied by a number of psychological
changes. Around puberty, adolescents show an increase in interest in members of the opposite
sex.
• The development of a sexual identity defines the sexual orientation and guides sexual
behaviour. As such it becomes an important developmental task for adolescents.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• THINKING BECOMES MORE IDEALISTIC,
ABSTRACT AND DRIVEN BY LOGIC
• OFTEN COMPARES THEMSELVES WITH
OTHERS AND IDEAL STANDARDS
• EG: THEY MAY THINK WHAT IDEAL
PARENTS ARE LIKE AND MAY COMPARE
THEIR PARENTS WITH OTHERS
• PIAGET CALLED THIS AS IMAGINARY
AUDIENCE AND PERSONAL FABLE
CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL
OPERATIONAL STAGE
• Adolescent is in FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE of cognitive development as
per Piaget. The adolescent can apply logic more abstractly; hypothetical thinking develops.
Piaget believed that formal operational thought appears between the age of 11 and 15.
• Adolescents’ thought becomes more abstract, logical, and idealistic. Adolescent thinking
becomes more systematic in solving problems — they think of possible courses of action, why
something is happening the way it is, and systematically seek solutions. Piaget called this type of
logical thinking — HYPOTHETICAL DEDUCTIVE REASONING
• Adolescents’ developing ability to reason gives them a new level of cognitive and social
awareness.
• In addition to being abstract, adolescent thought is also idealistic. Adolescents begin to think
about ideal characteristics for themselves and others and compare themselves and others with
these ideal standards. For example, they may think what an ideal parent is like and compare
their parents with these ideal standards.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Logical thought also influences the development of moral reasoning. Social rules are not
considered as absolute standards and moral thinking shows some flexibility. The adolescent
recognises alternative moral courses, explores options, and then decides on a personal moral
code.
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• Adolescents also develop a special kind of egocentrism. According to David Elkind, imaginary
audience and personal fable are two components of adolescents’ egocentrism.
• IMAGINARY AUDIENCE is adolescent’s belief that people are always noticing them and
are observing each and every behaviour of theirs. It is this imaginary audience, which makes
them extremely self-conscious.
• THE PERSONAL FABLE is part of the adolescents’ egocentrism that involves their sense
of uniqueness. Adolescents’ sense of uniqueness makes them think that no one understands
them or their feelings. Personal fables are often part of adolescent diaries.
FORMING AN IDENTITY
• Identity is who you are and what your values and beliefs are. The primary task of adolescence is to
establish an identity separate from the parents. In the process of achieving an identity the
adolescent could experience conflict with parents and within herself or himself. Adolescents
who are not able to cope with this identity crisis are confused.
• The formation of identity during adolescence is influenced by several factors- The cultural
background, family and societal values, ethnic background, and socio-economic status etc
FORMING AN IDENTITY
IDENTITY VS ROLE CONFUSION-
ERIKSON
CONCERNS DURING ADOLSCENCE
DELINQUENCY
• DELINQUENCY : Delinquency refers to a variety of behaviours, ranging from socially
unacceptable behaviour, legal offences, to criminal acts. Examples include truancy, running away
from home, stealing or burglary or acts of vandalism.
• Adolescents with delinquency and behavioural problems tend to have a negative self-identity,
decreased trust, and low level of achievement.
• Delinquency is often associated with low parental support, inappropriate discipline, and family
discord.
SUBSTANCE ABUSE
• Adolescent years are especially vulnerable to smoking, alcohol and drug abuse.
• The reasons for smoking and drug use could be peer pressure and the adolescents’ need to be
accepted by the group, or desire to act more like adults, or feel a need to escape the pressure of
school work or social activities.
• . Drug use if continued long enough can lead to physiological dependency, i.e. addiction to drugs,
alcohol or nicotine may seriously jeopardise the rest of the adolescents’ lives.
• In India, a successful anti-drug programme is the Society for Theatre in Education
Programme in New Delhi. It uses street performances to entertain people between 13 to 25
years of age while teaching them how to say no to drugs.
• The United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) has chosen the
programme as an example to be adopted by other non-governmental organisations in the region.
WHY?
ADULTHOOD
WHO IS AN ADULT?
CHALLENGES OF ADULTHOOD
OLD AGE
CHALLENGES OF OLD AGE
EGO INTEGRITY VS DISPAIR-
ERIKSON
THANK YOU
