Biology 12/12/2024

Topics
Blood pressure in mammals

Blood pressure in mammals refers to the force of blood against the walls of arteries, driven by
the pumping of the heart.

Measures include systolic pressure (when the heart contracts) and diastolic pressure (when
the heart relaxes).
Factors affecting blood pressure include genetics, diet, exercise habits, stress, and age.
High blood pressure (hypertension) can lead to heart disease, stroke, and other health
complications.
Low blood pressure (hypotension) may cause dizziness, fainting, and inadequate blood flow
to organs.

Circulation

Circulation refers to the movement of fluids, such as blood or sap, through the body or vascular
system, allowing for the transportation of nutrients, gases, hormones, and waste products.

Circulation is essential for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to cells and the removal of
metabolic waste.
In animals, the circulatory system consists of a heart, blood vessels, and blood, while in
plants, the vascular system transports sap through xylem and phloem.
Circulatory systems can be open or closed, with open systems found in lower organisms like
insects and closed systems found in vertebrates.
In humans, the circulatory system consists of two circuits: the pulmonary circuit, which
carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation, and the systemic circuit, which
delivers oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.

Circulatory system in amphibians

Amphibians have a double-circuit circulatory system with a three-chambered heart, consisting of

two atria and a single ventricle.

Blood travels through the pulmonary circuit to the lungs and then back to the heart, and
through the systemic circuit to the body before returning to the heart.
The mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood occurs in the ventricle, which limits the
efficiency of oxygen delivery.
Some amphibians have a partially divided ventricle to reduce mixing, improving oxygen
delivery.
Amphibians may also supplement gas exchange through their skin in addition to pulmonary
 respiration.

Circulatory system in fishes

Fish circulatory systems consist of a two-chambered heart that pumps deoxygenated blood to
the gills for oxygenation before circulating throughout the body.

Fishes have single circulation with blood passing through the heart once in a circuit.
Blood flows in one direction due to the presence of valves in the heart and blood vessels.
Some fish species have specialized structures like the swim bladder that help regulate
buoyancy and enhance gas exchange.
The circulatory system in fish is efficient, supporting their aquatic lifestyles.

Circulatory system in reptiles

Reptiles have a closed circulatory system with a three-chambered heart, consisting of two atria
and one ventricle, which partially separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

The partial separation of the ventricle allows for some mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
Reptiles have a double-circuit circulatory system, similar to birds and mammals.
In reptiles, blood flows from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and then to the rest of the
body.
Some reptiles, like crocodilians, have a four-chambered heart similar to that of birds and
mammals.

Circulatory system of birds

Birds have a highly efficient circulatory system that includes a four-chambered heart with
separate pulmonary and systemic circuits, allowing for efficient oxygenation of the blood.

Birds also possess air sacs that aid in maintaining continuous airflow through their unique
respiratory system.
Their compact red blood cells have a greater surface-to-volume ratio for enhanced gas
exchange.
Birds have a rapid heart rate, often linked to their high metabolic rate for sustained flight
activities.
Their circulatory system also helps regulate body temperature through heat exchange in the
legs.

Circulatory system of mammals

The circulatory system of mammals consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. It transports
nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and waste products throughout the body.
 The heart pumps oxygen-rich blood to the body and oxygen-poor blood to the lungs for
reoxygenation.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart, while veins return blood back to the heart.
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels where gas exchange and nutrient exchange occurs with
body tissues.
Blood is composed of red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, and platelets, each with
specific functions and roles.

closed circulatory system

A closed circulatory system is a type of circulatory system found in some organisms, where the
blood is contained within a network of blood vessels.

A closed circulatory system ensures efficient transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste
products throughout the body.
This type of circulatory system allows for higher blood pressure and more rapid circulation
compared to an open circulatory system.
In closed circulatory systems, blood flows through the heart and then is pumped out to the
rest of the body through arteries.
Closed circulatory systems are found in vertebrates, such as humans, as well as some
invertebrates, like squids and octopuses.

components of blood

Blood is composed of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, each serving
unique functions vital to overall health.

Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body.

White blood cells are key components of the immune system, defending the body against
infections.
Platelets play a crucial role in blood clotting to prevent excessive bleeding.
Plasma is a straw-colored liquid that carries nutrients, hormones, and waste products
throughout the body.

Gas exchange

Gas exchange is the process by which oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is expelled from the
body. It occurs in the lungs in humans.

During gas exchange, oxygen from inhaled air diffuses into the bloodstream, while carbon
dioxide from the bloodstream diffuses into the lungs to be exhaled.
In plants, gas exchange occurs through small openings called stomata on the surface of
leaves.
Fish perform gas exchange through their gills, which extract oxygen from water and release
carbon dioxide.
 Gas exchange is essential for the survival of organisms as it allows for the exchange of
gases necessary for cellular respiration.

Gas exchange in the respiratory system

Gas exchange in the respiratory system involves the movement of oxygen from the air into the
bloodstream and the removal of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the air.

Alveoli in the lungs are the primary site of gas exchange due to their large surface area.
Oxygen enters the bloodstream through diffusion from alveoli to capillaries, while carbon
dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
Hemoglobin in red blood cells binds with oxygen to transport it to tissues in the body for
cellular respiration.
The respiratory system works in coordination with the circulatory system to ensure efficient
exchange of gases and transport throughout the body.

Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is a network of vessels and organs that helps remove waste and fight
infections in the body.

The lymphatic system is made up of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs.
It transports lymph, a clear fluid containing white blood cells, throughout the body.
Lymph nodes are small bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and help trap bacteria and
viruses.
The lymphatic system plays a crucial role in the immune response by producing and storing
white blood cells.

Mammalian heart structure

The mammalian heart is a muscular organ consisting of four chambers: two atria and two
ventricles, separated by valves to ensure unidirectional blood flow.

Atria receive blood returning to the heart; ventricles pump blood to the body and lungs.
The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood, whereas the right side pumps
deoxygenated blood.
Blood flows from the body into the right atrium, then to the right ventricle, lungs, left atrium,
left ventricle, and back to the body.
The heart's coordinated contractions are regulated by electrical impulses from the sinoatrial
node, the heart's natural pacemaker.

Open circulatory system

Open circulatory system is a type of circulatory system where blood is not contained within
vessels, but instead flows freely throughout the body cavity.
 Open circulatory system is found in insects, mollusks, and some arthropods.
In an open circulatory system, blood is pumped by a heart-like organ called a tubular heart.
The circulatory fluid in an open circulatory system is called hemolymph.
In open circulatory systems, oxygen and nutrients are exchanged directly with the body
tissues.

Vertebrate respiratory systems

Vertebrate respiratory systems facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide through
specialized structures like lungs, gills, and tracheae.

Lungs are the primary respiratory organs in mammals and some reptiles, composed of
millions of tiny air sacs for efficient gas exchange.
Gills are respiratory organs in aquatic vertebrates such as fish, allowing them to extract
oxygen from water.
Tracheae are found in insects and some arthropods, branching throughout the body to deliver
oxygen directly to tissues.
Amphibians may have different respiratory structures as larvae and adults, utilizing both
lungs and skin for gas exchange.

Key Terms
Alveoli

Alveoli are tiny sacs located in the lungs that facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the air and the blood

Alveoli are surrounded by a network of capillaries to ensure efficient gas exchange

The large surface area of alveoli allows for a greater amount of oxygen to be absorbed into
the bloodstream
Alveoli have thin walls made up of a single layer of cells to minimize the distance over which
gas exchange occurs
The elasticity of alveoli allows them to expand and contract during breathing to optimize their
function

Atrioventricular valves

Atrioventricular valves are located between the atria and ventricles of the heart, preventing
backflow of blood from the ventricles to the atria.

The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and right ventricle, while the mitral
valve is between the left atrium and left ventricle.
These valves open to allow blood to flow from the atria to the ventricles and close to prevent
blood from flowing back.
 Atrioventricular valves have specialized flaps, called cusps, that open and close in response
to changes in pressure within the heart chambers.
Dysfunction of these valves can lead to conditions such as mitral valve prolapse or
regurgitation, impacting overall heart function.

Bone marrow

Bone marrow is a soft, gelatinous tissue found inside the hollow interior of bones that produces
blood cells and stores fat.

Bone marrow is composed of two types: red marrow, which produces blood cells, and yellow
marrow, which stores fat.
Hematopoietic stem cells, found in bone marrow, can differentiate into various types of blood
cells.
Bone marrow transplants are used to treat conditions such as leukemia and lymphoma.
The production of blood cells in bone marrow is regulated by various growth factors and
hormones.

Capillaries

Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that connect arterioles and venules, facilitating the exchange of
oxygen, nutrients, and wastes between the blood and surrounding tissues.

They have thin walls made of a single layer of endothelial cells, allowing for the movement of
substances.
Capillaries are the smallest and most numerous of all blood vessels in the body.
Their narrow diameter and large surface area enhance their function in nutrient and gas
exchange.
The walls of capillaries are so thin that substances can pass through them via diffusion or
bulk flow.

Complete division of ventricles

Complete division of ventricles refers to the complete separation of the two lower chambers of
the heart, the right and left ventricles.

This physical division ensures that oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood remain separate within
the heart.
It allows for more efficient circulation and prevents the mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
Complete division of ventricles is a key characteristic of mammals and birds.
It helps maintain the high metabolic demands of these warm-blooded animals.

conus arteriosus
The conus arteriosus is a cardiac chamber found in some animals that connect the ventricle to
the main blood vessel, regulating blood flow to the body.

The conus arteriosus helps prevent turbulent blood flow by serving as a transition zone
between the ventricle and the main artery.
In fish, the conus arteriosus acts as a valve to prevent blood from flowing back into the heart.
In reptiles, birds, and mammals, the conus arteriosus is more developed and helps maintain
blood pressure in the aorta.
The conus arteriosus plays a role in ensuring efficient blood circulation and proper oxygen
distribution throughout the body.

erythrocytes

Erythrocytes are red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen to tissues. They are produced in
the bone marrow and lack a nucleus and organelles.

Erythrocytes have a biconcave shape, enabling them to squeeze through narrow capillaries.
The lifespan of erythrocytes is around 120 days, after which they are removed by the spleen
and liver.
Erythrocytes contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds to oxygen for transportation.
The production of erythrocytes is regulated by a hormone called erythropoietin, which is
released by the kidneys.

Foramen of Panizza

Foramen of Panizza refers to a unique feature found in the circulatory system of crocodilians
where blood bypasses the lungs and mixes oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

Located between the ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk in crocodiles and alligators.
Helps regulate blood flow to vital organs even during prolonged dives underwater.
Enables warm-blooded crocodilians to remain active in cold-water environments.
Allows shunting of blood back to the vital organs from non-essential areas when submerged
for extended periods.

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin is a protein molecule found in red blood cells that binds to oxygen and carries it to
tissues throughout the body.

Each hemoglobin molecule consists of four protein subunits, each containing an iron-
containing heme group.
Hemoglobin is responsible for the red color of blood.
Carbon dioxide can also bind to hemoglobin, allowing it to be transported back to the lungs
for exhalation.
Abnormalities in hemoglobin structure or function can lead to conditions such as anemia or
sickle cell disease.
Hemolymph

Hemolymph is a fluid in invertebrates that circulates nutrients, oxygen, and waste products,
acting as both blood and interstitial fluid.

Hemolymph transports nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body.
It functions in both oxygen delivery and immune response.
Hemolymph lacks specialized cells like RBCs, but it contains hemocytes that are involved in
defense against pathogens.
In insects, hemolymph plays a crucial role in molting and metamorphosis.

Leukocytes

Leukocytes are white blood cells that play a critical role in the immune system.

Leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow and can be found in circulation as well as in
tissues.
There are different types of leukocytes, including neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes,
eosinophils, and basophils.
Leukocytes are responsible for defending the body against foreign invaders such as bacteria,
viruses, and fungi.
In addition to their role in immunity, leukocytes are involved in various physiological
processes, such as inflammation and wound healing.

lymph

Lymph is a clear fluid that circulates throughout the body, carrying white blood cells and
removing waste products from tissues.

Lymph is derived from blood plasma and helps maintain fluid balance in the body.
Lymph nodes are small bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and help fight off infections.
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell found in lymph and play a key role in the immune
system.
Lymphatic vessels are similar to blood vessels, but they transport lymph instead of blood.

Lymphatic vessels

Lymphatic vessels are a network of thin tubes that help transport a clear fluid called lymph
throughout the body.

Lymphatic vessels assist in draining excess fluid and waste products from tissues.
They also play a crucial role in the immune system by carrying white blood cells called
lymphocytes to various parts of the body.
 Lymphatic vessels are present in almost all tissues of the body, except for the central nervous
system and some parts of the skin.
These vessels work alongside blood vessels to maintain fluid balance and remove toxins
from the body.

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue is a diffuse system of small concentrations of lymphoid

tissue found in the mucosa lining various organs of the body.

Primary function is to protect against pathogens entering through mucosal surfaces.

Comprised of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages.
Often found in the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, and genitourinary tract.
Plays a crucial role in immune responses at mucosal sites.

Muscular heart

The muscular heart is an organ composed of cardiac muscle tissue responsible for pumping
blood throughout the body.

Cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary, allowing the heart to contract rhythmically and
efficiently.
The heart has four chambers - the left and right atria receive blood, while the left and right
ventricles pump blood out.
The heart's electrical system controls the rhythmic contractions, ensuring coordinated
pumping action.
The heart functions as a dual pump - the right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs,
and the left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body.

Plasma

Plasma is the yellowish fluid component of blood that carries nutrients, hormones, and waste
products throughout the body.

The main functions of plasma include transporting nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
Plasma is composed mostly of water, but also contains proteins, electrolytes, and hormones.
It helps maintain blood pressure and pH balance in the body.
Plasma can be separated from blood cells through a process called centrifugation.

Pulmocutaneous circuit

The pulmocutaneous circuit refers to a respiratory mechanism seen in amphibians, where both
lungs and skin are used for gas exchange.
 Pulmocutaneous circuit allows dual gas exchange through both lungs and skin in
amphibians.
Oxygen is absorbed through the skin while lungs are used for both oxygen and carbon dioxide
exchange.
Helps amphibians survive in aquatic and terrestrial environments.
Efficient gas exchange allows amphibians to respire without fully relying on either lungs or
skin.

Pulmonary circulation

Pulmonary circulation refers to the pathway of blood from the heart to the lungs and back,
allowing for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Pulmonary circulation is responsible for carrying deoxygenated blood from the heart to the
lungs, where it gets oxygenated and returns to the heart.
The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the
lungs, while the pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left
atrium of the heart.
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in the small capillaries of the lungs,
where oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is released.
Pulmonary hypertension is a condition that occurs when there is high blood pressure in the
pulmonary arteries, which can lead to heart failure if left untreated.

Respiratory pigments

Respiratory pigments are biomolecules that bind to and transport gases, like oxygen and carbon
dioxide, in the circulatory system of organisms.

Hemoglobin is the most common respiratory pigment found in vertebrates, while hemocyanin
is found in some invertebrates.
Respiratory pigments increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, allowing for efficient
gas exchange in tissues.
In mammals, respiratory pigments are contained within red blood cells, whereas in some
invertebrates they are dissolved in the plasma.
The binding affinity of respiratory pigments for oxygen is influenced by factors such as pH,
temperature, and concentration of other molecules.

Semilunar valves

Semilunar valves are one-way valves in the heart located at the exit of the ventricles, preventing
the backflow of blood into the heart chambers.

They consist of the pulmonary valve (at the base of the pulmonary artery) and the aortic valve
(located at the base of the aorta).
These valves open when the ventricles contract (systole) to allow blood to flow out of the
heart.
 During diastole (ventricular relaxation), the semilunar valves close to prevent blood from
flowing back into the heart.
The closure of these valves creates the 'dub' sound in the heartbeat cycle.

Single systemic artery

The single systemic artery refers to a vessel originating from the heart that carries oxygenated
blood to systemic circulation, supplying all body tissues.

Develops abnormally during embryonic development in certain congenital heart defects.

Carries blood rich in oxygen and nutrients to nourish body tissues.
Includes branches that transport blood to major organs and peripheral tissues.
Plays a crucial role in maintaining proper circulation and delivering essential substances
throughout the body.

Sinus venosus

Sinus venosus is a cavity found in the right atrium of the heart that acts as a collecting chamber
for deoxygenated blood returning from the body.

It receives blood from major veins like the superior vena cava and coronary sinus.
Sinus venosus plays a role in directing blood flow to the heart's proper chambers.
During fetal development, this structure eventually becomes part of the right atrium.
Its function in the heart is crucial for efficient circulation of blood throughout the body.

Spleen

The spleen is an organ located in the upper left side of the abdomen that plays a role in filtering
blood, storing red blood cells, and fighting infections.

It is part of the immune system and helps to produce antibodies.

The spleen also plays a role in removing old or damaged red blood cells from circulation.
It acts as a reservoir for blood, releasing stored red blood cells when needed, such as during
periods of intense physical activity.
In certain medical conditions, such as sickle cell disease, the spleen can become enlarged or
damaged, leading to complications.

Systemic circulation

Systemic circulation is the part of the cardiovascular system responsible for carrying oxygenated
blood away from the heart and delivering it to the body's tissues.

The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation.
Systemic circulation includes arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.
 Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart through the systemic circulation.
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels where the exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste
products occurs.

Thrombocytes

Thrombocytes are a type of blood cell responsible for blood clotting by forming a plug at the site
of a damaged blood vessel.

Thrombocytes are also known as platelets and are essential in preventing excessive bleeding.
Platelets release clotting factors to initiate the coagulation process.
Thrombocytes are produced in the bone marrow and have a short lifespan of about 5 to 9
days.
Abnormalities in thrombocyte count can lead to bleeding disorders or clot formation issues.

Thymus

The thymus is a gland located in the chest cavity and is responsible for the development and
maturation of T cells, which are crucial for immune system functioning.

During childhood, the thymus is at its largest and most active, but it gradually decreases in
size and activity with age.
The thymus secretes hormones, such as thymosin, which help regulate the maturation of T
cells.
In some medical conditions, such as thymoma, the thymus can become enlarged and affect
immune system function.
The thymus plays a role in central tolerance, ensuring that T cells don't attack self-tissues and
are able to recognize and eliminate foreign antigens.