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a match, it is considered strong evidence that the biological sample came from that
individual.
Forensic DNA fingerprinting has become a critical tool in criminal investigations,
allowing investigators to link individuals to crime scenes and to exonerate innocent
individuals who may have been wrongly accused. It has also been used to identify
victims of natural disasters and mass casualties, and to resolve paternity disputes.
1.3 Proteins:
Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of chains of smaller building
blocks called amino acids. They play a vital role in the structure, function, and
regulation of cells, tissues, and organs.
Functions of Proteins
Proteins perform a wide range of functions in the body, including
1) Catalyzing chemical reactions
• Amylase: An enzyme that breaks down starch into simple sugars like glucose
and maltose. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice.
• Lipase: An enzyme that breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. It is found
in the pancreas and small intestine.
• Catalase: An enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. It
is found in most cells of the body.
• Trypsin: An enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is
produced in the pancreas and released into the small intestine.
• ATP synthase: An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate. It is found in
the mitochondria of cells.
2) Transporting molecules
• Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that transports
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues in the body.
• Albumin: Albumin is a protein found in blood plasma that helps transport various
substances such as hormones, fatty acids, and drugs throughout the body.
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• Transferrin: Transferrin is a protein that transports iron in the blood from the site
of absorption in the gut to the bone marrow, liver, and other tissues that require
it.
• Apolipoproteins: Apolipoproteins are a family of proteins that transport lipids
(fats) in the bloodstream. Examples include ApoA, ApoB, and ApoE.
• Ferritin: Ferritin is a protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form in the liver,
spleen, and bone marrow.
• Glut transporters: Glut transporters are a family of proteins that transport glucose
and other sugars across cell membranes. Examples include GLUT1 and GLUT4.
3) Providing mechanical support
• Collagen: Collagen is the main structural protein in the body and provides
support to tissues such as skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and teeth.
Elastin: Elastin is a protein that provides elasticity and stretchability to tissues
such as skin, lungs, arteries, and ligaments.
• Keratin: Keratin is a protein that forms the structural basis of hair, nails, and the
outer layer of skin.
• Actin and Myosin: Actin and myosin are proteins that are involved in muscle
contraction and provide the mechanical force required for movement.
• Tubulin: Tubulin is a protein that forms the structural basis of microtubules,
which provide support to cells and are involved in various cellular processes such
as cell division and intracellular transport.
• Laminin: Laminin is a protein that forms part of the extracellular matrix and
provides structural support to cells in tissues such as skin, muscles, and organs.
4) Regulating cell behavior
• Receptor proteins: Receptor proteins are proteins that are located on the surface
of cells and bind to specific signaling molecules such as hormones, growth
factors, and neurotransmitters. When these molecules bind to the receptor, they
trigger a cellular response, such as a change in gene expression or the activation
of an intracellular signaling pathway.
• Enzymes: Enzymes are proteins that catalyze specific chemical reactions in the
body. Many enzymes are involved in regulating cellular behavior, such as
kinases and phosphatases that regulate protein phosphorylation and
dephosphorylation, respectively.
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• Cytoskeleton proteins: Cytoskeleton proteins, such as actin and tubulin, play a
critical role in regulating cell shape, movement, and division.
• Transcription factors: Transcription factors are proteins that bind to DNA and
regulate gene expression. They play a critical role in regulating cellular
differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis.
• Adhesion proteins: Adhesion proteins are proteins that are involved in cell-to-
cell and cellto-matrix adhesion. They play a critical role in regulating cell
behavior such as cell migration, tissue development, and wound healing.
• Ion channels: Ion channels are proteins that allow ions to move across the cell
membrane. They play a critical role in regulating cellular excitability and
communication.
Proteins are also involved in immune responses, hormone regulation, and
muscle contraction.
The structure of a protein determines its function, and the sequence of
amino acids in a protein determines its structure.
There are 20 different types of amino acids, and the specific sequence of
amino acids in a protein determines its unique structure and function.
Proteins are synthesized by cells from the genetic information encoded in
DNA. The process of protein synthesis begins when the genetic code for a
particular protein is transcribed into a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). The
mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm, where it is
translated into a protein by ribosomes. Proteins play a critical role in many
biological processes, and their dysfunction is involved in the development of many
diseases, including cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders.
Understanding the structure and function of proteins is therefore a major focus of
biomedical research, with the goal of developing new treatments and therapies for
these diseases.
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1.3.1 Proteins as Food
Proteins are essential nutrients that provide the body with amino acids,
which are the building blocks of the body's tissues. Proteins are found in many
different foods, including meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, beans, lentils, tofu,
and eggs.
Proteins are a vital component of a healthy diet, as they help to build and
repair tissues, support immune function, and regulate various metabolic processes.
The body also uses proteins as a source of energy when carbohydrates and fats are
not available.
The quality of proteins in food is determined by the types of amino acids
they contain, as well as the amount of each type of amino acid. To ensure adequate
protein intake, it is important to consume a variety of protein-rich foods and to
include both complete and incomplete protein sources in the diet. It is also
important to consume sufficient amounts of other nutrients, such as carbohydrates,
fats, and vitamins and minerals, to support overall health and well-being.
Whey protein as food
Whey protein is a type of protein derived from the liquid that separates from
milk during the cheese-making process.
It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all of the essential amino acids
the body needs to build and repair tissues.
Whey protein is widely used as a dietary supplement, particularly by
athletes, bodybuilders, and people looking to increase their protein intake.
It is commonly added to smoothies, shakes, and other beverages, and is also
available in powder form that can be mixed into other foods or beverages.
Compared to other types of protein, whey protein is rapidly absorbed by the
body and is high in branched-chain amino acids, which are essential for muscle
growth and repair.
It is also a good source of essential nutrients, including calcium, potassium,
and vitamins B2 and B12.
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However, it is important to note that not all whey protein products are equal
in terms of quality, purity, and nutrient content. Some whey protein supplements
may contain added sugars, artificial sweeteners, or other ingredients that can be
harmful to health. It is therefore important to choose a reputable brand and to
carefully read the ingredient list before purchasing.
Use of whey protein as food
Whey protein is a type of protein derived from cow's milk and is commonly
used as a food supplement. There are several uses of whey protein as food,
including:
Sports nutrition: Whey protein is often used by athletes and fitness enthusiasts
to help build and repair muscle tissue, support recovery after intense exercise,
and increase overall muscle mass.
• Weight management: Whey protein can be used to help manage weight by
increasing satiety and reducing appetite. It can also help with weight loss by
preserving muscle mass while reducing body fat.
• Health promotion: Whey protein is rich in essential amino acids and has been
shown to have various health benefits, including improved immune function,
lower blood pressure, and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.
• Meal replacement: Whey protein can be used as a meal replacement, either as a
drink or in a variety of food products. It provides a quick and convenient source
of protein, making it a popular option for people with busy schedules or limited
access to fresh foods.
Whey protein is available in a variety of forms, including powders, bars, and
drinks. It is often added to smoothies, baked goods, and other food products to
increase the protein content. When using whey protein as food, it is important to
choose a high-quality product that is free of artificial sweeteners, flavors, and
other additives.
It is also important to talk to a healthcare professional before starting to use
whey protein, especially when one have any medical conditions or allergies.
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Meat analogs of protein
Meat analogs, also known as meat substitutes or meat alternatives, are plant-
based foods designed to mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of meat. They are
made from a variety of ingredients, including soy protein, wheat protein, pea
protein, and other plant-based ingredients, and are often fortified with vitamins
and minerals to provide a similar nutritional profile to meat.
Meat analogs are a popular alternative to meat for many people, including
vegetarians, vegans, and those who are looking to reduce their meat consumption
for health or ethical reasons. They can be a good source of protein and can help to
meet the body's protein needs. There are many different types of meat analogs
available, including burgers, sausages, meatballs, deli slices, and more. Some are
designed to mimic specific types of meat, such as chicken, beef, or pork, while
others are marketed as a more generic "meat-like" product. When choosing meat
analogs, it is important to look for products that are high in protein and low in
added sugars, fats, and other ingredients that can be harmful to health. It is also
important to consider the texture and taste, as some meat analogs can be more
appealing than others.
Examples of meat analogs of protein as food
• Tofu: Made from soybeans, tofu is a versatile meat analog that can be used in a
variety of dishes, including stir-fries, salads, and smoothies.
• Tempeh: Another soy-based product, tempeh is made from fermented soybeans
and has a nutty flavor and firm texture. It can be sliced and used in sandwiches
or salads, or crumbled and used as a meat substitute in tacos or spaghetti sauces.
Seitan: Also known as wheat meat or wheat protein, seitan is made from wheat
gluten and has a chewy, meat-like texture. It can be used as a substitute for beef
or pork in a variety of dishes.
• Veggie burgers: Made from a variety of plant-based ingredients, including soy
protein, grains, and vegetables, veggie burgers are a popular meat analog that
can be grilled or baked and served on a bun.
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• Meatless meatballs: Made from plant-based ingredients such as soy protein,
grains, and vegetables, meatless meatballs are a tasty and protein-rich alternative
to traditional meatballs.
• Plant-based sausages: Made from soy protein, pea protein, or other plant-based
ingredients, plant-based sausages are a convenient and protein-rich alternative to
traditional sausages.
a) b) c)
d) e) f)
Figure: Images of a) Tofu, b) Tempeh, c) Seitan, d) Veggie burgers, e) Meatless
meatballs, f) Plant-based sausages
These are just a few examples of meat analogs of protein as food. There are
many other products available that can provide a similar taste, texture, and
nutritional profile to meat, making it easier for people to reduce or eliminate their
meat consumption for health or ethical reasons.
1.3.2 Plant Based Proteins
Plant-based proteins are proteins derived from plant sources, such as
legumes, grains, nuts, and seeds. They are becoming increasingly popular as a
alternative to animal-based proteins, especially for those following a vegetarian or
vegan diet. Here are some benefits of plant-based proteins:
• Sustainable: Plant-based protein sources are more environmentally sustainable
than animalbased sources, as they require fewer resources to produce and
generate fewer greenhouse gas emissions.
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Nutrient-rich: Many plant-based protein sources are also rich in other essential
nutrients, such as fiber, vitamins, and minerals.
• Versatile: Plant-based proteins can be used in a variety of ways, including as a
protein supplement, in smoothies, or as an ingredient in various recipes.
• Hypoallergenic: Plant-based proteins are often better tolerated than animal-based
proteins, making them a good option for people with food allergies or
sensitivities.
• Cost-effective: Plant-based protein sources are often more affordable than
animal-based sources, making them a more accessible option for many people.
Examples of plant-based proteins include soy protein, pea protein, lentil
protein, chickpea protein, and hemp protein.
It is important to choose a high-quality product that is free of artificial
additives and preservatives, and to consult a healthcare professional before starting
to use any new protein supplement.
Uses of plant based proteins
Plant-based proteins are commonly used in a variety of ways, including:
• Dietary supplements: Plant-based proteins are often sold as powders, bars, and
other supplements, making them a convenient way to add protein to a diet.
• Food products: Plant-based proteins are used as ingredients in a variety of food
products, including plant-based meat analogs, protein bars, and smoothies.
• Health and wellness: Plant-based proteins are often marketed as a healthier
alternative to animal-based proteins, due to their lower saturated fat and
cholesterol content.
• Vegetarian and vegan diets: Plant-based proteins are a popular source of protein
for people following a vegetarian or vegan diet, as they do not contain animal
products.
• Fitness and sports nutrition: Plant-based proteins are also used by athletes and
fitness enthusiasts to support muscle recovery and growth.
It is important to choose a high-quality plant-based protein product, and to consult a
healthcare professional before starting to use any new protein supplement. It is also
important to remember that plant-based proteins may not contain all of the essential
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amino acids found in animal-based proteins, so it may be necessary to consume a
variety of plant-based protein sources to ensure adequate protein intake.
1.4 Lipids
Lipids are a group of organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and
some hormones.
Figure: Schematic representation of lipid molecule, bilayer formation, and
miscelle formation.
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