Rainfall – Runoff Relationships
Engr. Glaidel D. Carrera
School of Engineering – Civil Engineering Program
Aurora State College of Technology
Zabali Campus, Baler, Aurora
School of Engineering
Introduction
Rainfall and runoff are key components of the hydrological
cycle, and understanding their relationship is critical for
effective water resource management, flood prediction, and
environmental conservation. Rainfall, the amount of
precipitation received in a given area, directly impacts
runoff, which is the portion of rainfall that flows over the
land surface to rivers, lakes, and streams. The relationship
between rainfall and runoff is complex, influenced by
various factors such as land use, soil type, vegetation, and
the characteristics of the rainfall event itself.
Objectives
➢ Understand the Key Components of the Rainfall-Runoff
Relationship
➢ Identify the Factors Influencing Runoff
➢ Examine Methods for Modeling Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
➢ Discuss the Practical Applications of Runoff Models
➢ Evaluate the Role of Rainfall-Runoff Models in Water Resource
Management
➢ Provide Insights into Future Challenges and Improvements
Rainfall and Runoff
Surface runoff is the part of the rainfall traveling
overland to the stream channel. Water from surface
runoff makes up most of the flow during a flood event.
When rainfall reaches the ground, the water will either:
▪ Travel overland to the stream channel
▪ Infiltrate into the soil mantle
▪ Evaporate back into the atmosphere
Rainfall
Rainfall refers to the water that falls from the atmosphere
to the earth’s surface in the form of liquid water droplets.
The intensity, duration, and frequency of rainfall are
essential characteristics that influence runoff. Rainfall
intensity refers to the amount of rainfall falling in a given
time period, while duration indicates how long the rain
lasts.
Runoff
Runoff is the movement of water over the land surface, eventually
flowing into water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and oceans. It is the
portion of precipitation that does not infiltrate into the ground or
evaporate. Runoff can be classified into:
Surface runoff: Water that flows over the land surface.
Subsurface runoff: Water that infiltrates into the soil and then
moves laterally through the soil profile.
Runoff Coefficient
The runoff coefficient is the fraction of total rainfall
that becomes surface runoff. It depends on the
properties of the land surface and the rainfall event
itself. A runoff coefficient ranges from 0 (no runoff)
to 1 (complete runoff).
Factors Affecting Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
The relationship between rainfall and runoff is not always linear and
can vary significantly due to several factors:
1. Rainfall Characteristics
✓ Intensity and Duration: Heavy, short-duration rainfall events are
more likely to result in runoff compared to light, prolonged rain.
Intense rainfall can exceed the infiltration capacity of the soil,
leading to surface runoff.
✓ Frequency: The recurrence interval of rainfall events can also
influence runoff behavior. More frequent, smaller rainfall events
may lead to less runoff, as soils have more time to absorb water.
Factors Affecting Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
2. Land Use and Land Cover
✓Urbanization: Impervious surfaces like roads and buildings prevent
water from infiltrating, leading to increased runoff. Urbanized areas
tend to have higher runoff coefficients.
✓Vegetation: Vegetation helps in reducing runoff by promoting
infiltration and providing cover to the soil. Forested and grassland
areas typically have lower runoff coefficients compared to urban or
barren areas.
✓Agricultural Practices: The use of practices like tillage, crop cover,
and contour farming can influence runoff, either increasing or
decreasing it based on the management techniques used.
Factors Affecting Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
3. Soil Properties
✓Infiltration Rate: Soils with high infiltration capacities (e.g., sandy soils) are less
likely to produce runoff than soils with low infiltration capacities (e.g., clay
soils).
✓Soil Moisture: If the soil is already saturated from previous rainfall, the
likelihood of runoff increases, as the soil can no longer absorb additional water.
4. Topography
✓ Slope: Steeper slopes result in faster runoff because water moves more
quickly over the surface.
✓ Drainage Network: The extent and connectivity of natural drainage channels
(e.g., streams and rivers) can affect how quickly runoff reaches larger water
bodies.
Factors Affecting Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
5. Climate and Weather Conditions
✓ Temperature: Warmer temperatures may increase evaporation rates, reducing
the amount of water available for runoff. However, during snowmelt periods,
rapid snowmelt can lead to large amounts of runoff.
✓ Seasonality: Seasonal variations in rainfall patterns (e.g., monsoons, wet
seasons) can lead to different runoff responses.
Modeling Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
Several methods are used to model and predict runoff from rainfall. These models
can be broadly classified into empirical, conceptual, and physically-based
approaches.
1. Empirical Models
Empirical models are based on observed data and attempt to establish a statistical
relationship between rainfall and runoff. These models often rely on regression
analysis or empirical formulas. Common examples include:
Rational Method: This is commonly used for small urban catchments, where runoff
(Q) is estimated as: Q=C×I×A, where:
Q = runoff (m³/s),
C = runoff coefficient (dimensionless),
I = rainfall intensity (mm/h),
A = catchment area (ha).
Example
You are tasked with estimating the runoff from a small urban
catchment area after a rainfall event. The rainfall intensity is given
as 50 mm/h, the catchment area is 10 hectares, and the runoff
coefficient (C) for the area is estimated to be 0.6 (typical for urban
areas with impervious surfaces like roads and buildings).
Given:
Rainfall intensity (I) = 50 mm/h
Catchment area (A) = 10 hectares = 10 × 10,000 m² = 100,000 m²
Runoff coefficient (C) = 0.6
Formula: 𝑄=𝐶×𝐼×𝐴 Q=0.6 × 0.05m/h × 100,000m²
Q = 3000 m³/h
Q = 0.833 m³/s ans.
Modeling Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
2. Conceptual Models
Conceptual models represent the flow of water in a catchment through simplified
physical processes. They do not require detailed data on the catchment's physical
characteristics but provide a reasonable approximation of runoff behavior.
Examples include:
✓ SCS Curve Number Method: Developed by the U.S. Soil Conservation
Service, this method calculates runoff based on the land use, soil type, and
rainfall characteristics.
✓ Thornthwaite Method: A more simplified approach for estimating runoff by
relating precipitation to evaporation and transpiration
Modeling Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
3. Physically-Based Models
Physically-based models simulate the movement of water through the catchment
using mathematical equations that represent physical processes such as
infiltration, surface runoff, and channel flow. These models require detailed data
on the catchment’s topography, soil properties, and land use. Examples include:
✓ SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool): A watershed-scale model that
simulates rainfall-runoff relationships, soil erosion, and water quality.
✓ HEC-HMS (Hydrologic Engineering Center’s Hydrologic Modeling System):
A physically-based model developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to
simulate the rainfall-runoff process.
Practical Applications of Rainfall-Runoff Models
Understanding and modeling the rainfall-runoff relationship has numerous
practical applications, including:
1. Flood Forecasting and Management
Accurate rainfall-runoff models help predict flood events by estimating the amount
of runoff generated by a rainfall event. This is critical for issuing flood warnings
and designing flood control infrastructure.
2. Stormwater Management
In urban areas, where impervious surfaces dominate, rainfall-runoff models assist
in the design of drainage systems, retention ponds, and other stormwater
management structures to prevent flooding and water quality degradation.
Practical Applications of Rainfall-Runoff Models
3. Water Resource Management
Rainfall-runoff models are essential for estimating streamflow and managing the
availability of water resources for irrigation, drinking water, and hydropower generation.
4. Soil Erosion and Conservation
Runoff contributes to soil erosion, especially in areas with steep slopes or poor vegetation
cover. Modeling runoff helps identify areas at high risk for erosion and inform soil
conservation practices.
5. Environmental Protection
Excess runoff can lead to the degradation of ecosystems, especially in wetlands and
riparian zones. Understanding the rainfall-runoff relationship can help mitigate these
impacts through better land management practices.
References:
• Chow, V.T., Maidment, D.R., & Mays, L.W. (1988). Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009). Stormwater Management Model (SWMM). Environmental Protection Agency.
• Singh, V.P., & Xu, C.Y. (1997). Hydrological Models: Principles, Applications, and Uncertainty Analysis. Wiley.
Thank you!
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