Lesson 11: WHAT IS A POSITION PAPER? 8.

Value Position Paper argues for or against a

particular value or set of values.
WHAT IS A POSITION PAPER? 9. Predictive Position Paper makes predictions
A position paper presents an arguable opinion about future events or trends and supports it with
(whether FOR OR AGAINST) about an issue. arguments.
Position papers are essays that presents an [Link] Position Paper presents an individual’s
agreeing or dissenting opinions about an issue. personal perspective or opinion on an issue.​
Since position papers are academic texts, the FEATURES AND PRINCIPLES OF A POSITION
topics or issues that we argue are academic in PAPER
nature. 1. Follows the typical essay’s IBC (Introduction ->
The goal of a position paper is to convince the Body -> Conclusion) pattern/structure.
audience that your opinion is valid and worth 2. Uses formal language and the standard
listening to. Ideas that you are considering need to conventions of writing.
be carefully examined in choosing a topic, 3. There is no technical limit on the word count, the
developing your argument, and organizing your length of your essay will depend on how sufficiently
paper. the writer feels about in arguing or discussing
It is very important to ensure that you are his/her/their position.
addressing all sides of the issue and presenting it in 4. The issue must be clearly discussed/presented
a manner that is easy for your audience to especially when the topic of the issue is not
understand. Your job is to take one side of the popular. Also, contextualizing the issue will make it
argument and persuade your audience that you easier for your audience to understand it.
have well-founded knowledge of the topic being 5. Defines the issue very clearly.
presented. It is important to support your argument 6. Explicitly states the author/writer’s position.
with evidence to ensure the validity of your claims, 7. Be direct or straightforward with your arguments.
as well as to address the counterclaims to show Make them directly argue for or against an issue.
that you are well informed about both sides. 8. Expect counterarguments when you lay out your
NATURE OF A POSITION PAPER arguments. Be ready to either discredit or refute
Also called a Position Piece, Argumentative Essay these.
or a Manifesto, a position paper presents a person 9. Follows a coherent or logical pattern in
or group’s position or stand on a particular issue. Its presenting its argument/s.
goal is to convince the reader of the acceptability of [Link] credibility in your writing. Make sure
the writer’s position and it does so by: that you argue based on facts or factual evidence,
• Presenting rational support to a writer’s position, from credible sources. Do not misrepresent facts,
through the use of factual evidence; sources or views in your effort to solidify your
• Presenting counterevidence to flaws in the arguments. Do not resort to personal attacks or to
arguments of the opposing position, and emotional manipulation or maneuverings to try to
• Using logical reasoning to appeal to your win your audience to nod on your opinion.
audience Credibility is earned by creating a bond of trust with
TYPES AND USES OF A POSITION PAPER your readers, by demonstrating a shared value,
Position Papers are of different kinds, depending beliefs, attitudes and ideals.
on the uniqueness of the purpose behind them:
1. Advocacy Position Paper presents arguments ELEMENTS OF A POSITION PAPER
that support a cause/policy/proposal-type of issue. 1. ISSUE. An issue is an idea or question over
2. Counter-Argument Position Paper presents which people are divided; it's also called
arguments against an issue. controversy. That means people have different
3. Problem-Solution Position Paper identifies a point of view on the matter. Some ideas are not
problem and presents a solution. debatable-people have the same views about it.
4. Comparative Position Paper compares and For example, that exercise is good for the health
contrasts multiple issues (options, policies, etc.) and smoking is bad are non-controversial ideas.
5. Historical Position Paper examines a historical 2. THESIS STATEMENT. A main arguable
event and presents arguments based on historical statement (claim, position or stand) on the issue at
analyses. hand. Your main argument that lets you express
6. Interpretative Position Paper provides about how your generally feel on an issue.
interpretation or analysis of an issue. 3. REASONS. These are your supporting
7. Policy Position Paper outlines a specific policy arguments to your main arguments (thesis
proposal and presents supporting arguments. statement).
4. SUPPORT. These are evidence or ideas that • Where do they stand on the issue?
substantiate your reasons. It can be in the form of • How are their interests involved?
any of the following: 4. Check the Validity of the Arguments in Its
a. Facts Use of Logic and Reason
b. Analogies/Comparisons Are the arguments logical or reasonably sound?
c. Examples/Illustrations Knowing whether these are logical or illogical will
d. Expert Opinions provide a basis for us to determine its validity.
e. Data or Statistics 5. Check the Effectiveness of the Evidence
f. Researches/Studies • What evidence is likely to be effective with them?
5. COUNTERARGUMENTS. These opposing • Is the topic interesting?
viewpoints that you need to either discredit or refute • Can the material be managed within the
in order to strengthen your main argument and/or specifications set by the instructor?
supporting arguments. • Does your topic assert something specific and
propose a plan of action?
Lesson 12: ANALYZING A POSITION PAPER? • Do you have enough material to support your
opinion?
ANALYZING A POSITION PAPER 6. Fact Check the Evidence
Analyzing a Position Paper entails going beyond Double check on the veracity of the factual details
just reading it with comprehension. The following presented in support of the position paper’s issue.
steps are helpful for us to be analytical and critical Look up the sources to verify if it is valid. Check the
of a position paper’s issue. source’s credibility.
1. Do Your Research of the Issue 7. Scrutinize the Organization of the Position
Once your topic is selected, you should do some Paper
research on the subject matter. Read up about it. See to it that the introduction will lead up to a thesis
Read voraciously. Reading or researching is your that organizes the rest of the paper.
best weapon to get as much important input as you This will allow you to know if the following exists in
possibly can. This will strengthen your ability to the text:
form sound arguments. i. The location of the thesis statement/main
2. Weigh Both Sides of the Issue argument.
While you may already have an opinion on your ii. The clear stand/position of the author.
topic and an idea about which side of the argument iii. The supporting arguments provided
you want to take, you need to ensure that your iv. The factual pieces of evidence provided
position is well supported. Listing out the pro and An easier or simpler approach in analyzing a
con sides of the topic will help you examine your position paper is by asking yourself these
ability to see if the claims/counterclaims are questions after reading the text:
well-supported, along with a list of supporting 1. What is the issue taken up by the position
evidence for both sides. paper?
Supporting evidence includes the following: 2. What is the writer’s main argument or thesis
• Factual Knowledge - Information that is verifiable statement on the issue?
and agreed upon by 3. What reasons are given to support this thesis
almost everyone. statement?
• Statistical Inferences - Interpretation and 4. What kinds of support are given for the reasons?
examples of an accumulation 5. Are these support credible, legitimate or valid?
of facts. 6. What counterarguments are presented? How are
• Informed Opinion - Opinion developed through these discredited/refuted?
research and/or expertise 7. Do you find the position paper convincing? Why
of the claim. or why not
• Personal Testimony - Personal experience related
by a knowledgeable Lesson 13: ANALYZING A POSITION PAPER BY
party. READING A MANIFESTO
3. Consider the Audience’s Viewpoint (including
yourself) A Manifesto is a document publicly declaring the
In considering the audience, ask yourself the position or program of its issuer. It advances a set
following questions: of ideas, opinions, or views but it can also lay out a
• Who is your audience? plan of action. While it can address any topic, it
• What do they believe? most often concerns art, literature, or politics.
A Manifesto is a written declaration of the Whenever you read position papers, it is imperative
intentions, motives, or views of the issuer, be it an for authors to present arguments and provide
individual, group, political party, or government. evidence/s to support it.
As a reader who uses reasoning in analyzing the
In analyzing a Position Paper, outline its details merits (the weight of it) of an author’s proposition,
following its elements: ISSUE, STAND OR you have to ask yourself questions like:
MAINARGUMENT, SUPPORTING ARGUMENTS, “How well-developed are the arguments?”
EVIDENCE and COUNTERARGUMENT (if any). “Are there potential biases in the argument?”,
“Are the arguments based on the evidential details
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MANIFESTOES (factual and logical) presented?”
1. GOAL - A goal can be a manifesto when we Critical Reading is engaging in an analytic activity
share it with other people. It’s public, it’s a which involves the reader by asking questions
declaration and it’s about what one intends to have about the text and the author’s claim. Critical
happened. readers are doing the process of:
2. LIST AND RULES - A manifesto containing set LOOKING AT EVIDENCES and then…
of rules for behaving within a specific context or a EVALUATING
list of items to be achieved or tasks to be fulfilled. ANALYZING
3. WORLD - This type of manifesto aims to create INTERPRETING
a new world. It’s not about simple rules, instead, it Arguments, Assertions, Claims, Conclusion,
presents a vision for the future. A solemn Propositions, Conclusion, Stand/Position
declaration by the constituted authorities of a nation CRITICAL READING AS REASONING
which contains the reason for its public acts Critical reading as reasoning enables you to
towards another. On the declaration of war, a examine the validity and the strength of the material
manifesto is usually issued in which the nation you are reading.
declaring war states the reasons for so doing. Remember that critical reading is NOT meant to
criticize or bring down an argument, but to assess
If you are going to notice the highlighted words the validity of it by looking at evidences, particularly
from the characteristics of the different categories textual evidences.
of manifesto, the common thing about them is that REASONING
a, MANIFESTO or the writer of a manifesto, aims Reasoning is defined in Merriam-Webster
for a change in state or in other words, the dictionary, as an act of giving statements for
author is trying to convince the reader to justification and explanation. It is the ability of
believe the concept that he/she is trying to someone to defend something by giving out
convey by giving arguments or logical reasons that reasons.
will catch the attention of the reader and eventually By using reasoning in reading, you can decide on
believing it. whether to accept or to reject the: Arguments,
How are these changes carried out with just the Assertions, Claims, Conclusion, Propositions,
use of written words? Conclusion, Stand/Position.
- It is when the author provides reasons Generally speaking, the strength of an argument is
accompanied with evidences to prove the belief, also determined by the kind of supporting
they wanted the reader to believe in or the so- evidence the author gives. In general, facts and
called arguments. statistics are the most reliable evidence while
How will you know the arguments presented? appeals to emotion are weak. The other way to
Arguments reasons or the reasoning given for or push forth strong arguments is by building it around
against a matter under discussion. Arguments logical reasoning.
provide and compare evidence and proofs. Critical Reading by way of reasoning will eventually
A statement can only be considered an argument if make us be effective in crafting our own arguments
it presents proof or pieces of evidence, however, if using reasons that are logical. This will pave the
it does not, it is only a mere opinion. way for us to be in a better and stronger position to
defend issues we will side on.
Lesson 14: DEFENDING AN ARGUMENT USING DEFENDING AN ISSUE USING REASONABLE
REASONABLE ARGUMENTS ARGUMENTS
In defending an issue, you as the author has the
CRITICAL READING IN A POSITION PAPER responsibility to find a ground where you will feel
authentic and well-supported.
Authentic means that the side you are taking on Gift, bribe, adultery, indiscretion
(in an issue) is the side you feel you connected to Downplayer
the most, and side you strongly believe in. These A downplayer is a comment given in order to try to
should be our primary considerations when taking belittle a situation or minimize an issue. Just like
the side of any issues. euphemism, this way of arguing may lead to you
LOGICAL REASONING VS RHETORICAL sanitizing or normalizing negative incidents or
DEVICES wrong behaviors.
Rhetorical devices are examples of non-logical Example:
means of persuading readers to accept an idea “It is true that the mayor stole money from the city’s
The following are a few rhetorical devices (some of coffers, but all mayors did so anyway.”
these may also be referred to as LOGICAL False Equivalence or Whataboutism
FALLACIES in the field of Philosophy): When one argues about a completely opposite
Ad Hominem argument to make it seem like a logically equal
This is an attack on the character of a person argument, when it is factually not. Kind of like a
(usually the author/writer presenting an argument) classic case of ‘comparing apples to oranges’.
rather than his or her arguments or opinion. Example:
Appeal to Authority Kyle to Lady Bird (film) losing her virginity: “What or
When you accept something as the truth because why are you being sad about something I have no
the person who said it control over? Do you know how many people died
holds a high position or influence. in Iraq?
Appeal to Emotions or Pity Proof Surrogate
When you are persuaded of something because Proof surrogate refers to stating or implying that
the person use emotional arguments instead of there is proof without actually giving that proof. It
evidence. usually occurs when an author claims to have a
Argument by Repetition source without specifying that source so the reader
When you are just repeating the same or similarly can investigate it further.
structured arguments over and over again instead Example: “Fifty thousand researchers agree that
of presenting better evidence. this soap kills more germs.”
Bandwagon (Who are these researchers? What actual sources
When you accept something as the truth because did these come from?)
many people are also believing in it. Loaded Question
Cherry Picking A loaded question is a question that contains a
When you only pick the bits of evidence that malicious assumption. A person who is asked a
conveniently support your argument, and ignore the loaded question cannot give a simple answer. The
rest evidence that goes against your argument. classic example of a loaded question is, “Have you
Euphemism stopped beating your wife?” Here, even if the
Euphemism is a word used to substitute for another answer is YES or NO,
in order to make it more acceptable to the reader. A the respondent essentially admits he had been
euphemism is commonly used for words or beating his wife.
concepts that have negative meanings to it. The Other examples of loaded questions include:
problem of euphemism when used as reasoning to 1. Where did you hide the jewels that you stole?
our argument, is that it can potentially sanitize a 2. What would an irresponsible person like you in a
negative circumstance or normalize a wrongdoing situation like that?
by describing them ‘lightly’ or ‘positively’. 3. Are you still plagiarizing works of others?
For example a writer pushing for the legalization of Innuendo
gambling may refer to it as ‘gaming.’ Innuendos imply something malicious usually about
Dysphemism a person.
In contrast, a dysphemism is the opposite version Examples:
of a euphemism. It is used to make a word more • The senator is behaving well this time.
irritating and unacceptable to readers. Arguing by • The captain is eating with his real wife.
using this may make you come off unnecessarily • I wonder why that beautiful woman got promoted
aggressive. so many times.
EUPHEMISM DYSPHEMISM unmotivated lazy Red Herring
Human Rights activists rebels or terrorists When a person in the middle of an argument
Journalists are truthtellers Journalists are paid introduces another topic to distract from what’s
writers being discussed.
Ridicule [Link]. Provide support: factual or logical
Ridicule occurs when, instead of providing reasons, reasoning
proof or counter-evidence, an author simply 2.1.2. Position the Point 2 of your Supporting
ridicules a particular idea or claim. Argument
Examples: [Link]. Give your opinion/stand
- HIV does not really cause AIDS – what a [Link]. Provide support: factual or logical
ridiculous idea! reasoning
- Viruses can control the thinking of higher 2.1.3. Position the Point 3 of your Supporting
organisms. You’re kidding right? Argument
- Here’s another laughable idea I came across: the [Link]. Give your opinion
supply of water on earth will soon run out. [Link]. Provide support: factual or logical
Straw Man reasoning
When a person gives a weaker or a really different 2.2. Counter Argument (Interchangeable with II,
version of the actual argument or position of the can be optional)
opposing side. This may also be greatly 2.2.1. Provide and Summarize your counterclaims
exaggerated version of someone’s original 2.2.2. Provide supporting details (factual or logical)
argument to make it appear illogical or ridiculous for your counterclaims
Example: “The environmentalists want to deny 2.2.3. Refute the existing arguments
fisherman the right to engage in fishing. By banning 2.2.4. Give evidence (factual or logical) for the
fishing, they are willing to let the fishermen’s arguments you are refuting
families to go hungry just to save some cute little 3. Conclusion
fish they do not want to eat.” (What do you think is 3.1. Restate/summarize your main and supporting
the original argument arguments
here?) 3.2. Provide a plan of action
STEPS IN DEFENDING AN ISSUE USING 3.3. Leave a profound, compelling, and
REASONABLE ARGUMENTS thought-provoking ending statement
1. Know and understand the issue well by reading
enough about it. Lesson 16: VARIOUS KINDS OF TECHNICAL
2. Decide on your stand with the issue – whether REPORT
you are in favor or against it. Make sure that your
stand comes authentically with what you connect to WHAT IS A TECHNICAL REPORT?
and what you strongly believe in. A technical report is a structured and technical form
3. Lay our your arguments and support it with of writing concerned with gathering, processing,
factual evidences and reasons. analyzing, and presenting (reporting) information
4. Avoid creating arguments that are illogical. briefly but clearly for a specific audience.
5. Rethink your arguments, are they the strongest This information is usually the result of an
you can come up with? experiment, investigation, or some other form of
6. Edit, polish, revise primary research such as a questionnaire or
survey.
Lesson 15: WRITING A POSITION PAPER? In other words, a technical report is a systemic,
articulate, and orderly presentation of a research
PARTS OF A POSITION PAPER AND SAMPLE work in a written form. This presentation of
OUTLINE technical report or a research work may be in the
1. Introduction form of (or as a result of) a field study, laboratory or
1.1. Introduce and define the issue/topic scientific experiment, or a
1.2. Provide background, history or an overview of survey gathering.
the issue/topic WHAT CHARACTERIZES A GOOD TECHNICAL
1.3. Assert your thesis statement (your main REPORT?
argument or view of the issue) One can identify a good report if its accompanying
2. Body documents are:
2.1. Your Sub-Arguments/Supporting Arguments - Accurate
(Interchangeable with III) - Objective
2.1.1. Position the Point 1 of your Supporting - Complete
Argument Aside from these, of course, good reports should
[Link]. Give your opinion/stand be well-written and interesting, and should
show results that will eventually contribute a III. Introduction (background, overview, rationale
significant value of noble knowledge to our and hypothesis)
already-existing body of human knowledge. IV. Materials and Methods
VARIOUS KINDS OF TECHNICAL REPORT V. Results
In this specific discussion of EAPP, we will be VI. Discussion
focusing only on these types of technical reports VII. Literature Cited
(note that there are other kinds of reports not listed VIII. Appendices
here): 03. SURVEY REPORT
1. Field Study (or Field Report) Out of the three technical reports here, Survey
2. Laboratory or Scientific Experiment Report Reports are perhaps the easiest or simplest to do
3. Survey Report because it simply collect data using a survey
01. FIELD STUDY REPORT questionnaire or interview questions and present
Or simply, a Field Report. It is sometimes referred the findings based on the answers or responses
to as a ‘trip report’ due to the fact that one is gathered.
required to go on a necessary ocular visit to gather Parts of a Survey Report
data on the environment to be able to describe and I. Title Page or Cover Page
analyze a particular focus of study/research. II. Table of Contents
A field study report is a written document III. Executive Summary or Abstract
presenting or reporting about data gathered from IV. Background and Objectives
outside or the ‘field’ with the main intention of V. Methodology
describing and analyzing an observation of people, VI. Results and Findings
places, or events. VII. Conclusion and Recommendations
Techniques in Field Study Data Gathering VIII. Appendices
- Note-taking of observations, interviews and Tips for Writing Survey Questions
background information of the people, places 1. Write questions that are simple and direct to the
or events. point.
- Audio or video recordings of observations, 2. Limit the number of ranking options.
interviews, etc. of people, places, or events 3. When you ask a multiple-choice question, that
- Creating illustrations of what can be observed, or can only have one answer, give the
data graphs of information collected respondent a list that covers all the options without
Things to Document in a Field Study overlapping.
1. Physical Setting (of the environment or place) 4. Avoid offering too few or too many options.
2. Objects and Material Culture (interesting/unique 5. Offer an “out” for questions that don’t apply
things about the people, place, etc.)
3. Language Use Lesson 17: METHODS OF GATHERING
4. Unfolding of Events INFORMATION THRU SURVEYS
5. Expressive Body Movements SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
Parts of a Field Study
I. Introduction (Background and Overview) 1. Letter of Intent to Conduct Research (to be
II. Theoretical Framework (Relevant theory/theories sent to the institution where you wish to
you will base your study on) conduct your survey in)
III. Observations (Your actual report of what data 2. Letter of Request to Participate in the Survey
collected – observations, (to be read by your research participants first
documentations) before fielding them your survey questionnaires)
02. LABORATORY OR SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENT Don’t forget to explain to them the
REPORT confidentiality/privacy of whatever data you are
An academic paper commonly used to report going to collect from them.
experimental research, includes a thorough
discussion of the materials, methods of METHODS OF ADMINISTERING A SURVEY
experimentation used, and discussion of the result. Administering a survey is a systematic way of
Parts of a Laboratory or Scientific Experiment achieving certain goals. The following methods are
Report introduced by Sarah Mae Sincero (2012).
I. Title 1. Personal Approach
II. Abstract (a concise summary of what your This process of conducting the survey involves the
scientific report is all about) researcher. It is used to probe the
answers of the respondents and at the same time, Populations
to observe the behavior of the The target population is the specific group of
respondents, either individually or as a group. people that you want to find out about. This group
a. Face-to-face Structured Interview can be very broad or relatively narrow.
The interview is set personally, and the people For example:
involved face each other in order to gather the • The population of Montalban, Rizal
necessary information. Questions on the survey are • Kasiglahan Village Senior High students
asked directly to the respondent by the researcher. • Local immigrants who are relocatees of the
b. Telephone Survey Kasiglahan Village
The survey is done using telephone or cellular • Customers of a specific company aged 18-24
phones. The calls are made to ask individuals • LGBTQIA+ members of our school ages 15-21
about certain questions. This method can be used years of age
for asking consequential questions. Your survey should aim to produce results that can
2. Self-administered Approach be generalized to the whole population. That
In this type of approach, the survey is administered means you need to carefully define exactly who you
without the actual presence of the researcher and want to conclude about. Several common research
the respondents are expected to accomplish the biases can arise if your survey is not generalizable,
survey independently. particularly, sampling bias and selection bias. The
a. Paper-and-pencil Survey presence of these biases has serious
This is a traditional method of administering a repercussions for the validity of your results
survey which entails that Step 2: DECIDE ON THE TYPE OF SURVEY
respondents be or are accompanied by someone There are two main types of survey:
who is computer literate. • A questionnaire, where a list of questions is
b. Online Survey distributed by mail, online or in person, and
This is a useful technique, especially for studies respondents fill it out themselves.
which include many • An interview, where the researcher asks a set of
respondents from different locations. This is used to questions by phone or in person and
gather information from records the responses.
respondents who live in different areas. This Which type you choose depends on the sample
enables all participants to answer size and location, as well as the focus of the
through different online platforms. research.
c. Mail Survey Step 3: DESIGN / WRITE THE SURVEY
This popular tool requires an easy- administering of QUESTIONS
the survey where survey questionnaires are mailed Next, you need to decide which questions you will
to individuals who are given enough time to read ask and how you will ask them. It’s important
and ponder on the information asked. to consider:
1. The type of questions
Lesson 18: DESIGNING/WRITING, TESTING 2. The content of the questions
AND REVISING SURVEY 3. The phrasing of the questions
QUESTIONNAIRES 4. The ordering and layout of the survey
1. Type of Questions: Open-ended vs
DESIGNING / WRITING YOUR SURVEY Closed-ended Questions
QUESTIONNAIRE There are two main forms of survey questions:
closed-ended and open-ended. Many surveys use
Step 1: DEFINE THE POPULATION AND a combination of both.
SAMPLE Closed-ended questions give the respondent a
Before you start conducting survey research, you predetermined set of answers to choose
should already have a clear research from. A closed-ended question can include:
question that defines what you want to find out. • A binary answer (e.g. yes/no or agree/disagree)
Based on this question, you need to determine • A scale (e.g. a Likert scale with five points
exactly who you will target to participate in the ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree)
survey. • A list of options with a single answer possible
Our research questions (which are derived from the (e.g. age categories)
variables of our research title) will determine the • A list of options with multiple answers
kind of questions we will asking in our survey possible (e.g. leisure interests)
questionnaire.
Closed-ended questions are best for quantitative questionnaire will ensure an effective data and
research. They provide you with numerical data information gathering.
that can be statistically analyzed to find patterns, A survey questionnaire should be well-constructed
trends, and correlations. so that the respondents could understand it
Open-ended questions are best for qualitative thoroughly and be motivated to complete it.
research. This type of question has no Therefore, a questionnaire... (Mora, May 11, 2016)
predetermined answers to choose from. Instead, 1. Should use words that have a clear meaning.
the respondent answers in their own words. The questions should not be vague and
Open-ended questions are most common in difficult to comprehend so that the questionnaire
interviews, but you can also use them in will not be left unanswered.
questionnaires. They are often useful as follow-up 2. Should cover all possible options. The
questions to ask for more detailed explanations of respondents should be given five ranking options
responses to the closed questions. at most so that they will not be tired of choosing
2. The Content of the Survey Questions from a lot of options which do not give the
To ensure the validity and reliability of your results, choices they are looking for. If this will not be
you need to carefully consider each question in the observed, this will lead to an abandoned
survey. All questions should be narrowly focused questionnaire.
with enough context for the respondent to answer 3. Should not ask two or more questions in one
accurately. Avoid questions that are not directly sentence. The question should focus on
relevant to the survey’s purpose. one topic or item at a time so that the respondents
When constructing closed-ended questions, ensure will not be confused with choosing answers.
that the options cover all possibilities. 4. Should provide an out-option. The survey should
If you include a list of options that isn’t exhaustive, give the respondents the option to choose “Does
you can add an “other” field. not apply or “None” for questions they do not feel
3. Phrasing the Survey Questions comfortable answering.
In terms of language, the survey questions should 5. Should provide appropriate time reference.
be as clear and precise as possible. Tailor the Respondents could not easily recall past
questions to your target population, keeping in mind experiences and be doubtful as to the exact
their level of knowledge of the topic. Avoid jargon or measurement or time they spent.
industry-specific terminology. 6. Should have a clear question structure. Survey
Survey questions are at risk for biases like social questionnaire should follow three parts:
desirability bias, the Hawthorne effect, or demand the question stem, additional instructions and
characteristics. It’s critical to use language that response options so that the respondents will not
respondents will easily understand, and avoid be confused what to answer or choose. This will
words with vague or ambiguous meanings. Make result in unreliable gathered data.
sure your questions are phrased neutrally, with no 7. Should not include personal or embarrassing
indication that you’d prefer a particular answer or questions. Questions should be gender and culture
emotion. sensitive so that the respondents may not feel
4. Ordering the Survey Questions awkward or embarrassed in giving their responses.
The questions should be arranged in a logical 8. Should avoid double negative questions. Double
order. Start with easy, non-sensitive, closed ended negatives may occur when respondents are asked
questions that will encourage the respondent to of their agreement on a certain issue. This should
continue. be avoided so that the respondents‘ response will
If the survey covers several different topics or be clear and precise.
themes, group together related questions. You can 9. Should outline instructions or directions clearly
divide a questionnaire into sections to help and understandably. Clear instructions will lead to
respondents understand what is being asked in positive, appropriate, and clear answers. If the
each part. respondents are clearly asked and told what to do,
If a question refers back to or depends on the they will also foster positive attitude towards
answer to a previous question, they should be answering the questionnaire.
placed directly next to one another. TESTING A SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
DOs and DON’Ts OF A SURVEY What is a Survey Testing (Survey Pretest)?
QUESTIONNAIRE Survey Testing means fielding or running your
Concise and easy to understand questions lead to survey with a small test group before you do it for
a successful survey. Thus, a well-designed survey real.
Why do a Survey Test?
It’s always a good idea to test surveys before you During a cognitive interview you might discover that
send them. Making your survey go through a series certain question wording is ambiguous and needs
of tests to check for potential problems in its to be more specific. You might also learn that
accuracy, biases and validity. Ultimately, by seeing certain questions make people feel uncomfortable,
this ahead of the actual conduct of your surveys to or that the answer they would like to give isn’t
your respondents will lead you to an authentically present in a multiple choice list. Cognitive
credible data gathering. interviews can also help you spot drop-out risks,
When testing a questionnaire, you might focus on: where the respondents get bored or feel like the
• Comprehension. Respondents understand the survey is too much effort.
aim of the survey and the wording of the 3. Expert Evaluation. Your survey can be
introduction and questions. dramatically improved by feedback from two
• Logic and Flow. Items in the questionnaire follow typesof experts:
a logical order and nothing seems out of place or • topic experts who have deep knowledge and
confusing. At the same time, question order doesn’t expertise about the subject matter
set up conditions for bias. of your survey
• Acceptability. None of the questions are likely to • survey methodologists that have expertise in how
cause offense or touch on sensitive subjects in an to collect the most accurate data for your research
inappropriate way. question.
• Length and Adherence. The questionnaire These expert evaluations can help shape the
experience isn’t too effortful and most respondents content and form of your survey and result in better
can make it through to the end without losing data quality and more valuable insights.
interest and focus. 4. Focus Groups. In the preliminary phases of
• Technical Quality. The survey platform operates questionnaire development, it can be very helpful to
smoothly and there are no UX issues. ask a focus group to discuss your survey. These
• Introduction and Gaining consent. The groups, which are usually semistructured
introduction sets out the aim and scope of the discussions between 7-15 people led by a
research clearly and allows users to give informed moderator, are particularly helpful for
consent before they take the survey. clarifying basic concepts in the survey and
• Results Reporting. The reporting format is suitable evaluating perceptions of respondent burden or
for the data and shows the results clearly. topic sensitivity.
5. Experiments. Splitting a pretest sample of
respondents into groups and testing different
Survey Testing Methods variations of your survey design and content can be
Here are six different strategies for testing surveys a powerful way to understand the results you might
before starting your data collection: get when you field your main survey. These
1. Respondent Debriefing. This means running experiments are particularly useful for
your survey on a small number of respondents prior understanding how changes in question wording,
to sending it out to your entire sample. To get their questionnaire design, visual layout, question order,
feedback, you will need to add several evaluation and many other methodological factors may
questions to the end of your survey. These can be influence the data you collect.
open-ended or closedended questions and usually 6. Pilot Surveys. As we’ve described, testing the
focus on assessing respondent comprehension and final version of your survey project from start to
interpretation of survey questions. It should also finish can be very valuable. To do this, you should
include overall evaluations of the survey content, recruit a small sample of your target population. We
time, satisfaction and difficulty. typically recommend that our customers use a
2. Cognitive Interviewing. Cognitive interviews sample of about 50 respondents for these pilot
are a good way to really understand what’s going studies, or ‘soft launches,’ unless you need to do
on in the minds of your respondents as they answer additional survey testing across different
your questions. These interviews are typically demographics.
performed face-to-face with a small sample of 5-15 A pilot survey can give you a sense of the kind of
respondents. As the respondents answer each responses you will receive and any issues
survey question, they are asked to think aloud, that may arise during the real survey period. Pilot
which can include describing their thought studies often serve as a ‘dry run’ and are typically
processes, providing emotional responses or done just before fielding the survey to the entire
expressing judgments of their confidence in what sample. It’s usually a good idea to include some
each question means.
evaluative questions within the pilot questionnaire, 4. Orient your participants on what the survey is
such as respondent about (reason and purpose) and guide them on
perceptions of the length or difficulty of the how they should answer it properly, especially the
questionnaire, satisfaction with taking the survey, technical details of it
etc. 5. Distribute or conduct your survey or interview
7. Data Analysis. As well as gathering experiential proper
feedback from your participants, you can look at GATHERING INFORMATION FROM SURVEYS
patterns in their response data to see where The task of gathering or collecting information or
confusion, hesitation or disengagement has data from surveys requires a high level of
occurred. Look out for “straight lining” (where every knowledge and skill. You need to be familiar with
box in a row is ticked regardless of the different types of survey questions and learn
meaning), skipped questions and “don’t know” the art of formulating them before you can conduct
answers and check these against the feedback the survey and actually gather primary data.
respondents have given you to see if there’s a Primary data, as the name implies, is data you as a
pattern. researcher collect from first-hand sources using
REVISING A SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE methods like surveys, interviews, or experiments.
Act on What You Learned from your Survey Testing Below are Different Types of Survey Questions we
As with any type of feedback and testing process, can use to Gather Information:
the real key to survey testing is acting on what 1. Open-ended Questions
you’ve learned. Use the knowledge survey testing These types of questions do not have
has provided to improve your process and survey predetermined options or answers. The
instrument. And if there are new questions or ideas respondents are allowed to answer the questions
arising from what you learn, consider a second freely. Responses must be recorded
round of pretesting to make your research project verbatim-especially because coding and analysis
the best it can be. will rely on the subject’s exact responses.
Open-ended questions of ten need
Lesson 19: CONDUCTING, GATHERING, probing or follow-up questions to clarify certain
PROCESSING & SUMMARIZING A SURVEY items in the subject’s response. These question
typically ask the “how” and “why” of something.
CONDUCTING A SURVEY Example: Why did you choose to vote for candidate
There are certain steps we need to undertake to X? Kindly explain:
properly conduct a survey. _________________________________________
Step 1: KNOW YOUR RESPONDENTS ________________________________________
Like what was discussed previously, make sure that 2. Dichotomous Questions
you have already zeroed in clearly on who your Dichotomous questions have two possible answers,
respondents will be. often either yes/no, true/false, or agree/ disagree.
Step 2: CRAFT THE QUESTIONS BASED ON These questions are used when the researcher
YOUR RESEARCH GOALS wants to clearly distinguish the respondent’s
Follow the guidelines we previously discussed in opinion, preference, experience or behavior.
our lesson on designing and writing survey Example: HIV/AIDS is transmitted through saliva:
questions. Make sure that your survey questions ____ True
are derived from your research title, statement of ____ False
the problem and research questions. The nature of 3. Multiple–Response Questions
your questions should be well-aligned with these. There are certain questions that necessitate the
Step 3: FIELD THE SURVEY respondents to provide more than one answer. For
When fielding or conducting the survey, make sure example, a typical advertising survey would ask the
to do the following: question, “How did you find about the particular
1. Know the when and where (time, timeline and service or item”? A respondent may have
venue) details of your “field day” for the conduct of encountered more than one of the probable ways.
your survey questionnaire/interview. Example: How were you able to know about the
2. Write letters of request to the graduate program of Development Policy offered
institution/organization, or participants you are in De La Salle University? Check all that applies.
going to gather information from. ____ Print Advertisement ____ By word of mouth
3. Provide necessary consent letters, especially to (friends, families, etc.)
the parents (if minor) of your respondents/subjects. ____ DSLU Website ____ Telephone inquiry
4. Matrix Questions
There are instances where several questions you displayed on a pictogram like this, using one circle
intend to ask have the same set of possible to represent one chocolate button. Probably the
answers. Thus, it is possible to construct a matrix of most common way of displaying data is the bar
items and answers for the sake of streamlining the graph or frequency diagram. It is
survey. quick and easy to draw, and straightforward to
Example: Qualities of a Good Leader understand.
Beside each of the qualities of a good leader, kindly SUMMARIZING YOUR SURVEY RESULTS
indicate how well the person in inquiry manifests
the said quality with 1 being the lowest and 5 as the How to Write a Summary
highest. Another common scale is the Likert Scale Preparing to Write: To write a good summary it is
which tries to assess the subject’s important to thoroughly understand the material you
agreement/disagreement or approval/disapproval are working with. Here are some preliminary steps
on a five point scale-with one end being the in writing a summary.
most positive answer, and the other end being the 1. Skim the text, noting in your mind the
most negative answer. The categories correspond subheadings. If there are no subheadings, try to
to the numerical values 5,4,3,2,1, and are encoded divide the text into sections. Consider why you
as their numerical equivalent have been assigned the text. Try to determine what
(Singh 2007,75). type of text you are reading with. This can help you
5. Contingency Questions identify important information
Contingency questions are intended for certain 2. Read the text, highlighting important information
respondents only, depending on the provided and taking notes.
answers. A familiar example would be a follow-up 3. In your own words, write down the main points of
question provided after a respondent agrees to each section.
a certain item. Respondents are asked whether 4. Write down the key support points for the main
they used any illegal drugs or substances. Only topic, but do not include minor detail.
those who answered yes are required to answer 5. Go through the process again, making
the succeeding items. appropriate changes.
Points to Remember in Crafting Survey Questions Summary of findings should be a short statement
1. Keep the questionnaire as short as possible. such as the main purpose of the study, the
2. Ask short, simple, and clearly worded questions. population or respondents, period of the study,
3. Start with demographic questions to help method of research used, research instrument and
respondents get started comfortably. sampling design Findings should be written in
4. Use dichotomous (yes/no) and multiple-choice textual generalization, that is, a summary of the
questions. important data consisting of text and numbers.
5. Use open-ended questions cautiously.
6. Avoid using leading questions. Make your Lesson 20: WRITING THE SURVEY REPORT
question ask for the other person’s opinion
7. Pre-test a questionnaire on a small number of WRITING THE SURVEY REPORT
people. Steps in Writing a Survey Report
8. Think about the way you intend to use the 1. Break the report into separate sections with
collected data when preparing the questionnaire. heading. Survey reports usually use headings
PROCESSING AND PRESENTING THE DATA OF for each section.
A SURVEY 2. Write1–2-page executive summary paraphrasing
What do you do with the data or information you the report.
have collected after conducting your survey? 3. State the objectives of the summary in the
Information or data gathered from surveys should background section.
be properly organized before it can be 4. Provide background information by explaining
disseminated. research and studies.
Displaying Data Guidelines for Writing the Survey Report
Once the data has been collected, it can be 1. Value: Well-communicated, Objective, accurate
displayed in several ways. Which method is chosen and honest presentation of facts and results
depends on the type of data collected and the 2. Basic Content
audience it is intended for. One of the simplest and a. May consist of eyewitness accounts of first –
most effective is to use a pictogram. hand information.
This method uses pictures to represent the b. May contain facts, data, figures or statistics on or
frequency. The chocolate button data can be from people, events, phenomena, structures,
experiments, questionnaires, interviews, and library III. Useful Language for Survey Reports:
research. To introduce: The purpose/aim of this report, As
c. May include materials and procedures or requested, This survey was carried out/conducted
methods. by means of..., the questionnaire consisted of etc.
3. Modes of Ordering To generalize: In general, generally, on the whole,
a. Chronological or time order. etc.
b. Geographical or space / spatial order To refer to a fact: The fact is that..., In fact, In
c. Logical – Inductive and Deductive practice, etc.
d. Problem – Solution To conclude/ summarize: In conclusion, all things
e. Cause and Effect considered, To sum up, All in all, It isnot easy to
f. Formal reach any definite conclusions, if any conclusions
g. Abstract – Introduction – Background – may be drawn from the data,
Statement of the problem It is clear that, The survey/indicates/demonstrates,
h. Materials – Method or Procedure – Results – etc.
Discussion – Summary
i. Conclusion and Recommendation
4. Basic Qualities of a Good Survey Report
a. Objective, not subjective, point of view.
b. Accurate, not sloppy presentation of facts,
numbers, statistics, and data
c. Honest, nor false or incomplete details and
results
d. Brief and direct
How To Write a Survey Report
A survey report is a formal piece of writing based
on research.
I. Structure
Introduction
State the purpose/aim of the report, when and how
the information was gathered.
Main Body
All the information collected and analyzed is
presented clearly and in detail (break down the
respondents into groups according to sex, age and
place of residence, state the main differences
between groups). Subheadings, numbers or letters
can be used to separate each piece of information.
Conclusion
Sum up the points mentioned above. If necessary a
recommendation can be included as well (one way
of summing up is making some general comments)
II. Useful Hints and Phrases:
Present Tenses, Reported Speech and an
impersonal style should be used in survey reports.
Use a variety of reporting verbs such as claim,
state, report, agree, complain, suggest, etc.
When reporting the results of a survey, the figures
gathered should be given in the form of
percentages and proportions. Expressions such as
“one in four” or “six out of ten” can be used, or
exact percentages e.g. 25% of the people
questioned, 68% of those who filled in the
questionnaire, etc. Less exact expressions such as:
the majority of those questioned, a large proportion
of, a significant number of, etc. can also be used.