INDEX

➢ INTRODUCTION
➢ ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AS AN
INTERDISCIPLINARY SCIENCE
➢ CONCEPT OF POLLUTION
➢ CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
➢ SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS
➢ RISK ASSESSMENT
➢ BIOTRANSFORMATION OF TOXICANTS
➢ PREVENTION ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY
➢ RESEARCH OF ENVIRONMENTAL
TOXICOLOGY
➢ CONCLUSION
➢ BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION

Environmental toxicology is a multidisciplinary field of

science concerned with the study of the harmful effects of
various chemical, biological and physical agents on living
organisms. Ecotoxicology is a subdiscipline of environmental
toxicology concerned with studying the harmful effects of
toxicants at the population and ecosystem levels.

Rachel Carson is considered as the mother of environmental

toxicology, as she made it a distinct field within toxicology in
1962 with the publication of her book Silent Spring, which
covered the effects of uncontrolled pesticide use. Carson’s book
was based extensively on a series of reports by Lucille Farrier
Stickel on the ecological effects of the pesticide DDT.

Organisms can be exposed to various kinds of toxicants at any

life cycle stage, some of which are more sensitive than others.
Toxicity can also vary with the organism’s placement within its
food web. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism stores
toxicants in fatty tissues, which may eventually establish a
trophic cascade and the biomagnification of specific toxicants.
Biodegradation releases carbon dioxide and water as by-
products into the environment. This process is typically limited
in areas affected by environmental toxicants.
Harmful effects of such chemical and biological agents as
toxicants from pollutants, insecticides, pesticides, and
fertilizers can affect an organism and its community by
reducing its species diversity and abundance. Such changes in
population dynamics affect the ecosystem by reducing its
productivity and stability.

Environmental toxicology is known as Entox.

It Is a multidisciplinary field of science concern with study of
harmful effects of various chemicals, biological and physical
agents on living organisms.
The study of interaction among organisms and between
organism and environmental Is known as ecology.
Toxicology is study of biological effects of toxin.
Environmental toxicology as an Interdisciplinary science

Environmental toxicology is the study of the impacts of

pollutants upon the structure and function of ecological
systems. For the purposes of this text, the emphasis will be
upon ecological structures, from the molecular to the individual
organism to the community and to the ecosystem.
The broad scope of environmental toxicology requires a
multidisciplinary approach of a variety of specialists. These
specialists interact with a variety of other persons, decision and
policy makers, the public, educators, and other key individuals,
in making decisions about the management of ecological
systems.

Environmental toxicology takes and assimilates from a variety

of disciplines. Terrestrial and Aquatic ecologists, chemists,
molecular biologists, geneticists, and mathematicians all are
important in the evaluation of the impacts of chemicals on
biological systems.
 The components of environmental toxicology.

Environmental toxicology borrows heavily from a variety of

scientific disciplines.
Concept of pollution
A pollutant may be defined as a substance or effect which
adversely alters the environment by changing the growth rate
of species, interferes with health, comfort amenities or property
values of the people.
Any change in the natural quality of environment brought about
by the following
Factors:
• Chemical
• Physical
• Biological
Normally pollution causes by activities of man
Chemical factors
Changes through elevation of concentration of substances, e.g.
• Nutrients eutrophication
• Toxic substances health risk
• Organics reduce quality of raw water supply
Physical factors
• Change naturally in short term (flood, fire, storms etc.)
• Longer term change (e.g. Climate change)
• Man’s activities (building, drainage, forest clearance)
Biological factors
Biological processes like predation or grazing, non predatory
effects like digging and man induced events like tree feeling,
hunting etc.
• Reduce species niche ecological imbalance
• Cutting trees reduce oxygen regeneration capacity
Classification of pollutants
Naturally occurring pollutants :it includes poisonous plants,
venomous reptiles, insects And toxic minerals.

Man made pollutants : these are related to the production and

use of energy, the production and use of industrial chemicals
and increased agricultural activities.

The presence of these compounds in the environment may lead

to
• Air pollution
• Aquatic pollution
• Terrestrial pollution
Air pollutants
Five major substances account for about 98% of air pollution
carbon monoxide (about 52%), sulphur oxides (14%),
hydrocarbons (14%), nitrogen oxides (14%) and particulate
matter (4%).
The sources of these chemicals include:
• Volcanic eruptions,
• Dusts and fumes from industries,
• technologic development and increased urbanization,
transportation – motor vehicle emissions,
• municipal waste disposal which includes
burning/incineration,
• disposal of radioactive wastes from nuclear installation
including accidental releases and generation of electric
power.

Preventing Air Pollution

Methods available for reducing emissions of acid rain include
burning low sulphur fossil fuels, trapping pollutants in emitting
stacks(for example-trapping the sulphur oxides with lime, Cao,
to make gypsum, CaSO4), and removing sulphur from coal and
other fuels.
Aquatic pollution
Sources:
Natural-Eutrophication by leaching of minerals putrefaction in
small ponds due to leaves silting in lakes and rivers, Leaching
of toxic ions e.g. Cu and iron.

Man-made-
• Domestic sewage
• Industrial effluents
• Heavy metal pollutants from industrial processes
• Eutrophication e.g. nitrates from fertilizers, phosphates
from detergents,
• Thermal e.g. Cooling water from power stations
• Radioactive wastes and oil washings from oil accidents at
sea

Terrestrial pollution
Natural-local accumulation of toxic minerals e.g. ferrous salts,
radioactive minerals etc.
Man-made-dumped wastes municipal/domestic, industrial
wastes, etc,
• Agricultural chemicals and pesticides (overuse, drift and
persistence)
• Radioactive wastes from nuclear stations and accidentals.
Specific Environmental Pollutants
• Pesticides
• Organic industrial chemicals (Persistent Organic
Pollutants)
• Leather processing industries
• Most of the chemicals contaminating the environment
may penetrate animal organism and be toxic Manifesting
themselves by disease symptoms or causing subclinical
effects
(e.g. inhibition of growth, drop in milk yield or egg laying
capacity)
• Most of these pollutants are excreted through milk, eggs,
or are accumulated in various tissues and organs and
eventually transferred to humans.

PESTICIDES
o Depending on their intended use pesticides are classified
as herbicides, fungicides & insecticides with minor groups
 rodenticides, avicide (bird killing agents), acaricide
(killing mites), nematocides, piscicides (killing fish),
fumigants etc.
o Insecticides are also classified according to their
functional groups as:
o Organochlorines
o Organophosphorus
o Carbamates
o Pyrethrins and related chemicals.

Metal Toxicity
Mercury:
Methyl Mercury is lipid soluble and tends to bioaccumulate in
organisms as well as through food chain. Mercury poisoning
has been reported in many parts of the world e.g. japan iraq etc.
from mercury released from chlorine production facilities and
as a result of mistaken consumption of organo-Mercury treated
again intended for use as a pesticide.
consumption of contaminated fish and Marine mammals is the
most important source of human exposure to methyl Mercury.
the highest concentration found in large Predator species.
Arsenic
Arsenic one of the most important heavy metals, causes health
problems within ecological and humans it is “semimetallic
property, is prominently toxic and carsinogenic, and is
extensively available in the form of oxides or sulfides or as a
salt of iron, sodium, calcium, copper, etc.
Not only that, but it is also the most abundant element here on
earth and its specific inorganic forms are very dangerous to
living creatures (animals, plants, and humans) and the
environment.
Effects of Arsenic on humans is that they can cause cancer in
the bladder, skin, lungs and liver. One of the major areas in
which humans are exposed to arsenic is through contaminated
water which is a problem in more than 30 countries in the
world.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

Toxic effects of PCBs
PCBs are harmful to human hormonal and immune systems
even in very concentrations. People who have been in regular
contact with high concentrations of PCBs suffer from liver
disorders, breathing problems, and other physical problems.

• Other effects include enzyme induction leading to reduced

rate of reproduction especially in predatory birds.
• Accumulation in tissues occurs in proportional to amount
fed.
• Egg shell thinning (causing breakage before hatching)
• teratogenic effects have been demonstrated
 • PCB excreted in milk unaltered or hydroxylated
metabolites

Ecological Risk Assessment

Risk assessment for the possible effects of any substance
entering the environment which may harm people must sum up
the exposure through all routes in order to determine the total
exposure and then the possible effect.
Ecological risk assessment is the probability of an effect
occurring to an ecological system. Important components of a
risk assessment are the estimations of hazard and exposure due
to a stressor.
Risk assessment involves 4 steps:

• Toxicant identification
• Toxicant evaluation
• Exposure evaluation
• Risk estimation

Toxicant Identification
• Review existing literature (toxicity tests, epidemiology)
Descriptive toxicity testing if literature is lacking
Goal: Determine if agent causes adverse effects

Toxicant Evaluation
• Assess applicability of non-human tests to humans
• Consider interspecific and intraspecific variability
• Evaluate test type, responses measured, and scientific
validity

Exposure Evaluation
Assessing exposure to a toxicant under real-world conditions
• Considering factors like:
• Route of entry
• Dose
• Frequency
• Duration
Exposure assessment is crucial and should be pursued with the
same diligence as toxicant identification and evaluation

Risk Estimation
• Risk is the probability of an undesirable biological response
• Estimated by integrating toxicity conclusions and exposure
assessment
Risk statements: e.g., “1 in 1,000 individuals will develop
toxicity if exposed to a specific dose of a toxicant for a certain
period”

Comparison of Hazard Assessment with Risk Assessment

Characteristic Hazard Risk Assessment

Assessment
Probablistic results No Yes

Scales of Results Dichotomous Continuous

Basis for Regulation Scientific Risk management
judgement
Assessment end points Not explicit Explicit

Expression Of Concentration Exposure

contamination
Tiered Assessment Necessary Unnecessary

Decision criteria Judgement Formal criteria

Use of models Deterministic Probablistic

fate exposure and
effects
Biotransformation of toxicants

How body remove toxicants

Toxicants easily enter body (lipophilic) are hard to eliminate to
remove them the body must change them into water soluble
molecules(hydrophilic).
Metabolism and biotransformation
Metabolism is a process of changing molecules within body.
biotransformation is a type of metabolism that changes
toxicants into hydrophilic molecules for easier elimination.

How Biotransformation works

• Changes toxicants into distinct molecules
• Makes molecules more hydrophilic
• Reduce ability to cross membrane
• Reduce reabsorption by cells

Importance of Biotransformation

Biotransformation helps in eliminate toxicants from body,

the rate of removal depends on how quickly the body
changes toxicant and eliminates it.

Biotransformation Reaction
The body changes, lipophilic toxicants into water soluble
molecules through phase 1 and phase 2 biotransformation
reaction.
This process helps eliminate toxicants.
 Goals of Biotransformation

• Detoxification
• Producing water soluble metabolites for easy elimination

Possible outcome
• Toxic metabolites may produced
• Bioactivation can create highly reactive metabolites
• Some chemicals like acetaminophen are safe at prescribed
doses but toxic at higher doses

Terms
• Biotransformation - changing toxicants into eliminable
molecules
• Bio activation - producing toxic metabolites
• Toxication - creating toxic metabolites
• Xenobiotic - foreign chemical in body

Factors affecting Biotransformation

The effectiveness of biotransformation in removing
toxicants from body depends on many factors

• Age – human foetus neonatals and elderly have limited

biotransformation ability
• Gender- males and females have different
biotransformation capacities
• Nutrition -dietary deficiency can impair
bio transformation
• Disease -certain disease like hepatitis can reduced by
biotransformation capacity
These factors affect how efficiently body removes toxicants
and its essential to consider them when evaluating
biotransformation process.

Target organ toxicity

Target organ toxicity refers to harmful effect of toxicants on
specific organs such as kidney, liver or lung.
each organ is unique and response differently to toxicants.

Factors influencing target organ toxicity

• Distribution of toxicant to organ
• Organs structural and functional characteristics
• Cellular specialisation and differences
• Different organs are affected to varying extents by
toxicants
• A single toxicant can affect multiple organs
• Multiple toxicants can target same organ
• The highest concentration of toxicant isn't always in the
target organ
• Toxicant concentration in an organ results from various
toxicokinetic processes.

Prevention of environmental toxicology

Toxicology is the study of adverse effects of chemical

substances on living organisms and their environment.
Toxicologists are scientists trained to investigate, interpret
and communicate the nature of those effects, thus providing
the necessary basis for protection measures.
Environmental toxicology covers a wide range of
interdisciplinary studies.

Governing policies on environmental toxicity

To protect the environment, The National Environmental

Policy Act (NEPA) was written. The main point that NEPA
brings to light is that it “assures that all branches of
government give proper consideration to the environment
prior to undertaking any major federal actions that
significantly affect the environment.

This law was passed in 1970 and also founded the Council
on Environmental Quality (CEQ). The importance of CEQ
was that it helped further push policy areas.
CEQ created helpful environmental programs that were very
beneficial. Some include, the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act , Toxic Substance Control Act, Resources
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA and the Safe).
CEQ was essential in creating the foundation for most of the
“current environmental legislation except for Superfund and
asbestos control legislation some initial impacts of NEPA
pertain to the interpretation within Courts. Not only did
Courts interpret NEPA to expand over direct environmental
impacts from any projects, specifically federal, but also
indirect actions from federal projects.
Research of environmental toxicology
Research and teaching in environmental health have
centered on the hazardous effects of various environmental
exposures, such as toxic chemicals, radiation, and biological
and physical agents.
However, some kinds of environmental exposures may have
positive health effects. According to E.O. Wilson’s
“biophilia” hypothesis, humans are innately attracted to
other living organisms. Later authors have expanded this
concept to suggest that humans have an innate bond with
nature more generally. This implies that certain kinds of
contact with the natural world may benefit health. Evidence
supporting this hypothesis is presented from four aspects of
the natural world: animals, plants, landscapes, and
wilderness. Finally, the implications of this hypothesis for a
broader agenda for environmental health, encompassing not
only toxic outcomes but also salutary ones, are discussed.
This agenda implies research on a range of potentially
healthful environmental exposures, collaboration among
professionals in a range of disciplines from public health to
landscape architecture to city planning, and interventions
based on research outcomes.
Conclusions
• The role of environmental toxicology is not only to
identify environmental toxicants and their mode of action,
but to assist in evaluation and determination of issues
concerning acceptable risk and safety safe doses for
humans and other species.
• Moreover environmental toxicology data should prompt
us to restrict or prohibit the use of agent that are toxic to
plants and animals in our ecosystem.
• The fate of all species including our own depends on our
ability to recognise and effectively control The ripples
generated by environmental toxicants.
• Environmental toxicology highlights the
interconnectedness of human health, wildlife and
environment emphasizing need for holistic approach
mitigate toxic effects.
• The cumulative impact of toxic substance on ecosystem
and human health underscores the importance of
preventive measures and sustainable practices.
• Effective regulation and enforcement are crucial to
minimise environmental pollution and toxicity ensuring
safer environment for all.
• Ongoing research and monitoring are essential to identify
emerging toxic threats understand their impacts and
develop strategies for mitigation and prevention.
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