i

ii
GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND
APPLICATION (PRACTICALS)

iii
 Published by:

Capacity Building and Programme Outreach Office

Indian Space Research Organisation Head Quarter
Department of Space, Antriksh Bhwan
Bangalore 560094, Karnataka, India

© ISRO HQ 2023

Note:
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-
profit purpose without special permission from copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of
the source is made. ISRO HQ would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this
publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other
commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from ISRO HQ.

This publication is available in electronic form at:

[Link]

iv
 Acknowledgment

The book on Geospatial Technologies and its applications is compiled from the inputs of subject
experts all across ISRO centres under the guidance and support from the Directors of IIRS,
Dehradun, SAC, Ahmedabad NRSC, Hyderabad and NESAC, Shillong.

The team is thankful to the Secretary, Department of Space and the Chairman of ISRO Shri S
Somnath for the encouragement, guidance and support in bringing out the book in Geospatial
Technologies and Applications. Team is highly indebted for the guidance of overseeing committee
in reviewing the course content and the chapters under the Chairmanship of Shri Shantanu
Bhatawdekar, Scientific Secretary ISRO HQ, Shri N Sudheer Kumar, Director CBPO ISRO HQ, Shri
NM Desai, Director SAC, Ahmedabad, Dr. Prakash Chauhan, Director NRSC Hyderabad, Dr RP Singh,
Director IIRS Dehradun, Dr. SP Agarwal, Director NE-SAC Shillong, Shri SK Srivastava, CGM (RC),
NRSC, Dr. Pramod Kumar1, Dr. G Srinivas Rao2, , Dr. Bimal Kumar Bhattacharya3, Dr. S Manthira
Moorthi3, Dr Harish Karnataka1, Dr Arijit Roy1, Dr. Subra Nandy1, Shri Ashish Joshi1, Dr. Kamal
Pandey1, Dr. Ashutosh Bhardwaj1 Dr Shovan Lal Chattoraj1 and all the contributors across ISRO
Centres.

The team is indebted to Ms. Shailja Mamgai1 JRF and PhD Scholar for the support in final
formatting of the chapters and Ms Nikhitha C and Shri Sujay Sreedhar for their contributions for
books cover design and formatting the initial draft of chapters. Last but not the least the support
and encouragement received from CBPO, ISRO HQ colleagues.

Vinod Joshi
Associate Director, CBPO

Indian Space Research Organisation

Department of Space
Government of India
Antariksh Bhavan
New BEL Road, Bangalore-560094, India

1 Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (ISRO), Dehradun

2 National Remote Sensing Centre (ISRO), Hyderabad
3 Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad

v
 Editors
Dr. R P Singh, Director, IIRS
Dr. Pramod Kumar, IIRS
Dr. Harish Karnatak, IIRS
Dr. Arijit Roy, IIRS
Dr. Ashish Joshi, IIRS
Dr. Ashotosh Bhardwaj, IIRS
Dr. Kamal Pandey, IIRS
Dr. Subrata Nandy, IIRS
Dr. Shovan Lal Chattoraj, IIRS
Shri Harishankar, IIRS

Content Contributors

Dr. RP Singh, IIRS Dr. Durga Rao KHV, NRSC

Dr. Pramod Kumar, IIRS Dr. Girish Shankar Pujar, NRSC
Dr. Harish Karnatak, IIRS Dr. Srinivasa Rao G, NRSC
Dr. Vandita Srivastava, IIRS Dr. Ameya Anil Kesarkar, SAC
Dr. Shefali Agarwal, IIRS Dr. Bimal Kumar Bhattacharya, SAC
Dr. Prasun Gupta, IIRS Dr. S Manthira Moorthi, SAC
Dr. Kamal Pandey, IIRS Dr. Rojalin Tripathy, SAC
Dr. Arijit Roy, IIRS Dr. Rahul Nigam, SAC
Dr. Ashish Joshi, IIRS Shri Ayan Das, SAC
Dr. Ashutosh Bhardwaj, IIRS Shri Manish Parmar, SAC
Dr. Shovan Lal Chatoraj, IIRS Dr Suchandra Aich Bhowmick, SAC
Dr. Subrata Nandy, IIRS Dr Ranjit Kumar Sarangi, SAC
Dr. Sandeep Maithani, IIRS Dr Arvind Sahay, SAC
Dr. Asfa Siddiqui, IIRS Dr. Abhisek Chakraborty, SAC
Dr. Kshama Gupta, IIRS Smt. Ruchi Modi, SAC
Dr. SP Agarwal, NESAC Dr. Bipasha Paul Shukla, SAC
Shri Chirag Gupta,NESAC Dr. Munn Vinayak Shukla, SAC
Shri Victor Saikhom, NESAC Shri Shashikant A Sharma, SAC
Dr. Prakash Chauhan, NRSC Dr. Rashmi Sharma, SAC
Dr. Rajashree Bothale, NRSC Shri Utkarsh, SAC
Dr. Mruthyunjaya Reddy K, NRSC Dr. B Narasiha Sharma, SAC
Dr. Jayanthi S C, NRSC Shri Ankush Kumar, SAC
Shri Venkata Raju P, NRSC Smt. Moumita Dutta, SAC
Shri Rajasekhar G, NRSC Shri Sandip Paul, SAC
Dr. Iswar Chandra Das, NRSC

vi
 Course Review Committee

Shri Shantanu Bhatawdekar, Scientific Secretary. ISRO Chairman

Dr. Prakash Chauhan, Director, NRSC Member
Dr. R P Singh, Director, IIRS Member
Dr. S P Agarwal, Director, NE-SAC Member
Dr. S K Srivastav, CGM (RC), NRSC Member
Shri N Sudheer Kumar, Director, CBPO Member
Shri Vinod Joshi, Associate Director, CBPO Member
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Dean Academics, IIRS Member
Dr. G Srinivas Rao, GD, TEOG, NRSC Member
Dr. Bimal Kumar Bhattacharya, GD, EPSA-AESG, SAC Member
Dr. S Manthira Moorthi, GD, SIPG-ODPG, SAC Member
Dr. Harish Karnatak, IIRS Member
Shri Nishant Kumar, Dy. Director, CBPO Member Secretary

vii
viii
List of Demonstrations
FOREWORD .......................................................................................................................... xi
PREFACE .............................................................................................................................. xii
Exercise 1............................................................................................................................... 2
REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION............................................................................ 2
1.1 Concept of Visual Elements of Image Interpretation ........................................................... 2
1.2 Concept of visual image interpretation using RS data. ...................................................... 15
Exercise 2............................................................................................................................. 22
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM ............................................................................... 22
2.1 Introduction: ........................................................................................................................ 22
2.2 Digitisation........................................................................................................................... 22
2.2.1 Data & Software/Tools ................................................................................................. 22
2.2.2 Part 1: Steps for creating data ..................................................................................... 22
2.2.3 Part 2: Adding existing data ......................................................................................... 28
Exercise 3............................................................................................................................. 37
DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING ................................................................................................ 37
3.1 Key Stages in Digital Image Processing ......................................................................... 37
3.2 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum ..................................................................... 37
3.3 Image Acquisition .......................................................................................................... 38
Exercise 4............................................................................................................................. 74
GEOPORTALS AND DATA DISSEMINATIONS............................................................................ 74
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 74
4.2 Google Maps........................................................................................................................ 75
4.2.1 Exercise ......................................................................................................................... 75
4.3 Open street Maps (OSM) .................................................................................................... 77
4.3.1 Exercise ......................................................................................................................... 78
4.4 NASA Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS)............................ 79
4.4.1 Exercise ......................................................................................................................... 80
4.5 Bing Map .............................................................................................................................. 80
4.5.1 Exercise ......................................................................................................................... 80
4.6 USGS EarthExplorer ............................................................................................................. 81
4.6.1 Exercise ......................................................................................................................... 81
4.7 ISRO Bhuvan ........................................................................................................................ 84
4.7.1 Exercise ......................................................................................................................... 84

ix
 4.8 ISRO MOSDAC ...................................................................................................................... 88
4.8.1 Exercise ......................................................................................................................... 88
4.9 ISRO VEDAS .......................................................................................................................... 88
4.9.1 Exercise ......................................................................................................................... 89
4.10 NIC Bharat Maps ................................................................................................................ 89
4.10.1 Exercise ....................................................................................................................... 89
4.11 ArcGIS Online..................................................................................................................... 90
4.11.1 Exercise ....................................................................................................................... 90
Exercise 5............................................................................................................................. 92
OPEN-SOURCE PLATFORMS FOR GEO-DATA PROCESSING....................................................... 92
5.1 Section 0 - JavaScript Syntax ............................................................................................... 92
5.2 Section 1 - Hello, Images ..................................................................................................... 93
5.3 Section 2 - Apply a Computation to an Image .................................................................... 94
5.4 Section 3 - Apply a Spatial Reducer .................................................................................... 94
5.5 Section 4 - Load and Filter an Image Collection ................................................................. 94
5.6 Section 5 - Play with Image Bands ...................................................................................... 95
5.7 Section 6 - Reducing Image Collections .............................................................................. 95
5.8 Section 7 - Compute NDVI ................................................................................................... 96
5.9 Section 8 - Write a Function ................................................................................................ 96
5.10 Section 9 - Map a Function over a Collection ................................................................... 97
5.11 Section 10 - Chart NDVI over Time ................................................................................... 98
5.12 Section 11 - Visually verify trends with UI elements. ...................................................... 98
5.13 Section 12 - Use cases ....................................................................................................... 99
5.14 References ....................................................................................................................... 100

x
FOREWORD

Geospatial science is an interdisciplinary field that combines many technologies and has an impact
on numerous fields. Geospatial technology has a wide range of applications in practically every
domain of natural resources, including agriculture, forestry, industries, rural, urban, water, and
marine, and contributes significantly to the development of national infrastructure. These
technologies are vital for land revenue, banking and finance, resource mapping and management,
social planning, disaster management, e-governance, food security, and other purposes.

The National Geospatial Policy, 2022 aims to make India a world leader in global geospatial map
with the best in class ecosystem for sustainable growth and economy for the nation through the
integration of geospatial data/technology/concepts with industry 4.0 revolutionary technologies
by growing web, cloud, and network infrastructure. The demand for qualified human resources
for adopting technology for social and economic development across the country is growing by
the day.
To fulfil the ever-increasing need, there is a need to build capacity through effective training and
raise awareness among the many stakeholders, which include state and central ministries,
industry, academics, entrepreneurs, and educated youth.

ISRO has launched many space missions for Earth observation applications. The Resourcesat,
Cartosat, Oceansat, RISAT, INSAT2D/3DR class of satellite are providing temporal, multi-platform,
multi-sensor satellite data of earth surface. The satellite data are critical inputs for geospatial
technology for different thematic applications.
I am pleased to see that a course material encompassing all important topics in geospatial
technology and applications has been created by various ISRO centres / institutions. A few
practical sessions are also planned to provide hands-on experience.

I am confident that knowledge sharing will assist students, academics, industries, and researchers
in improving their capabilities in the geospatial area and capitalising on growth possibilities.

S Somnath

xi
PREFACE

In a frame work of National Geospatial Policy-2022, DOS accorded in principle approval for
conducting an integrated course on Geospatial Technology and its applications for various user
ministries and NGEs as a part of capacity building in space domain. Subsequently, CBPO in
consultation with ISRO centres SAC, NRSC, IIRS and NE-SAC brought out the course curriculum.
The book on Geospatial Technology and its applications covers the chapters on Fundamental of
Remote Sensing, Geographical Information System (GIS), Digital Image Processing, Advances in
Remote Sensing, Microwave Remote Sensing, UAV Remote Sensing, Agriculture and Soils, Water
Resources, Forestry and Ecology, Geoscience, Urban Development, Marine Applications,
Atmospheric Science and Disaster. To have hands on different tools on Geo Spatial Applications
the five demonstration topics are also covered in this programme e.g. on Remote Sensing,
Geographical Information System, Digital Image processing, Geo portals and data dissemination
and Open-source platforms for Geo-data processing.
The topics are contributed by Scientists across above ISRO centres and two books comprising
twenty (20) topics on theory and five (5) practicals are brought out for Geospatial Technologies
and its Applications. This book will be a basis for conducting the one-week training programme
for BE/B Tech in Engineering or equivalent, BSc in any discipline, BA in Geology/Environment
studies or 3 years Diploma in Engineering or equivalent fields. The students should have
proficiency with Windows, MS Word and Excel.
The course will be conducted at eight identified Outreach & Training Centres (OTCs) at NRSC-RRCS
North Delhi, RRSC South-Bengaluru, RRSC East-Kolkata, RRSC West-Jodhpur, RRSC Central-Nagpur,
MCF-Bhopal, IIRS Dehradun, NESAC-Shillong.
Online course will also be made available in collaboration with iGOT Karmayogi (Department of
Personnel & Training, GoI) platform.

N Sudheer Kumar
Director CBPO

xii
GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND
APPLICATION (PRACTICALS)

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

1
 Exercise 1
REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

1.1 Concept of Visual Elements of Image Interpretation

Learning Objectives
• Adapt to think how objects look from a vertical perspective and in different spectral regions.
• Apply the elements of visual image interpretation to identify objects in the images.
• To identify features and extract the useful information from the remotely sensed images based on
the visual interpretation techniques.

Basic elements of interpretation

The interpretation of satellite imagery and aerial photographs involves the study of various basic
characters of an object with reference to spectral bands which is useful in visual analysis. The basic
elements are shape, size, pattern, tone, texture, shadows, location, association and resolution.

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

2
Tone: Refers to the colour or relative brightness of an object. The tonal variation is due to the
reflection, emittance, transmission or absorption character of an objects. This may vary from one
object to another and also changes with reference to different bands.

Questions:
1. Mark the different tonal variations (very dark, dark, light, very light etc.) in image chips a and
b.
2. Correlate the grey tone with colour in corresponding areas. Try and identify the features on
FCC based on the colour.

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

3
Texture: The frequency of tonal change. It creates a visual impression of surface roughness or
smoothness.

Questions:
a. Mark the different textural variations.
b. Correlate the texture with the type of vegetation. (Trees, bushes, grass. etc.)

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

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Pattern: Spatial arrangement of an object into distinctive recurring forms.

Questions.
a. Mark the different patterns in both image chips.
b. Correlate the pattern with type of urban area and vegetation.

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

5
Question:
a. Mark the different patterns in the image chip.
b. Identify plantation area, planned housing, unplanned housing areas. What is the basis for your
conclusion?

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

6
 Shape: The external form, outline or configuration of the object. This includes natural features
(Example: River), Man Made feature (Example: Stadium).

a Questions: Observe and comment on:

a. Shape of railway and road features

b c

Questions: Observe and comment on:

b. Shape of river and c. Shape of agricultural fields

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

7
 d.
Questions: Observe and comment on image d:
d. Stadium, courts for various sports.
e. Identify the indoor stadium in image.

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

8
Size: This property depends on the scale and resolution of the image/photo.

a b

Questions:
Observe and comment on:
1. In image chips a, b & c identify which has residential, industrial and institutional buildings.
2. Comment on the size of the buildings and how it helped you to categorize building types.

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

9
AWiFS FCC – 56 m

LISS-III- FCC – 24 m

LISS-IV FCC – 5.8m

Observe and comment on:

3. Comment on the effect of spatial resolution and the effect it has on interpretation of details.

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

10
Shadow: Indicates the outline of an object on the ground and its length which is useful is estimating
its height.

Observe and comment on:

Comment on the length of structures with the help of the shadow.

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

11
Association: Occurrence of features in relation to other features.

Question:
The screen print depicts an industrial area:
a. What are the features marked in yellow boxes?
b. How are they associated with industrial set up.

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

12
a. Images of Himalayas and Northern Indian Plain by IRS Satellite.

Question.
Identify the changes in both image chips and identify pre and post monsoon images in giving logical
reasons.

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

13
b. True colour Composite IKONOS fused data

Question.
Identify the changes in both image chips and identify pre and post monsoon images in giving logical
reasons.

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

14
1.2 Concept of visual image interpretation using RS data.

Objective:
• Familiarisation with different Remote Sensing data products in terms of differences in spatial,
spectral, temporal characteristics
• Study and understanding of various land use/cover features based on image characteristics.
• Interpretation of relevant information from RS images.

360 m 180 m
1 km

72 m 56 m 36 m

23.5 m 5.8 m >1 m

Questions:
1. Name the Indian sensors which provide data these spatial resolutions.
2. In which spectral bands does each one of them operate.

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

15
 3. Comment on the effect of spatial resolution and the effect it has on interpretation of details.

AWiFS FCC – 56 m

LISS-III- FCC – 24 m
LISS-III- FCC – 24 m

LISS-IV FCC – 5.8m

Comments:

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

16
4. Which box will correspond to area covered by
a. AWiFS -
b. LISS III -
c. PAN -

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

17
Cartosat & LISS IV data on BHUVAN
5. What are the changes observed in the area marked. Compare the features marked in the satellite
data with respect to tone.

May 2011

March 2012

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18
CHANDIGARH & ENVIRONS –NOTHERN INDIA

LISS – I (72 m) LISS – II (36 m)

LISS – III (23 m) PAN DATA (2.5 m)

6. With reference to above images, answer the following questions:

a. List out the land cover class that you feel can be visually interpreted from the four images.
b. Compare the data in terms of interpretable information with reference to spatial and spectral
content.

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

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Resourcesat –I LISS –III Image: Part of Hyderabad City

7. Interpret and mark the following features:

a. Airports.
b. How many airports are visible in the given image.
c. What are the features marked in yellow?
d. Name the object marked in blue.
e. What is the tone of the urban area
f. What is the spatial resolution of this data?
g. What are the spectral ranges of the dataset

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

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 LISS III image - Asan Barrage & surroundings

8. Questions:
a. Identify the features marked a – h.
b. Mention the elements of interpretation that helped you identify the feature.
c. Complete the following table:

# Landcover/ Tone Texture Pattern Shape Size Association

use feature

REMOTE SENSING VISUAL INTERPRETATION

21
 Exercise 2
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
2.1 Introduction:
QGIS is a free, open-source Geographic Information System (GIS) software used for viewing, editing,
and analyzing geospatial data. It allows for the creation and styling of maps, the processing of
geographic data, the analysis of spatial information, and the creation of interactive maps. It is available
for a variety of platforms, such as Windows, Mac, and Linux, and can be used for a range of tasks, from
basic data visualisation to advanced data analysis. This exercise provides a way to get brief hands-on
on QGIS starting from digitisation to adding existing data, querying and finally visualising the map
through making a map layout.

2.2 Digitisation

2.2.1 Data & Software/Tools

Image: Download any satellite image from Bhuvan ([Link]
[Link]/data/download/[Link]) or earthexplorer ([Link]

QGIS: Digitizer toolbar, Advance digitizer toolbar and QuickMapServices plugin

Plugin installation steps can be followed from the link
[Link]

2.2.2 Part 1: Steps for creating data

Adding Data to Canvas
• Add raster data layer which will be used for digitization.
• From the main menu choose Layer → Add Layer → Add Raster Layer. It open up a new pop up
window, now browse to the satellite image and click Add. (Figure 1 & Figure 2)

Figure 1

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22
 Figure 2

Optional step:
• If dataset is larger, then while zooming in or out you can notice that it takes some time to
render the data. The simple solution to this problem is creation of pyramid layers. QGIS creates
pre-rendered tiles at different resolutions, and these are presented to you instead of the full
raster. This makes map navigation snappy and responsive.

• Right-click on the raster layer which you have opened earlier and choose Properties →
Pyramids. Now select all the resolutions available in the Resolution panel then click on Build
Pyramids. Click ok after process is finished (Figure 3).

Figure 3

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

23
Part 1

Tasks
Create point shapefile
Task 1: Create a point layer of location of interest
Create line shapefile
Task 2: Create a shapefile of linear features like road, river with attribute fields like Name,
Type, and Length etc.
Create polygon shapefile
Task 3: Create a shapefile of polygon features representing land use/ land cover classes
with attribute fields like Type, Perimeter, Area etc.

Note: Data can be stored in any existing shapefile (with matching geometry) or new shapefile can
be used.

Steps to Perform Task 1: Creating new shapefile.

• From the main menu, choose Layer → Create Layer → New Shapefile Layer. Clicking on New
Shapefile Layer will open a new dialogue (Figure 4, Figure 5); choose the desired Geometry type
(point, line and polygon).
• Choose the suitable coordinate reference system (CRS) using button, preferably EPSG: 4326,
WGS 84.
• Additionally, while creating a GIS layer, you may decide on the attributes that each feature will
have.

Figure 4

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

24
 Figure 5
To add attribute fields:
• Enter Name of the field and select the data type (Text data, Decimal number, Whole number,
Date). Also enter the desired Length and Precision of the field.
• Click on Add to Fields List.
• Once all the fields are added, click OK to make new shapefile. The empty layer will be
automatically loaded in canvas and listed under layers panel.

• To add attribute fields in existing shapefile:

• Open attribute table of the shapefile and start editing.
• Click on to add new field, enter desired details and click OK to add field to attribute table
and save edits.

Adding New Features:

• Once the layer is loaded, click on icon to enable editing mode. (Alternate: Right click over the
‘layer name’ under layer panel and click on Toggle Editing.)

• To add some feature, click on button, this will change the cursor type. In addition, click over
the location of interest to add point; this will open a dialogue to enter attribute values (
• ). Fill the attribute values and click OK.

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

25
 Figure 6
Note: If feature is not properly visible on the map, change symbol type, colour, size.
Repeat the above step until all the desired points are created. once finished do not forget to stop

editing for the layer. Editing can be stopped by clicking icon. (Alternate: Right click over the ‘layer
name’ under layer panel and click on Toggle Editing.)
Tip: Keep saving the edited layer frequently.

Steps to Perform Task 2: Create Line Shapefile

• Create a new shapefile named “linear” as described in task 2. (Steps are similar as of Task 1)
• Adding New Features

• Once the layer is loaded, click on icon to enable editing mode. (Alternate: Right click over the
‘layer name’ under layer panel and click on Toggle Editing.)

• To add some feature, click on button, this will change the cursor type. Start tracing the feature
via mouse click in the map and ‘right click’ where you want to end. This will open a dialogue to
enter attribute values (Figure 7). Fill the attribute values except length and click OK.

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

26
 Figure 7
Note: If feature is not properly visible on the map, change symbol type, color, size.

Question: How did you change the symbol?

Repeat the above step until all the desired features are created, once finished do not forget to stop

editing for the layer. Editing can be stopped by clicking icon. (Alternate: Right click over the ‘layer
name’ under layer panel and click on Toggle Editing.)

Steps to Perform Task 3: Create Polygon Shapefile

Create a new shapefile named “lulc” as described in task 3. (Steps are similar as of Task 1)

Adding New Features

• Once the layer is loaded, click on icon to enable editing mode. (Alternate: Right click over the
‘layer name’ under layer panel and click on Toggle Editing)

• To add some feature, click on button, this will change the cursor type. Start tracing the feature
via mouse click in the map and ‘right click’ where you want to end. This will open a dialogue to
enter attribute values (Figure 8). Fill the attribute values except Perimeter & Area and click OK.

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

27
 Figure 8

2.2.3 Part 2: Adding existing data

1. Download and install the “Latest release standalone installer” QGIS from [Link]

2. Download the District boundaries of India from

[Link]
[Link] (These are not the authentic district boundaries of India. This is a toy dataset)

3. Open QGIS and drag and drop the india_district.json file that you downloaded in step 2. We
have added our first vector data in QGIS! Make sure you know where the file was downloaded.

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

28
 Figure 9

i Querying data
1. Right click on the “india_district” layer name and click on “Open Attribute Table”. You can see the
attributes for each district of India.

2. Click on the icon, which looks like the summation sign. When you hover your mouse over it, it says,
“Select features using an expression”. It will pop up another box, which is titled “india_district - Select
by Expression”.

3. Type this query (in red color) in the Expression box: "district" = 'Tehri Garhwal' . You may see the name
of your own district and search for that instead for e.g., "district" = 'Dehradun'. Click on the “Select
features” button. (In case you see more than 1 district selected, open the attribute table, Show
selected features, press Ctrl and click on the unwanted rows. This will unselect the unwanted rows,
and you will be left with the selection of the required district)

4. Close the “Select by Expression” window, and click on the button, which looks like the magnifying glass.
When you hover your mouse over it, it says, “Zoom map to the selected rows”. You will see that QGIS
will zoom in to your district.

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

29
 Figure 10

5. Let us save your district as a separate file. Close the attribute table. Right click on the layer name, goto
Export - Save selected features as … Set the following options:
a. Format: ESRI Shapefile
b. File name: Click on the browse button (button with 3 dots) and give a name to the output file,
let’s say “bilaspur”. Click on Save.
c. Click on OK button.

6. You have created your first GIS vector data! Remove the india_district file. Right click on the layer name
india_district and click on “Remove layer”. Click OK on the confirmation box.

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS - PRACTICALS

30
 Figure 11

ii. Changing the visualization.

10. Ensure that you are seeing the layer styling panel. If not, the go to View - Panels - Layer Styling. Let us
show the district as an inverted fill (you will see in next section why we chose this symbology).

11. Click on the dropdown, which says “Single symbol”. Select the option “Inverted polygons” and change
the color to white.

Figure 12

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

31
 iii. Add Raster Data
12. Next, let us add some land use land cover data. Usually, we can download such files from ISRO’s Bhuvan
portal. However, this time let us explore something very new - a WMS layer! WMS layers are image,
which are streamed on the internet. Make sure you have a good internet connection to do this part.

13. Click on Layer - Add WMS/WMTS layer. Click on New. Type the following details:
a. Name: Bhuvan LULC
b. URL: [Link]

14. Click on OK and then click on Connect. In the search box, type “UK_LULC” (for Uttarakhand LULC) and
select the latest one “lulc:LULC50K_1516_NEW” (as on March 2023). Click on Add and close the box.

Figure 13

Figure 14

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15. You have added a WMS rater layer! This is from the ISRO’s LULC programme. You may need to
rearrange the layers. Drag and drop the Sentinel layer below the Tehri Garhwal district boundary layer.
You see just the satellite image of your district!
16. Let us show the name of the district. Left click on the layer name, in the layer styling panel, click the
icon which says “abc”, when you hover you mouse over it, it says “Labels”. In the value dropdown,
ensure “district” is selected. Click on the tab (hover says) “Buffer” and put tick on the checkbox for
“Draw text buffer”.

iv. Input data from a text file

17. Save the coordinates of your college in a text file as shown below.

Figure 15

18. In QGIS, click on Layer - Add layer - Add delimited text layer.
19. Click on the browse button, select the text file (point), and set the following options:
a. Custom delimiter: Comma
b. First record has field names.
c. Point coordinates (X field = Longitude; Y filed = Latitude) 20. Click on Add and close.

20. Customize the labels to look like shown below.

Figure 16

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33
 v. Making the map
22. Click on Project - New Print Layout. Click ok on confirmation box.
23. Click on Add item and add map. Drag the area where you want the map to be.
24. Add other map elements such as title, legend, scale, grids etc.
25. Export the map to pdf or jpeg.

Figure 17

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 Figure 18

Figure 19

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35
On completion of this exercise, the learners will be able to:
• Know the basic functionalities of QGIS operations like Adding new data to QGIS canvas,
• Digitisation and creating vector data,
• Performing queries,
• Create a map in GIS environment for visualisation.

Having knowledge of such operations is essential for anyone working/ planning to work in the direction
of satellite data processing.

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 Exercise 3
DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
3.1 Key Stages in Digital Image Processing

Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain & Description

Colour Image Image

Processing Compression

3.2 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Colou
rs

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3.3 Image Acquisition
Images are typically generated by illuminating a scene and absorbing the energy reflected by the
objects in that scene.
Typical notions of illumination and scene can be way off:
• X-rays of a skeleton
• Remote sensing images
• Electro-microscopic images of molecules

Image Sensing:
• Incoming energy lands on a sensor material responsive to that type of energy and this generates
a voltage.
• Collections of sensors are arranged to capture images.

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 Imaging Sensor:
Line of Image Sensor

Array of Image Sensor

Image Sampling and Quantisation

• A digital sensor can only measure a limited number of samples at a discrete set of energy levels
• Quantisation is the process of converting a continuous analogue signal into a digital representation of
this signal.

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Resampling Problem:
Knowing image intensities at discrete (x,y),
determine the intensity at an arbitrary (X,Y).
Approach:
Fit a surface to the discrete
points and estimate the
surface value at (X,Y).

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 N
N

BILINE
AR

CUBI
C

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Sync function = sin(x)/x

Image Representation
origin

0 1 2 3 …………………………………………………………………………...... N-1 columns

0
x
1

. 200
.

. 23

.
7
.

M-1

100

y f(x,y)
One picture element (pixel)
rows
F(col, row)
• Image is represented as a numeric object
• A matrix with value range dictated by analogue to digital conversion
• Has a chosen origin of the coordinate system
• Value of the cell is represented by a function of position in 2D or more dimensions.

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IMAGE HISTOGRAM
Study the range, peaks and shape of the envelope of the individual Band data histograms

We can manipulate histograms for enhancing the visual quality of the image.

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Point Processing: Thresholding
Thresholding transformations are particularly useful for segmentation in which we want to isolate an
object of interest from a background.

1 r > threshold
s=
0 r <= threshold

Image Low threshold High threshold

Image Enhancement
Original images could occupy a narrow dynamic range, we have to enhance for better viewing. Use
histogram, its range, cumulative histogram, desired range, and a mapping function.

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The Spatial Filtering Process

e = v*e +
processed
r*a + s*b + t*c +
u*d + w*f +
x*g + y*h + z*i

The above is repeated for every pixel in the original image to generate the filtered image.

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Correlation & Convolution
• The filtering is referred to as correlation.
• Convolution is a similar operation, with just one subtle difference

e = v*e +
processed
z*a + y*b + x*c +
w*d + u*e +
t*f + s*g + r*h

• For symmetric filters it makes no difference (180-degree flip)

Smoothing Gaussian filter

sigma=2.0 sigma=4.0
sigma=1.0

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Image Denoising using Median Filter

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Different Image Filters

Image Gradients: Sobel Operators

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 To filter an image, it is filtered using both operators the results of which are added together.

(a) Magnitude Only Reconstruction, (b) Phase Only Reconstruction and (c) Magnitude and Phase
Reconstruction

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Color Transformations - RGB and HIS

Used for Image Fusion

Principal Components Analysis

• Compute a set of new, transformed variables (components), with each component largely
independent of the others (uncorrelated).
• The components represent a set of mutually orthogonal and independent axes in a n-dimensional
space.
• The first new axis contains the highest percentage of the total variance or scatter in the data set.
• Each succeeding (lower order) axis containing less variance.

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Principal Component Analysis

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Image segmentation

Image Filtered Image

Segmentation by threshold Segmentation by watershed

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Remote sensing Images
Optical remote sensing
A remote sensing instrument collects information about an object or phenomenon within the
instantaneous-field-of-view (IFOV) of the sensor system without being in direct physical suborbital on
tact with it. The sensor is located on a suborbital or satellite platform.

Applications dictate performance requirements.

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Spatial Resolution: Determined by its pixel size -- pixel is the smallest unit measured by a sensor.
Spatial Coverage: The geographical area covered by a satellite.
Radiometric Coverage: brightness levels
Spectral Coverage: observation wavelength, bandwidth, no of bands
Temporal resolution: How frequently a satellite observes the same area of the earth
Temporal Coverage: Time span or life-time of a satellite for which measurements are available.

Spatial Resolution

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EM Spectrum: Spectral Resolution

Spectral Signature
• Reflectance profile over a range of wavelength so-called signature of the target.
• Every earthly feature/study target depicts an unique pattern curve shown (wavelength versus
reflectance).
• Depending upon the surface category (water, vegetation, or soil) and selected spectral bands
varying high and low reflectance happen.

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Optical Data Processing: workflow

Data Products: Levels of Processing

• Level-0: RAW Data Products.
• Level-1: Geometrically corrected/tagged.
• Level-2: Geophysical Parameter Products.
• Level-3: Time composited parameter-based products.

Raw Georeferenced NDVI

Radiometric Correction
• Photo Response non uniformity (PRNU)
• Striping
• Restoration
• Noise
• Atmospheric Correction

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Photo Response Non-Uniformity Correction (PRNU)

EM Radiation

Instrument
Raw Count

Dark bias
correction

Dark corrected

Modeling of the
Pixel Response

Calibration
Coefficients

Gray Value = a * Signal + b

MeanSignal
SNR =
 Signal
High SNR data is always preferred.

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PRNU correction removes artifacts.

RESTORATION - DEBLURRING

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Atmospheric Correction:

AWIFS Reflectance

Apparent Surface

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Geometric Corrections
The raw data acquired from satellite suffers degradations geometrically due to various factors related
to
- platform
- sensor and
- earth geometry

We need to rectify all of them one at a time or together.

• Scan Skew
• Mirror-Scan Velocity
• Panoramic Distortion
• Platform Velocity
• Earth Rotation
• Perspective
• Altitude

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Geometric Correction:
Georeferencing
• Relate the image pixels with geographic coordinates by using geometric models
• Improve location knowledge by using reference data sets.
• Transform (Resample) the acquired and radiometrically data to the required geometry.
• which can be consumed readily by Remote Sensing Users in various image processing
environments including GIS platforms.
• Facilitates multi data overlay, fusion etc.

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FOV, IFOV, GSD & SWATH

IFOV = D/F radians

GSD = HD/F meters
AT Resol = Vg X IT meters
SWATH = GSD X NDet

D – Detector Size
F – Focal Length
AT – Along Track
H – S/C Altitude
Vg - Ground Trace Velocity
IT – Integration Time
GSD – Ground Sample Distance
NDet – No of Detectors

Physical Sensor Model: pinhole geometry, Series of coordinate transformations.

Modelling the whole imaging process consuming camera geometry model, payload to s/c master cube
reference, orbit and attitude data.
• Establish Coordinate systems & transformations.
• Detector to Earth Object Coordinates (Pts A,B,C)
• Solving look point equation with an ellipsoid.
• Conversion of (x,y,z) to geographic coordinates
• Conversion to map projection coordinates.

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Georeferencing radiometrically corrected data

Rational Function Model: Image – Object Relationship Alternate Representation using a dense grid
of points generated by physical model.

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where, Xn , Yn and Zn is the homogeneous coordinate of a 3D point, x and y is the corresponding image
point, and pa, pb, pc and pd are homogeneous polynomials of degree m.

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MAP PROJECTION
3D earth portions are portrayed in 2D using. Map is a Standard Reference

3D GLOBE MODEL

2D MAP OBTAINED BY CUTTING & STRIGHTENING ABOVE

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Map Projection Parameters

Image Registration

Image registration is the process of overlaying two or more images that represent the same
geographical area such that the corresponding pixels in all the set of images that are registered belong
to the same parcel on the ground.
The feature space extracts the information in the images that will be used for matching.
The search space is the class of transformations that is capable of aligning the images.

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The search strategy decides how to choose the next transformation from this space, to be tested in
the search for the optimal transformation.
The similarity metric determines the relative merit for each test. Search continues according to the
search strategy until a transformation is found whose similarity measure is satisfactory.

Registration methods can be viewed as different combinations of choices for the following four
components:
1. a feature space,
2. a search space,
3. a search strategy, and
4. a similarity metric.

Image Classification
• Compute statistics of known pixels and predict for other pixels.
• Generally, if you do not have training sets, you can’t label the classes.
• Experienced user may be able to label using other information available or derived.

What is image classification or pattern recognition.

Is a process of classifying multispectral (hyperspectral) images into patterns of varying gray or
assigned colors that represent either
• Clusters of statistically different set of multiband data, some of which can be correlated with
separable classes/features/materials. This is the result of unsupervised classification or

• Numerical discriminators composed of these sets of data that has been grouped and specified
by associating each with a particular class, etc. whose identity is known independently and
which has representative areas (training sites) within the image where that class is located.
This is the result of Supervised classification.

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Spectral Classes are those that are inherent in the remote sensing data and must be identified and
labeled by the analyst.

Information classes are those users define,

Supervised vs. Unsupervised Approaches

a. Unsupervised - statistical "clustering" algorithms used to select spectral classes
inherent to the data, more computer-automated Posterior Decision

b. Supervised - image analyst "supervises" the selection of spectral classes that represent
patterns or land cover features that the analyst can recognize Prior Decision

Training Sets
• # of pixels - want to statistically characterize the spectral properties of an informational class
• (i.e. forest, crop, water), should have >= 100 pixels total for an informational class
• location - geographically dispersed, boundaries away from edge/mixed pixels number of areas
- depends on number of information categories, 10 at a minimum, enough for accuracy
assessment and incorporation of spectral subclasses uniformity - unimodal distributions, use
training areas to characterize mean, variance,
covariances - sometimes not easy due to spectral variation present

Statistical classifier methods

• Minimum distance to means algorithm: uses the central values (means) of the spectral data
clusters (defined by training data) to assign pixels to information categories.

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 • Parallelepiped algorithm: uses ranges of pixel values within the training data to define
classification regions in multivariate space; one of the earliest classification algorithms
developed.
• Maximum likelihood algorithm estimates the means and variances of information classes
defined by training data to estimate probabilities for each pixel in an image, most commonly
used method takes into account the shape of the cluster distribution, as well as overlapping
regions, requires normal distributions.

There are several other methods such as rule based, ISO/K-Means clustering, Random Forest,
Deep Learning based to explore and compare.
Minimum distance to means algorithm.

Parallelepiped algorithm

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Maximum Likelihood Classifier
Based on a normalized (Gaussian) estimate of the probability density function of each class.
Quantitatively evaluates both variance and covariance of the category spectral response patterns while
classifying an unknown pixel.

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Class statistics/separable measures

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71
Classification accuracy

Producer’s Accuracy of class i:

Xii/X+i = (1 – error of omission)
User’s Accuracy of class i
Xii/Xi+ = (1 – error of commission)
Mapping Accuracy of class i = xii / (Xi+ + x+i – Xii)
=(1 – error of commission – error of omission)
Overall Accuracy: It is a measure of joint accuracy of all the classes taken together.
Kappa coefficient: It is a measure of joint accuracy of all the classes taken together. It is similar to
overall accuracy after deducting the effects of chance agreement.

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Deep Learning Based Classification

Accuracy (Spectral + Spatial): 98.85 %

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 Exercise 4
GEOPORTALS AND DATA DISSEMINATIONS
4.1 Introduction
In the modern era of data-driven decision-making and technological advancements, geospatial
information has become increasingly vital for citizen services, planning and governance activities.
Geoportals and online geodata repositories have emerged as powerful tools that facilitate the
discovery, access, and utilization of geospatial data. These platforms provide centralized access to a
vast array of geospatial datasets, enabling users to explore, analyze, and leverage geospatial
information for a wide range of applications. Geoportals serve as gateways to geospatial data and
related services. They act as online platforms or web portals that aggregate, organize, and present
geospatial data from multiple sources in a user-friendly and accessible manner. Geoportals may be
developed by governmental bodies, research institutions, private organizations, or a combination
thereof. They serve as a hub for geospatial data and typically offer a range of functionalities such as
data searching, visualization, and data download services etc. One of the primary benefits of
geoportals is their ability to provide users with a single point of access to diverse geospatial datasets
and services. These datasets can include satellite imagery, aerial photography, digital elevation models,
land cover maps, weather data, demographic information, and much more. By offering a centralized
repository of geospatial data, geoportals simplify the process of data discovery and retrieval, saving
valuable time and effort for individuals and organizations working with geospatial information.

Online geodata repositories, on the other hand, are specialized platforms that focus on hosting and
managing geospatial datasets. These repositories serve as online storage facilities, where users can
upload, store, and share their geospatial data with others. They provide a scalable infrastructure to
accommodate large volumes of geospatial data, ensuring its availability and accessibility to a wide
range of users. The key advantage of online geodata repositories is their ability to promote data sharing
and collaboration within the geospatial community. Researchers, scientists, government agencies, and
businesses can upload their datasets to these repositories, making them openly available for others to
access and utilize. This fosters innovation, encourages interdisciplinary collaborations, and allows for
the integration of different datasets to derive meaningful insights. Geoportals and online geodata
repositories play a crucial role in supporting various sectors, including urban planning, environmental
management, agriculture, natural resource exploration, disaster response, and many others. These
platforms enable users to leverage geospatial data for informed decision-making, policy development,
research, and development of applications and services.

In this hand-on exercise, we will learn about popular geoportals and online geo-data repositories with
special emphasis on ISRO Geoportals. The Graphical User Interface (GUI) and URLs of the presented
geo-portals are expected to change over the time due to advancements in computer systems,
technologies and services offered by the host organizations. The learners are advised to keep on
checking the latest version & URL of these geoportal for better understanding and knowledge.

Following popular geoportal expected to be explored by the learners:

1. Google Map
2. Open street Maps
3. NASA Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS)
4. Bing Map

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 5. USGS EarthExplorer
6. ISRO Bhuvan
7. ISRO MOSDAC
8. ISRO VEDAS
9. NIC Bharat Maps
10. India WRIS
11. ArcGIS online

4.2 Google Maps

Google Maps is a widely recognized and extensively used mapping and navigation platform developed
by Google. It offers a comprehensive set of features that allow users to explore the world, plan routes,
and find local businesses and points of interest. With its accurate and up-to-date mapping data, real-
time traffic information, street-level imagery, and integration with various transportation options,
Google Maps provides users with a versatile tool for navigating and getting around in different modes
of transportation. Moreover, Google Maps Application Programming Interface (API)allows developers
to incorporate mapping and geolocation capabilities into their own applications. The Google Maps API
provides developers with a robust set of tools and resources to integrate mapping and geolocation
capabilities into their own applications, ranging from navigation apps to on-demand services and asset
tracking systems. This versatility has contributed to the widespread adoption and integration of Google
Maps into countless digital products and services.
4.2.1 Exercise
Step 1- Visit URL- [Link]
Step 2- Explore Different Geo-visualization tools and applications (Figure 1)

A B

C D

Figure 1- Geo-visualization tools and applications in google maps

A- Map visualization at Global, Regional, National, State, City & Street

B- Switch of Satellite view and explore services and amenities around the city.
C- Zoom up to building/street level.
D- Further zoom to street level and explore the street view.
Search the place of interest and also explore the feature “Direction” for routing purpose. You can see
the route with various option. Explore live traffic status and also understand the calculation of time to
reach from one place to another.

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 Step 3- Accessing google maps in QGIS. First open QGIS and add XYZ Tiles to QGIS
Now that we have the links to the tiled maps sources we need to add them to QGIS as XYZ tiles. This
is easy to do and is explained by the directions below.
1. Navigate to the QGIS Browser panel and find the XYZ tiles section. OpenSteetMap is the only default
entry.

2. Right-click on ‘XYZ Tiles’ and select ‘New Connection’. This will open a new window to enter the
connection details.

3. In the new window enter a name for the new connection and provide the URL to the tiled map service
(from the table below), then click OK. In this example I’ve added the URL for Google Satellite.

4. You will now see that the new connection has been added under XYZ tiles.

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5. Add the basemap to your project by dragging it from the Browser Panel into the map area or adding it
from the QGIS Data Source Manager.

6. Now you can pan, zoom, and navigate the map like any other layer.
Table 1- URLS for accessing google map services in QGIS

Product URL

Google Maps [Link]

Google Satellite [Link]

Google Satellite Hybrid [Link]

Google Terrain [Link]

Google Roads [Link]

Step 4- Accessing google map APIs. If you are software develop, you can also explore google map APIs
for your software applications by accessing following URL-
[Link]

4.3 Open street Maps (OSM)

OpenStreetMap (OSM) is a crowd-sourced and open-source mapping project that has gained global
recognition and popularity. With a collaborative community of contributors worldwide, OSM provides
free and editable geospatial data that can be accessed, used, and enhanced by anyone. The platform

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allows users to view, edit, and contribute to the mapping of roads, buildings, landmarks, and various
points of interest. OSM has become a valuable resource for individuals, businesses, and organizations
seeking accurate and up-to-date mapping information, promoting open data principles and fostering
a spirit of community-driven mapping around the world.
4.3.1 Exercise
Step 1- Visit URL- [Link]

Figure 2- Geo-visualization tools and applications in Openstreet maps

Step 2- Explore Different Geo-visualization tools and applications (Figure 2)

a. Map visualization at Global, Regional, National, State, City & Street

b. Zoom to area of interest or search for a place e.g. Dehradun.
c. Zoom to best map scale and explore the locality.
d. Expand map layer (right side) and export the data at map extents level as .osm. The .osm file
is axml document which can exported as GIS layer (.shp file) using GIS software such as QGIS.

Figure 3- Accessing. OSM file in QGIS

A. Open QGIS and Click on “Add Layer” -> “Vector Layer”.
B. Browse for. osm file.

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 C. Load file and select the option “Select All”. Point, Line and Polygon Layers will be loaded in
QGIS.
D. Right click on Layer name and select “Zoom to Layer”.

Explore different options by right click on Layer name. You can see all the attribute, edit it and further
save as .shp file.
Step 3- Understanding Openstreet Map editing feature.
Create your account in the website and login. Now click on “Edit” button shown on upper left to your
web browser screen.

Explore different Map editing feature for existing object. Also explore creating new point, line and
polygon with its attribute editing.

Step 4- Downloading Openstreet Map data from Cloud.

You can download OSM data as GIS shape file from following website- [Link]

4.4 NASA Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS)
The Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS) is a comprehensive and cutting-
edge geoportal operated by NASA. It serves as a centralized repository for a vast collection of Earth
science data and information, encompassing a wide range of disciplines such as atmospheric science,
oceanography, climate studies, and land cover analysis. EOSDIS enables scientists, researchers, and the
public to access, explore, and analyze data from NASA's Earth observation missions, including satellites
like Terra, Aqua, and the recently launched Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich. With its user-friendly interface

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and powerful data processing capabilities, EOSDIS plays a crucial role in advancing our understanding
of Earth's processes, supporting climate research, and facilitating informed decision-making for
environmental management and policy development.
4.4.1 Exercise
Visit website- [Link] and all the maps available under different
themes as shown below.

4.5 Bing Map

Bing Maps is a widely used mapping and geolocation platform developed by Microsoft. Offering a range
of features and services, Bing Maps allows users to explore and navigate the world with ease. The
platform provides detailed maps, satellite imagery, and street-level views, enabling users to visualize
locations from different perspectives. Bing Maps also offers robust routing and directions functionality,
allowing users to plan and optimize their routes for various modes of transportation. Additionally, Bing
Maps integrates with other Microsoft services, such as Bing Search and Microsoft Office, enhancing its
versatility and usability across different applications. With its comprehensive mapping data, intuitive
interface, and integration with Microsoft's ecosystem, Bing Maps has become a popular choice for
individuals, businesses, and developers seeking reliable mapping and geolocation services. Bing APIs
are considered as one of powerful APIs for Web GIS applications.

4.5.1 Exercise
Accessing Bing Map in QGIS. Bing Map APIs can be accessed in QGIS for map visualization and other
mapping applications.
STEPS-
• In the Browser panel, click on the “XYZ Tiles” button.
• In the XYZ Tiles window, click on the “New Connection” button.
• In the “New XYZ Connection” window, enter the following:
• Name: Bing Maps Satellite Imagery
• URL : [Link]
• Click “OK” to save the connection.
• In the XYZ Tiles window, select “Bing Maps Satellite Imagery” from the list of connections.
• Click “Add” to add the “Bing Maps Satellite Imagery” basemap to your project.

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The basemap will appear in the Layers panel. You can adjust the opacity and style of the basemap as
needed.

4.6 USGS EarthExplorer

USGS EarthExplorer is a widely used geoportal operated by the United States Geological Survey (USGS).
It serves as a valuable resource for accessing and downloading a vast collection of geospatial data and
imagery. EarthExplorer offers a wide range of datasets, including satellite imagery, aerial photography,
digital elevation models, and land cover data. With its intuitive search interface and advanced filtering
options, users can easily discover and retrieve the specific geospatial data they need. EarthExplorer
supports various applications, including environmental monitoring, land management, and research.
The platform's extensive data archive, user-friendly interface, and powerful search capabilities make it
a go-to resource for accessing high-quality geospatial data for entire globe. URL-
[Link]

4.6.1 Exercise
The USGS Earth Explorer interface uses Google Maps. To download satellite imagery from USGS, first
an account needs to be created. In the top-right corner, click the Login button and then Create new
account and follow the instructions to activate the account.

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The satellite data can be downloaded from USGS by following the 4 steps stated below:
Step 1: Define the Study Area and Search Criteria.
• Users can double-click the browser to create regions of interest. Users can follow other
alternative methods as well to define the study area such as using an address to search or by
importing a shapefile (in a zip file) or KML.
• To define the study area using shapefile, click on shapefile tab in the search criteria and select
the zip file having the shapefile and other associated files. Similarly, KML/KMZ file can also be
uploaded.
• At the bottom of the search criteria window, select a range of dates for which the satellite data
is required.
• The satellite data scenes can also be filtered for the cloud cover by selecting the Cloud Cover
option on the right side of the Date Range. This options asks to set the minimum percent of
cloud cover required to filter the images.

Step 2: Select data to download in the “Data Sets” tab

The USGS Earth Explorer provides various remote sensing datasets such as aerial imagery, AVHRR,
commercial imagery, digital elevation models, Landsat, LiDAR, MODIS, Radar, and more. User can
search for the required dataset in the Data Set Search bar or can click on the drop down of different
categories.
For Landsat collection, the data can be found in the Landsat archive drop down. Follow the drop down
as:
Landsat > Landsat Collection 2 Level-2 > Landsat 8-9 OLI/TIRS C2 L2
Now that the study area has been identified in step 1, the checkbox in the Landsat Archive category,
for Landsat 8-9 OLI/TIRS C2 L2 can be selected to browse the data for Landsat 8 or 9.

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Step 3: Filter the data in the “Additional Criteria” tab
Next select the Additional Criteria tab. Here, the data can be filtered by Satellite Product Identifier,
Scene Identifier, WRS Path and row, Image Quality etc. this is an optional step. If no particular criteria
are needed to be set, then satellite imagery can be downloaded in the next step.

Step 4: View Results & Select Data to Order / Download

Now as study area, date range, type of data, and additional criteria have been defined, the search
Results tab will populate with data sets that match the query. In the Results tab, all of the scenes
available for the required parameters from the website will be listed. Here, specific imagery can be
selected for downloading. The footprint for the scene can be checked by clicking on the icons below
the scene to see exactly where that scene is located.

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The data scene can also be previewed to check for the image quality, coverage and where clouds are
in the image. The scene can be downloaded by clicking on the “Download option” icon.

Then finally, click on Download all files now to download the selected scene.

4.7 ISRO Bhuvan

Bhuvan (the name is derived from the Sanskrit word which means Earth), a Geoportal of ISRO and
Gateway to Indian Earth Observation Data Products and Services ([Link] or
[Link]), is an initiative of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Department of
Space, Government of India, to evince the Indian Earth Observation capabilities from the Indian
Remote Sensing (IRS) series of satellites. Buvan is hosted at National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC)
Hyderabad India. The satellite images showcased on Bhuvan are from Multi-sensor, Multi-platform and
Multi-temporal domains with capabilities to overlay thematic information, derived from such satellite
imageries, as vector layers on virtual globe for the benefit of user community. Apart from its unique
visualization capabilities, Bhuvan also facilitates the users to download the satellite data and products
through its Open EO Data Archive (NOEDA).

4.7.1 Exercise
Browse and access ISRO Bhuvan web portal using URL- [Link] . Explore following
components.

S. No. Component Description & Exercise

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Visualization & Free Download

1 Bhuvan 2D Two dimensional Map visualization service.

• Step 1- Explore Maps (Base admin & hydrology), Satellite, Hybrid and
terrain options.

• Step 2- Search the place of interest (top left screen) and zoom to city
level.
• Step 3- Click on “Date icon” (first icon of top right screen) and
understand the time stamping on satellite imageries.
• Step 4- Explore “Tool” option and experiment with different features.

Bhuvan 3D Three dimensional Map visualization service

Step 1- Open and Explore Bhuvan 3D mapping service

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 Step 2- Zoom to area of Interest and use scroll button of your mouse to
tilt the map. Explore “Tools” option and understand the feature “terrain
profile”.

Bhuvan Lite Light weight web application for map visualization and navigation
services.
Step 1- Explore Bhuvan lite for Map visualization and navigation
services. For navigation purpose, the MapMyIndia APIs are integrated.

Open Data Archive Allows download of free satellite data and products of specified period
and resolution.
Step 1- Explore the Open data archive and access data download
service. Selecting area of Interest using interactive drawing is shown
below:

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 Step 2- Create your account in the portal and download the data in .zip
file

Explore following services from ISRO Bhuvan portal:

1. Application sector- The governance applications in different thematic domain are available under
this component.
2. Maps & OGC Services- The thematic maps specially generated under ISRO NR-Census programme
are available as map visualization and Web Mapping Services (WMS). The services from ISRO
Disaster Management Support programme for natural Disaster is also available.
3. Bhuvan Central Services- Explore different special mapping services for central and state
governments in India.

More Demonstrations are available in following links:

ISRO Bhuvan in Hindi- [Link]
ISRO Bhuvan in English- [Link]

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4.8 ISRO MOSDAC
ISRO MOSDAC (Meteorological and Oceanographic Satellite Data Archival Centre) is a specialized
center operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It serves as a dedicated facility for
the archival and dissemination of meteorological and oceanographic satellite data. MOSDAC provides
access to a wide range of satellite data products, including imagery, atmospheric parameters, sea
surface temperature, and ocean color data. These datasets are vital for weather forecasting, climate
studies, and oceanographic research. MOSDAC plays a crucial role in facilitating data access, analysis,
and utilization by scientists, researchers, and operational weather agencies across India, contributing
to improved understanding and prediction of weather and oceanographic phenomena in the region.

4.8.1 Exercise
Step 1- Visit URL- [Link] and explore different map visualization and data
download services available in the website.

Step 2- Watch the video session on ISRO MOSDAC web portal and learn the different features available
for the users.
Video link- [Link]

4.9 ISRO VEDAS

ISRO VEDAS (Visualization of Earth observation Data and Archival System) is an innovative platform
developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to provide access to Earth observation
data and services. VEDAS combines advanced visualization techniques and data analytics to offer users
a comprehensive and interactive experience in exploring and analyzing satellite imagery and geospatial
data. It enables users to visualize multi-temporal and multi-sensor data, perform change detection
analysis, and generate custom thematic maps. VEDAS aims to empower researchers, policymakers,
and decision-makers with a user-friendly interface and powerful tools to harness the full potential of
Earth observation data for monitoring and managing natural resources, land cover, and environmental
changes in India.

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4.9.1 Exercise
Step 1- Visit URL- [Link] and explore different map visualization and data download
services available in the website.

Step 2- Watch the video session on ISRO VEDAS web portal and learn the different features available
for the users.
Video link- [Link]

4.10 NIC Bharat Maps

Digital India aims to establish end to end geo-spatial electronics delivery systems as part of Mission
Mode Projects in e-Governance domain and envisages "National GIS Mission" as core foundation of
location based Electronic Delivery of Services for Planning & Governance. NIC/DeitY has created Multi-
Layer GIS Platform named "Bharat Maps" which depicts core foundation data as "NICMAPS", an
integrated base map service using 1: 50,000 scale reference data from Survey of India, ISRO, FSI, RGI
and so on. This encompass 23 layers containing administrative boundaries, transport layers such as
roads & railways, forest layer, settlement locations etc., including terrain map services.

4.10.1 Exercise
Step 1- Visit URL- [Link] and explore different map visualization and data
download services available in the website.

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4.11 ArcGIS Online
ArcGIS Online is a powerful and widely used cloud-based geospatial platform developed by Esri. It
provides a comprehensive suite of tools and capabilities for creating, sharing, and analyzing geographic
data and maps. ArcGIS Online allows users to access a vast collection of authoritative spatial data,
create custom maps and applications, collaborate with others, and publish their work for wider
dissemination. With its intuitive interface and robust functionality, ArcGIS Online caters to a broad
range of users, including individuals, businesses, and government organizations, enabling them to
make informed decisions, solve complex spatial problems, and communicate geospatial information
effectively. The platform's scalability, versatility, and extensive integration options make it a leading
choice for geospatial professionals seeking a comprehensive solution for their mapping and analysis
needs.

4.11.1 Exercise
ArcGIS online can be accessed using URL: [Link]
The homepage of ArcGIS online contains an option to Sign in on the top right corner. An account will
be required to download the data from ArcGIS online.

Step 1- To explore the datasets available in the ArcGIS online catalogue, click on Go to Living Atlas.
Living atlas will be opened in a different tab and will show the available datasets by default. User can
either search for a specific dataset by typing the keywords in the search bar. For example, to see the
datasets available for the population in ArcGIS online catalogue, type population in the search bar as
shown in the figure below. The drop down will show all the datasets available related to the population.

The datasets can also be browsed based on different themes such as boundary, people, infrastructure,
environment etc.

Click on the dataset that needs to be downloaded or explored. It will open in different tab and will
show the details and properties of the dataset selected. The attribute table of the data and the layer
visualization can be done by clicking Data and Visualization tabs respectively.

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Step 2- Download the data.
The data can be downloaded by clicking on Open in ArcMap or Open in ArcGIS Pro on the right side
of the page. It will download the ArcGIS Portal item file.

Once the file is downloaded, it can be imported into ArcGIS Desktop, Pro, or other compatible
geospatial software.

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 Exercise 5
OPEN-SOURCE PLATFORMS FOR GEO-DATA
PROCESSING
Google Earth Engine is a geospatial processing service. With Earth Engine, you can perform geospatial
processing at scale, powered by Google Cloud Platform. The purpose of Earth Engine is to provide an
interactive platform for geospatial algorithm development at scale; enable high-impact, data-driven
science; and to make substantive progress on global challenges that involve large geospatial datasets.

Earth Engine can be accessed using JavaScript in the Code Editor and Python locally or using Google
Colab. This document helps you learn Earth Engine using the Code Editor available online and can be
accessed via [Link] You will first need to sign-up for Earth Engine
using your Google account on the link [Link]

5.1 Section 0 - JavaScript Syntax

// Line comments start with two forward slashes. Like this line.

/* Multi line comments start with a forward slash and a star, and end with a star and a forward slash.
*/

Variables are used to store objects, and are defined using the keyword var.
var the_answer = 42;

String objects start and end with a single quote.

var my_variable = 'I am a string';

String objects can also start and end with double quotes.
// But don't mix and match them.
var my_other_variable = "I am also a string";

Statements should end in a semi-colon, or the editor complains.

var test = 'I feel incomplete...'

Parentheses are used to pass parameters to functions.

print('This string will print in the Console tab.');

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Square brackets are used for items in a list. The zero index refers to the first item in the list.
var my_list = ['eggplant', 'apple', 'wheat']; print(my_list[0]);

Curly brackets (or braces) can be used to define dictionaries (key:value pairs).
var my_dict = {'food': 'bread', 'color': 'red', 'number': the_answer};

Square brackets can be used to access dictionary items by key.

print(my_dict['color']);

Or you can use the dot notation to get the same result.
print(my_dict.color);

Functions can be defined as a way to reuse code and make it easier to read.
var my_hello_function = function(string) { return 'Hello ' + string + '!';
};
print(my_hello_function('world'));

5.2 Section 1 - Hello, Images

1. Clear the script by selecting "Clear script" from the Reset button dropdown menu.
2. Search for “alos dem” and click on the ALOS DSM: Global 30m result to show the dataset
description.
3. Click on Import, which moves the variable to the Imports section at the top of your script.
4. Rename the default variable name "image" to be "alos_dem".
5. iAdd the image object to the map with the script:
print(alos_dem);
6. Browse through the information that was printed. Open the “bands” section to show the one
band named “AVE”, which is the “elevation value calculated by average resampling a 5-meter
mesh model”. Let us create a variable “elevation” to contain only this band: var elevation =
alos_dem.select("AVE");
7. Use the [Link]() method to add the image to the interactive map. We will start simple,
without using any of the optional parameters.
[Link](elevation);

8. The displayed map will look pretty flat grey, because the default visualization parameters map
the full 16-bit range of the data onto the black–white range, but the elevation range is much
smaller than that in any particular location. We’ll fix it in a moment.
9. Select the Inspector tab. Then click on a few points on the map to get a feel for the elevation
in this area. Finally, set visualization parameters:
[Link](elevation, {min: 0, max: 5000});

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5.3 Section 2 - Apply a Computation to an Image

1. Pan over to the Kedarnath Region, where there are some dramatic elevation differences.
2. Next add a simple computation, for example a threshold on elevation.
var high = [Link](2000);
[Link](high, {}, 'Above 2000m');
3. Do another computation to compute slope from the elevation data and display it on the map
as a separate layer. Also add a third parameter to the addLayer() method, which names the
layer.
var slope = [Link](elevation);
[Link](slope, {min: 0, max: 60}, 'Slope');
4. Layers added to the map will have default names like "Layer 1", "Layer 2", etc. To improve the
readability, give each layer a human-readable name.
var slope = [Link](elevation);
[Link](elevation, {min: 0, max: 5000}, 'DEM');
[Link](slope, {min: 0, max: 60}, 'Slope');

5.4 Section 3 - Apply a Spatial Reducer

1. Select the polygon geometry tool and draw a triangle (or more complex polygon) on the map.
2. Print the mean value for the region.
[Link](geometry, {}, 'AOI'); var dict = [Link]({
reducer: 'mean', geometry: geometry,
scale: 30
});
print('Mean elevation', dict);
3. Clear the workspace by clicking
Reset -> Clear script

Challenge: Try uploading the Dehradun shapefile and find the mean, minimum and maximum
elevation (in meters) within Dehradun District. (Answer: 1087, 279, 3069 meters)

5.5 Section 4 - Load and Filter an Image Collection

1. Delete the alos_dem object from the Import section, by rolling your cursor over the object,
then clicking on the trash can icon.

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 2. Search for “Landsat 8 toa” and add “USGS Landsat 8 Collection 1 Tier 1 TOA Reflectance” to
the imports section. Rename the collection "L8".
3. Apply a date filter to the image collection, using the filterDate() method.
var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-01', '2018-11-01'); [Link](filtered);

More Info: To understand the Landsat Collection Tiers i.e., the inventory structure for Level-1 data,
read [Link]

5.6 Section 5 - Play with Image Bands

1. With the default visualization parameters, the data looks dark and the colors look wrong. Pick
better visualization parameters.
var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-01', '2018-11-01');
[Link](filtered, {min: 0, max: 0.3, bands:['B4', 'B3', 'B2']});
2. Copy and paste the second line and modify the bands to create the classic false-color look,
with vegetation highlighted in red, and demonstrate giving each layer a human-readable
name. var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-01', '2018-11-01');
[Link](filtered, {min: 0, max :0.3, bands:['B4', 'B3', 'B2']}, 'RGB');
[Link](filtered, {min: 0, max: 0.3, bands:['B5', 'B4', 'B3']}, 'False Color');

3. We’re going to use these visualization parameters a lot, so pull them out into a variable.
var rgb_vis = {min: 0, max: 0.3, bands:['B4', 'B3', 'B2']}; var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-
01', '2018-11-01'); [Link](filtered, rgb_vis, 'RGB');

More Info: Explore the visualization parameters. Use the layer opacity slider. Click on the settings icon
and select a Range Stretch method, and then apply it to the image.

5.7 Section 6 - Reducing Image Collections

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 1. Expand out the date range. var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-01', '2018-11-01').
filterMetadata('CLOUD_COVER', 'less_than', 30); var rgb_vis =
{min: 0, max: 0.3, bands:['B4', 'B3', 'B2']};
[Link](filtered, rgb_vis, 'RGB - CC < 30');
2. Show that you get the same result if you mosaic() the filtered collection var filtered =
[Link]('2018-01-01', '2018-11-01');
[Link]([Link](), rgb_vis, 'RGB - mosaic reducer');
3. Show the results of using the median() reducer var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-01', '2018-
11-01');
[Link]([Link](), rgb_vis, 'RGB - median reducer');

5.8 Section 7 - Compute NDVI

1. Using the select() method, pick out the NIR and red bands, and do some math the “hard” way
by hand.
var rgb_vis = {min: 0, max: 0.3, bands: ['B4', 'B3', 'B2']}; var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-
01', '2018-10-31')
.filterMetadata('CLOUD_COVER', 'less_than', 10)
.filterBounds(geometry);
var image = [Link]([Link]()); var red = [Link]('B4'); var nir = [Link]('B5');
var ndvi = [Link](red).divide([Link](red));
[Link](image, rgb_vis, 'RGB');
[Link](ndvi, {min: 0, max: 1, palette: ['white', 'green']}}, 'NDVI');
[Link](image, 10);

2. Find the [Link]() method in the docs. Use it to simplify the script.
var rgb_vis = {min: 0, max: 0.3, bands: ['B4', 'B3', 'B2']}; var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-
01', '2018-10-31')
filterMetadata('CLOUD_COVER', 'less_than', 10)
.filterBounds(geometry);
var image = [Link]([Link]());
var ndvi = [Link](['B5', 'B4']);
[Link](image, rgb_vis, 'RGB');
[Link](ndvi, {min: 0, max: 1, palette: ['white', 'green']}}, 'NDVI');
[Link](image, 10);

5.9 Section 8 - Write a Function

Our next goal is to calculate NDVI for a collection of images. To do so, we first need to refactor (rewrite)
our code to using a function, which can then be applied to all images in a collection.

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1. Start by writing a function that adds a band with NDVI data to an image: var rgb_vis = {min: 0, max: 0.3,
bands: ['B4', 'B3', 'B2']};
function addNDVI(image) {
var ndvi = [Link](['B5', 'B4']).rename('ndvi'); return [Link](ndvi);
}
var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-01', '2018-10-31')
.filterMetadata('CLOUD_COVER', 'less_than', 10)
.filterBounds(geometry);
var image = [Link]([Link]());
var ndvi = addNDVI(image); [Link](image, rgb_vis, 'RGB');
[Link](ndvi, {min: 0, max: 1}, 'NDVI');
2. Click on the Inspector tab, then on the image. Look in the Inspector tab results to see that the code
has added a band called “ndvi”.
3. Note that the image has change, because the first band (B1) is being displayed by default, instead of
the "ndvi" band. Add a visualization parameter to correct this:
var rgb_vis = {min: 0, max: 0.3, bands: ['B4', 'B3', 'B2']};
function addNDVI(image) {
var ndvi = [Link](['B5', 'B4']).rename('ndvi'); return [Link](ndvi);
} var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-01', '2018-10-31')
.filterMetadata('CLOUD_COVER', 'less_than', 10)
.filterBounds(geometry);
var image = [Link]([Link]()); var ndvi = addNDVI(image);
[Link](image, rgb_vis, 'RGB');
[Link](ndvi, {bands: 'ndvi', min: 0, max: 1}, 'NDVI');

5.10 Section 9 - Map a Function over a Collection

1. Now that we have a function, we will 'map' the function across the filtered Landsat 8 collection. var
rgb_vis = {min: 0, max: 0.3, bands: ['B4', 'B3', 'B2']};
function addNDVI(image) {
var ndvi = [Link](['B5', 'B4']).rename('ndvi'); return [Link](ndvi);
}
var filtered = [Link]('2018-01-01', '2018-10-31'); var with_ndvi = [Link](addNDVI);
[Link](filtered, rgb_vis, 'RGB-Mapped');
[Link](with_ndvi, {bands: 'ndvi', min: 0, max: 1}, 'NDVI-Mapped');
2. Using the inspector tab, click on the map to show that each image now has an ‘ndvi’ band containing
the NDVI.

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3. To get rid of some clouds, expand out the time range and/or switch to using a median reducer.
[Link]([Link](), rgb_vis, 'RGB-Median');
[Link](with_ndvi.median(), {bands: 'ndvi', min: 0, max: 1}, 'NDVI-Median');

5.11 Section 10 - Chart NDVI over Time

1. Click on the ROI point that was added earlier, and then drag it to an agricultural field. Add the following
line to make a chart of NDVI over time for your ROI.
var rgb_vis = {min: 0, max: 0.3, bands: ['B4', 'B3', 'B2']};
function addNDVI(image) {
var ndvi = [Link](['B5', 'B4']).rename('ndvi');
return [Link](ndvi);
}
var filtered = [Link]('2017-06-01', '2018-07-31');
var with_ndvi = [Link](addNDVI);
var chart = [Link](with_ndvi.select('ndvi'), geometry); print(chart);
2. Try out the interactivity of the chart by hovering, expand it to full screen, and testing out the
SVG/PNG/CSV download buttons.

5.12 Section 11 - Visually verify trends with UI elements.

The NDVI time series generated in Section 10 should also be cross-verified by displaying the
corresponding Landsat images in 3-band (RGB) True color composites. This section will demonstrate
how to add a user interface (UI) element, listing all the Landsat Image IDs and adding them when user
selects it.

1. Start by making a chart of NDVI over time for a ROI. var rgb_vis = {min: 0, max: 0.3, bands: ['B4', 'B3',
'B2']}; var filtered = [Link]('2017-06-01', '2018-07-31') .filterMetadata('CLOUD_COVER',
'less_than', 30)
.filterBounds(geometry); [Link](geometry, 15); function addNDVI(image) {
var ndvi = [Link](['B5', 'B4']).rename('ndvi'); return [Link](ndvi);
}
var with_ndvi = [Link](addNDVI);
var chart = [Link](with_ndvi.select('ndvi'), geometry); print(chart);
2. Write a function to display the image with the given ID. var display = function(id) { var image =
[Link]([Link]("system:index", id))
[Link]().reset()
[Link](image, rgb_vis, "Image") }

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3. Get the list of Landsat Image IDs and put them into a select UI element. Call the “display” function
when the select element is changed.
filtered.aggregate_array("system:index").evaluate(function(ids) {
[Link]([Link]({ items: ids, onChange: display
}))
});

5.13 Section 12 - Use cases

The research and user community is using Earth Engine Apps to develop several use cases. Earth Engine
Apps are dynamic, shareable user interfaces for Earth Engine analyses. With Apps, experts can use
simple UI elements to leverage Earth Engine's data catalog and analytical power, for experts and non-
experts alike to use. Here are some of the Featured Apps listed on the Earth Engine portal (as on March
2023).

Global forest canopy height, 2000 and 2020 (Potapov et al., 2022a)
• The application portrays the reduction of global tree cover extent during the first 20 years of
the century. The forest height maps were developed through the integration of the Global
Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI, [Link] lidar forest structure
measurements and 2000-2020 Landsat analysis-ready data time-series
([Link]
• [Link]

• Global cropland expansion in the 21st century (Potapov et al., 2022b)

• This application has the 2000-2019 globally consistent cropland extent time-series at 30-m
spatial resolution, which was derived from the Landsat satellite data archive. Cropland is
defined as land used for annual and perennial herbaceous crops for human consumption,
forage (including hay), and biofuel. The crop mapping was performed in four-year intervals.
• [Link]

• Seasonal water and ice dynamics, 2019 (Pickens et al., 2022)

• The application aims to deliver spatially explicit maps of ice cover phenology and monthly area
estimates and associated uncertainties of inland surface water and ice cover extent, which will
provide important insights into the current state of the global water system. Such spatio-
temporally explicit data may be used to inform projections of ongoing and future transitions
under the impact of climate change.
• [Link]

Use cases in diverse areas such as public health management have also been developed using Earth
Engine. Some examples are listed below.

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 SMOKE Policy Tool (Marlier et al., 2019)
• The tool models and projects the impact of Indonesian fires on public health in Equatorial Asia
for 2005-2029 based on land use/ land cover classification, GFEDv4s fire emissions, and
meteorology.
• [Link]

• Malaria Atlas Project (Hay & Snow, 2006).

• This platform provides different tools to learn about, explore, and work with malaria data. It
also provides malaria data at varying levels of detail to suit different needs. This suite of tools
aims to support the needs of diverse audiences, including the general public, the media, policy
analysts, engineers, as well as researchers.
• [Link]

5.14 References

Hay, S. I., & Snow, R. W. (2006). The Malaria Atlas Project: developing global maps of malaria risk.
PLoS medicine, 3(12), e473. [Link]

Marlier, M. E., Liu, T., Yu, K., Buonocore, J. J., Koplitz, S. N., DeFries, R. S., Mickley, L. J., Jacob, D.
J., Schwartz, J., Wardhana, B. S., & Myers, S. S. (2019). Fires, smoke exposure, and public health: an
integrative framework to maximize health benefits from peatland restoration. GeoHealth, 3(7), 178-189.
[Link]

Pickens, A. H., Hansen, M. C., Stehman, S. V., Tyukavina, A., Potapov, P., Zalles, V., & Higgins, J.
(2022). Global seasonal dynamics of inland open water and ice. Remote Sensing of Environment, 272,
112963. [Link]

Potapov P., Hansen M.C., Pickens A., Hernandez-Serna A., Tyukavina A., Turubanova S., Zalles V.,
Li X., Khan A., Stolle F., Harris N., Song X.-P., Baggett A., Kommareddy I., Kommareddy A. (2022a). The global
2000-2020 land cover and land use change dataset derived from the Landsat archive: first results. Frontiers
in Remote Sensing, 3, 18. [Link]

Potapov, P., Turubanova, S., Hansen, M. C., Tyukavina, A., Zalles, V., Khan, A., Song, X., Pickens, A.,
Shen, A. & Cortez, J. (2022b). Global maps of cropland extent and change show accelerated cropland
expansion in the twenty-first century. Nature Food, 3(1), 19-28. [Link]
00429-z

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