B3.

3 Muscle and motility

1. All living organisms are adapted for movement
Internal movements organisms move body internally
In cytoplasm of unicellular organisms
E.g. peristalsis in gut, ventilation of lungs
Motile organisms move body from one place to another = locomotion
Most animals
Ex. Bar-tailed godwits: wings for flight & doubling body weight w/ fat reserves b/4 journey -
> migrate far
Sessile organisms remain in fixed position
Most plants - roots growing into soil
Some animals
Ex. coral
Consists of colony of sessile polyps
In hard corals - polyps construct rigid skeleton around themselves
Can extend tentacles into water when filter-feeding, but can't move to new
location
2. Muscle contraction
A2.2 Cell structure > 9. Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes
Muscle fibre (macro to micro)
-> (parallel & cylindrical) myofibrils
-> sarcomeres (linked end to end at Z-discs)
-> light bands (at either end of sarcomere) & dark band (in the centre)

Protein filament arranged in regular pattern withing sarcomeres

Thin actin filaments
Thick myosin filaments
Dark band in the centre
Contain many parallel myosin filaments
Myosin filaments overlap w/ six equidistant actin filaments
Light bands at the ends
Contain actin filaments, not myosin
Each actin filament attached to Z-disc at one end
 & Overlap w/ myosin filaments at the other end

Contraction of sarcomeres
Due to sliding of actin & myosin filaments
Molecular ratchet mechanism
1. Myosin has "heads" - can attach to binding sites on actin
2. Heads undergo cycle of binding -> form a cross-bridge
3. Pull actin molecule towards centre of sarcomere (by c. 10 nm)
 4. Detaching & swivelling to next binding site on actin

B/c many heads per myosin / myosin filaments / sarcomeres / myofibrils / muscle fibres
-> small force exerted by each myosin head multiplied up
-> muscles can exert very powerful forces
3. Muscle relaxation
Muscles relax -> potential E stores by titin
Titin : an elastic protein - has largest polypeptides discovered so far)
Recoil during muscle contraction
-> release potential E
-> force muscle can exert
↑

Titin roles
Connect end of myosin filaments in sarcomeres to Z-disc
Hold each myosin filament in correct position in centre of six parallel actin filaments
Prevent overstretching of sarcomere
 E needed to stretch titin / to lengthen muscle
- When relax - lengthen
- Muscle exert force - contract -> the muscle can't supply E it needs to lengthen
- -> E provided by another muscle = antagonist
- Antagonist pair of muscles work together
- w/ contraction of each member of pair providing E needed
- -> lengthen titin molecules in other as it relax

4. Motor units
Skeletal muscles (composed of striated muscle fibres)
-> contract when stimulated by a motor neuron
Neuromuscular junction : synapse b/w motor neuron & muscle fibre
Neurotransmitter used = acetylcholine
Each motor neuron has branches
Form neuromuscular junctions
w/ different muscle fibres
A nerve impulse conveyed by motor neuron
-> stimulate simultaneous contraction in a group of muscle fibres
Motor unit : one motor neuron together w/ all muscle fibres that it stimulates
This pattern helps to achieve coordinated contraction of muscle
w/ as few motor neurons as possible
5. Skeletons facilitate movement
Skeleton : hard framework - support & protect an animal's body
Arthropods have exoskeletons
Such as spiders, crustaceans & insects
 Consist tough plates of chitin that cover most body surface
Vertebrates have endoskeletons
Consist bones
Skeletons facilitate movement
By providing anchorage for muscles
& acting as levers
-> bones can change size / direction of force
Fulcrum for levers : fixed point, pivot point
Effort : force applied to the lever
Converted by lever into a resultant force
Typically, a muscle attached to two parts of skeleton
Insertion - muscle contraction cause movement
Origin - fixed, so contraction doesn't cause movement
Diagram
How limb bones & muscles adapted for
- Max rapidity of movement (in limbs of gazelles)
- Max force (in mole's front limb - use for digging)

6. Synovial joints
Bones meet at joints
Most allow bones to move in relation to each other (articulation)
Synovial joints : self-lubricating articular joints
Bones
Anchorage for muscles & ligaments
Bones shape -> allow specific range of movements
Muscles
 Cause movement at joint
b/c origin & insertion of muscle on opposite sides of joint
Tendons
Tough collagen-rich cords of tissue
Attach muscle to bone
Transmit force from ocntractions
Cartilage
Tough, smooth tissue covering bone at joints
Prevent friction & absorb shocks -> prevent fractures
Synovial fluid
Fluid that fills cavity b/w cartilage on the ends of bones
Lubricate joint
Ligaments
Tough cords of tissue w/ much collagen
Prevent movements that would dislocate joint
Joint capsule
- Tough ligamentous covering
- Seals joint
- Hold synovial fluid
- Prevent dislocation
7. Application of skills: measuring the range of motion at a
joint
Elbow & knee = hinge joints
Allow movements in one plane
Flexion (bending)
Extension (straightening)
Hip = ball-&-socket joint
Allow movement in three planes
Protraction / retraction
Abduction / adduction
Rotation
Goniometer / by computer analysis of images
-> measure range of movement at joint

8. Intercostal muscles
Ventilation of lungs
Ex. of internal body movement
Due to antagonistic action of two layers of intercostal muscle (external & internal)
Muscle fibres in each layer attached to adjacent ribs in ribcage
Muscle fibres contract -> cause ribcage to move
Diagram
 Orientation of muscle fibres in two layers
External intercostal muscles contract
Ribcage moved up & out
↑vol of thorax
Draw air into lungs (inhalation)
Internal intercostal muscles contract
Ribcage pulled down & in
↓vol of thorax
Expelling air forcibly from lungs (exhalation)
Contraction in either layer
- Stretch muscle fibres in other layer (relaxing)
- Titin molecules in sacromeres of relaxing muscle
- -> elongated by forces fr. contracting musce
- Generating a store of potential E
- This E released when
- Relaxing muscle start to contract
- There's elastic recoil of titin molecules

9. Importance of locomotion
Reason Ex in honey bees Ex in salmon
Foraging for Bees fly fr. flower to flower - Swim to catch prey of smaller fish &
food searching for nectar & pollen large invertebrates
Reason Ex in honey bees Ex in salmon
Escaping fr. Bees fly back to colony when storm Swim to escape fr. predators
danger approaching b/c heavy rain's a
danger
Searching for Male bees fly at height of 10-40 m Male salmon search for female in
a mate & mate w/ virgin queen if they find spawning grounds, shed sperm on eggs
one
Migration Swarm of bees = migrating colony Young salmon migrate fr. rivers to the
containing a queen & many workers sea & as adults migrate back to the river
to bread

10. Marine mammals are adapted for swimming

Water c. x 1 000 denser than air & much more viscous
Swimming require different adaptations
fr. those needed for locomotion on land / in air

Streamlining
Marine mammals shaped -> minimize resistance to motion
By widest near front & tapering toward the rear
-> drag
↓

By flippers, flukes & dorsal fin - elongated teardrop profile in transverse section
-> drag
↓
 By smooth body surface
Due to even distribution of blubber
Due to absence of hind lims & ear flaps
By hairless skin
-> friction
↓

Adaptations for locomotion

Flippers : used for steering
Instead of front legs
Tail flukes : lobes to left & right
↑ thrust when tail moved up & down
Dorsal fin : prevent rolling -> provide stability
Blubber : provide buoyancy
**Adaptations for periodic breathing b/w dives
Nostrils / blowhole
Airways can be close during dives
Rings of cartilage / smooth muscle
Airways reinforced
Ensure ventilation can restart quickly after a dive