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Perception of Health and Illness: An Exploratory Study

Swati Meher

Department of psychology, Sri Aurobindo College (University of Delhi)

12111404 : Health Psychology

Dr..Deepa Sharma & Dr. Sujit Ram Tripathi

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Perception of Health and Illness: An Exploratory Study

Introduction

Health can be defined as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not

merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health psychology examines how biological, social,

and psychological factors interact to affect physical health and well-being. This approach

emphasizes the importance of understanding the psychological factors that influence health

behaviors, such as exercise and diet, and the role of stress and other emotional factors in the

development of physical illness. An illustration of this would be a study showing that people

who engage in regular exercise and eat a balanced diet are less likely to develop chronic health

conditions such as obesity, heart disease, and diabetes. Additionally, practicing

mindfulness-based stress reduction techniques has been shown to reduce the risk of

cardiovascular disease and other chronic illnesses.

Definition across culture

Health can be defined differently across cultures. In Western cultures, health is often

viewed as the absence of disease or illness, whereas in many Eastern cultures, health is seen as a

balance between mind, body, and spirit. Indigenous cultures may define health as being in

harmony with the environment and community. From a health psychology perspective, health is

not just the absence of disease, but also includes emotional, social, and mental well-being.

Culture influences beliefs and attitudes towards health and illness, which can impact health

behaviors and health outcomes. Understanding cultural variations in health beliefs and practices

is important in developing effective health interventions.

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Factors affecting health

Physical factors such as exercise, nutrition, sleep, and environmental factors have a

significant impact on overall health. Regular physical activity can reduce the risk of chronic

diseases, improve mental health, and enhance cognitive function. Proper nutrition is essential to

maintain a healthy body weight and reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Sleep is crucial for

physical and mental restoration, and poor sleep quality has been linked to numerous health

problems. Environmental factors, such as pollution and toxins, can increase the risk of

respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. In summary, prioritizing physical factors that promote

health can positively impact overall well-being and reduce the risk of chronic diseases.

Mental and psychological factors can have a significant impact on an individual's

health. Chronic stress, anxiety, and depression can weaken the immune system, making

individuals more vulnerable to illnesses and infections. Negative emotions and thought patterns

can also contribute to unhealthy behaviors, such as substance abuse or a lack of physical activity,

which further increase the risk of chronic health conditions. Additionally, psychological factors

can affect an individual's ability to manage and cope with health conditions, leading to poorer

treatment adherence and outcomes. Thus, understanding and addressing mental and

psychological factors are crucial in promoting overall health and preventing chronic diseases.

Health psychologists focus on the intersection of psychology and health to develop interventions

and strategies to improve overall wellbeing.

Socio-cultural factors have a significant impact on health. Culture shapes individuals'

beliefs and values, which affect health behaviors and choices. For example, some cultures may

view mental health issues as a sign of weakness, leading to stigmatization and a lack of
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treatment-seeking behavior. Socioeconomic status can also play a role, as low-income

individuals may have limited access to healthcare and healthy food options. Additionally,

cultural norms surrounding diet and exercise can influence overall health. Understanding and

addressing socio-cultural factors is crucial in promoting health and reducing health disparities.

Health psychology emphasizes the importance of considering the cultural and social context in

addressing health issues.

Spiritual factors can play a significant role in health outcomes. Research suggests that

individuals who engage in spiritual practices, such as meditation or prayer, have lower levels of

stress, anxiety, and depression, which are all linked to physical health problems. Spirituality can

also provide a sense of purpose and meaning, which has been associated with improved mental

and physical well-being. Additionally, spiritual beliefs can influence health behaviors, such as

engaging in exercise, eating a healthy diet, and avoiding risky behaviors, which can have

positive effects on physical health. However, it's important to note that spirituality is a complex

and multifaceted construct, and its effects on health can vary depending on individual beliefs and

practices.

Illness

Illness refers to a state of physical or mental dysfunction that negatively impacts an

individual's overall wellbeing. It is often associated with symptoms such as pain, discomfort, and

distress, and can significantly affect one's ability to carry out daily activities. Health psychology

focuses on the psychological factors that influence health and illness, such as beliefs, attitudes,

and behaviors. These factors can contribute to the onset, course, and outcome of illnesses. In
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addition, health psychology aims to promote healthy behaviors and coping strategies to improve

the overall quality of life and prevent or manage illnesses.

Patterns of Illness

Patterns of illness refer to the characteristic ways in which diseases or health conditions

are expressed and experienced by individuals. These patterns may be influenced by various

factors, such as biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors. Health psychologists often

study patterns of illness in order to better understand the mechanisms that underlie different

health conditions, as well as to develop more effective prevention and treatment strategies. By

identifying patterns of illness, health psychologists can also help to promote more effective

coping strategies and enhance quality of life for individuals with chronic or acute health

conditions.

Attitude and beliefs towards illness

Attitude refers to an individual's feelings and behaviors towards a particular object,

situation, or person. In the context of health psychology, attitude towards illness can influence an

individual's perception and response to their health status. A positive attitude towards illness can

facilitate coping mechanisms and adherence to treatment regimens, whereas a negative attitude

can hinder recovery and exacerbate symptoms. Beliefs towards illness refer to an individual's

thoughts and convictions about the causes, consequences, and treatments of illness. These beliefs

can influence health behaviors, such as seeking medical care, adopting healthy habits, and

adhering to treatment plans. Understanding an individual's attitude and beliefs towards illness
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can help healthcare professionals provide patient-centered care that addresses their unique needs

and preferences.

Health Risk behaviour

Health risk behaviors refer to actions or habits that can potentially harm an individual's

physical, mental, or emotional well-being. These behaviors may include smoking, alcohol and

drug abuse, unhealthy eating habits, lack of physical activity, engaging in risky sexual behavior,

and not following medical recommendations.

Health risk behaviors are often influenced by social, environmental, and psychological

factors, such as peer pressure, stress, and lack of access to healthy food options or medical care.

Additionally, certain personality traits and cognitive processes can also contribute to engaging in

health risk behaviors, such as impulsivity and low self-esteem.

From a health psychology perspective, understanding and addressing health risk

behaviors is important for promoting overall health and preventing chronic diseases. Health

psychologists often focus on developing interventions and strategies to help individuals change

their behavior and adopt healthier habits. This may involve identifying and addressing the

underlying psychological factors that contribute to engaging in health risk behaviors, such as

providing stress management techniques or building self-efficacy through goal-setting and

positive reinforcement.

Health risk behaviors can have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life and

lifespan, as they can increase the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and

diabetes. Additionally, these behaviors can also have social and economic consequences, such as

decreased productivity and increased healthcare costs.

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Therefore, it is important to address health risk behaviors through a holistic approach that

takes into account individual, social, and environmental factors, as well as psychological

processes. By promoting healthier behaviors and reducing health risk behaviors, individuals can

improve their overall well-being and quality of life.

Health Seeking behaviour

Health and lifestyle

Health seeking behavior refers to an individual's actions and attitudes towards

maintaining their physical and mental health. Lifestyle plays a crucial role in health seeking

behavior as it encompasses all the activities, behaviors, and habits that an individual engages in

regularly. Health psychology focuses on understanding how people perceive and respond to

health-related issues.Individuals with a healthy lifestyle tend to seek preventive care and adopt

behaviors that promote their well-being. These behaviors may include regular exercise, healthy

eating habits, and avoiding risky behaviors such as smoking or excessive alcohol consumption.

On the other hand, individuals with an unhealthy lifestyle may delay seeking medical attention

until symptoms become severe, leading to poor health outcomes.Psychological factors such as

perceived control, self-efficacy, and social support also influence health seeking behavior.

Individuals who feel empowered and confident in their ability to manage their health are more

likely to adopt healthy behaviors and seek medical attention when needed.

Health and attitude

Health seeking behavior is the set of attitudes and actions individuals take to maintain or

improve their physical, mental, and social well-being. This behavior is influenced by several

factors, including personal beliefs, cultural norms, and social support. In health psychology,
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health seeking behavior is viewed as a complex interplay of psychological, social, and cultural

factors that influence an individual's decision to seek health care.

Attitudes play a crucial role in shaping health-seeking behavior. Positive attitudes

towards health and preventive behaviors, such as exercise and healthy eating, are associated with

increased health-seeking behavior. Conversely, negative attitudes towards health care, fear, and

stigma may discourage individuals from seeking care when needed.

Health psychology interventions aim to promote positive attitudes and behaviors towards

health care by addressing barriers to seeking care, such as fear and stigma, and providing

education on the importance of preventive behaviors. By promoting positive attitudes and

behaviors towards health care, individuals may be more likely to seek care when needed, leading

to improved health outcomes.

Health and belief

Health seeking behavior refers to the actions individuals take to maintain, improve or

regain their physical or mental well-being. It is influenced by various factors including beliefs,

culture, and personal experiences. Beliefs play a crucial role in shaping an individual's health

seeking behavior, as it guides their decision-making process when it comes to seeking health

care.

In health psychology, beliefs can be categorized as illness beliefs and treatment beliefs.

Illness beliefs refer to an individual's perception and understanding of their health condition,

including its causes, symptoms, and consequences. Treatment beliefs refer to the beliefs

individuals hold about the effectiveness and appropriateness of various healthcare options

available to them.These beliefs can either facilitate or hinder health seeking behavior. For

instance, a person who believes that regular exercise is beneficial for their health is more likely
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to engage in physical activity regularly. Conversely, a person who believes that taking

medications is unnecessary or ineffective may be less likely to seek medical attention or comply

with treatment recommendations.

Health and awareness

Health seeking behavior refers to the actions taken by individuals to maintain or improve

their health status. Awareness plays a crucial role in determining health seeking behavior.

Individuals who are aware of the importance of health are more likely to engage in behaviors that

promote their health and seek medical care when necessary.

In health psychology, awareness is considered a key factor in health behavior change. It is

believed that individuals who are aware of the health consequences of their behaviors are more

likely to engage in healthier behaviors. Moreover, awareness of symptoms and diseases can

prompt individuals to seek medical care early, improving their chances of successful treatment.

Effective health education programs can increase awareness and promote health seeking

behavior. These programs provide information about the benefits of healthy behaviors and the

risks associated with unhealthy behaviors, as well as information about disease prevention,

symptoms, and treatment. In conclusion, awareness is a crucial component of health seeking

behavior, and increasing awareness through education can lead to improved health outcomes.

Health and Illness relationship

The relationship between health and illness is complex and multifaceted. Health

psychology considers both physical and mental health, as well as social and environmental

factors that impact health outcomes. Health is not simply the absence of illness but rather a state
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of complete physical, mental, and social well-being. Conversely, illness can be defined as a state

of impaired physical, mental, or social functioning.

Health and illness are not static states but rather dynamic and subject to change. Many

factors, including genetics, lifestyle behaviors, and social determinants of health, contribute to an

individual's health status. Furthermore, the experience of illness can impact an individual's

psychological well-being, which can in turn impact their physical health.Health psychology

emphasizes the importance of preventative health behaviors and interventions, as well as the

integration of psychological and medical treatments for individuals with chronic illnesses.

Understanding the complex relationship between health and illness is crucial in promoting

overall well-being and improving health outcomes.

Barriers related to health

Individual

Individual barriers to health refer to factors that can prevent or hinder a person from

achieving optimal health and wellness. These barriers can vary from person to person, and can be

influenced by a range of factors, including genetics, lifestyle choices, and socioeconomic status.

One common individual barrier to health is a lack of knowledge or awareness about healthy

behaviors and lifestyle choices, such as exercise, nutrition, and stress management. This can

result in unhealthy habits, which can lead to chronic diseases such as obesity, heart disease, and

diabetes. Other barriers may include financial constraints, limited access to healthcare services,

or competing demands such as work or caregiving responsibilities, which can make it difficult

for individuals to prioritize their health. Mental health concerns, such as anxiety or depression,

can also act as barriers to achieving optimal physical health. Addressing these individual barriers
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requires a multifaceted approach that involves education, support, and access to resources that

can help individuals overcome these challenges and improve their overall health and wellbeing.

Group

Barriers related to health can vary according to different groups of people. Some common

barriers related to health psychology include:

For low-income groups:

Limited access to healthcare services due to financial constraints, Lack of knowledge

about healthy lifestyle choices, Food insecurity and lack of access to healthy foods, Living in

environments with limited resources for physical activity and recreation and exposure to

environmental hazards such as pollution

For minority groups:

Limited access to culturally appropriate healthcare services, Language barriers with

healthcare providers, Discrimination and bias in healthcare settings, Lack of trust in the

healthcare system due to historical mistreatment and systemic racism and higher rates of chronic

diseases due to social and economic disparities

For elderly populations:

Limited mobility and transportation to healthcare services, Age-related declines

in,cognitive and physical functioning, Isolation and lack of social support, Comorbidities, and

complex medical conditions that require specialized care, Polypharmacy and medication

management challenges. Overall, understanding these barriers related to health can inform

interventions and policies that aim to improve health outcomes and reduce health disparities

among different groups of people.

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Community

Community barriers related to health refer to factors that hinder access to healthcare

services, limit health outcomes, and prevent the community from achieving optimal health. One

of the significant community barriers to health is a lack of access to healthcare services. Limited

access may be due to financial constraints, inadequate health insurance coverage, or a lack of

healthcare providers in the community. Additionally, social determinants of health, such as

poverty, limited education, and poor housing, may also contribute to poor health outcomes.

Cultural and language barriers can also limit access to healthcare, particularly for marginalized

and underserved populations. Moreover, a lack of trust in the healthcare system due to past

discriminatory practices or poor experiences may further hinder access to healthcare. Addressing

community barriers related to health requires a multifaceted approach that involves increasing

access to healthcare services, improving the social determinants of health, and addressing

cultural and language barriers. Health education programs, outreach initiatives, and policy

changes are vital steps towards improving community health outcomes.

Current socio-cultural context and health

Current health status around the globe

Various policies

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to impact health globally, with millions of cases and

deaths reported worldwide. Governments and public health officials have implemented various

policies and interventions to mitigate the spread of COVID-19, such as social distancing

measures, mask mandates, and vaccine campaigns. These efforts have been crucial in reducing

the transmission of the virus and preventing severe illness and death.
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Psychological factors, such as fear and anxiety related to the pandemic, can impact

individual health behaviors and mental health outcomes. Mental health concerns have emerged

as a significant issue during the pandemic, with many individuals reporting increased symptoms

of depression, anxiety, and stress. Governments and healthcare organizations have implemented

policies and resources to address mental health concerns during the pandemic, such as telehealth

services and online support groups.

Disparities in health outcomes have been observed during the pandemic, with

marginalized communities experiencing higher rates of infection and poorer health outcomes.

Health disparities are influenced by a range of factors, including systemic racism, social

determinants of health, and access to healthcare. Health psychology plays a crucial role in

addressing health disparities by examining the psychological and social factors that contribute to

health inequities and developing interventions to promote health equity.

Emerging research suggests that COVID-19 vaccines are effective in reducing the spread

of the virus and preventing severe illness and death. Vaccine hesitancy and misinformation have

emerged as significant challenges to achieving widespread vaccine uptake, and public health

officials are working to address these issues through education and targeted outreach efforts.

Health communication strategies, such as clear messaging and community engagement, can

promote vaccine acceptance and support public health efforts to control the pandemic. These

efforts are critical to achieving herd immunity and bringing an end to the pandemic.

Current health status in india

Government steps & statistical date

India, with a population of over 1.3 billion people, is the second most populous country

in the world. However, the life expectancy at birth in India is 69 years, which is lower than the
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global average of 72 years, according to the World Health Organization. The country has a high

burden of non-communicable diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes, which account

for more than 60% of deaths in India. Mental health disorders are also a significant public health

concern, with depression being the most common. The National Mental Health Survey shows

that nearly 14% of the population is affected by a mental health condition.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the health of the population in

India. As of April 4, 2023, over 88 million confirmed cases and over 1.1 million deaths have

been reported due to COVID-19 in the country. The pandemic has also highlighted the existing

health disparities in India, with marginalized communities such as migrant workers and people

living in slums being disproportionately affected.

Access to healthcare services is also a challenge in India, particularly in rural areas,

where the doctor to patient ratio is significantly lower than the recommended ratio of 1:1000 by

the World Health Organization. The government has implemented various health initiatives to

address these challenges, such as the Ayushman Bharat scheme, which aims to provide health

insurance to millions of people in the country.

Health psychology plays an important role in understanding and addressing the health

challenges in India. It examines how psychological factors such as behavior, beliefs, and

emotions can influence health behaviors and outcomes and how interventions can be designed to

improve health outcomes. With the high burden of non-communicable diseases and mental

health concerns in India, health psychology can help in designing effective interventions to

improve the health of the population.

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Method

Table 1

Demographic Details

Percentage (%) Percentage (%)

Gender Male Female

51.7 48.3

Age Adolesce Adults Late Elderly

nts 36.3 Adults
26.7 19.2 17.9

Religion Hindu Muslim Sikh Christian

90 4.6 1.7
3.8

Marital Status Married Unmarried

57.1 42.9

Family Status Nuclear Joint

57.1 42.9

Employment Status Employed Unemployed

50.4 49.6

Residential Setting Urban Urban slum

54.2 45.8

Perceived Socioeconomic Low Middle High

Status 44.6 50.4 5.0

The study participants consisted of 240 individuals, ranging in age from 13 years to 60

years, with a mean age of 41.01 years and SD of 18.02. Of the participants, 48.3% identified as

female, 51.7% as male, 90% belonged to the Hindu religion and 57.1% lived in a nuclear

family. In terms of religion, 90% identified as Hindu, 4.6% as Muslim, 3.8% as Christian, and
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1.7% as Sikh. Regarding marital status,57.1% were married, and the remnant 42.9% were

unmarried. Participants came from various types of families, including 57.1% from nuclear

families, and 42.9% from Joint families. Employment status varied, with 50.4 % of participants

employed, and 49.6% unemployed. The majority of participants resided in urban areas with

54.2% of the total sample, and 45.8% in Urban Slums areas. Participants perceived

socioeconomic status varied, with 44.6% reporting low income, 50.4% reporting middle

income, and only 5.0% reporting high income.

Figure1. Age rank

The sample population consisted of 26.7% adolescents belonging to the age bracket

13-21, 36.3% young adults ranging from 22-45 years of age, Late adults with a population of

19.2% belonging to the age bracket 45-65 years and 17.2% of elderly of age 55 years and above.

As it can be clearly seen from the chart, there was a relative abundance of young adults in the

sample population.
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Research Design:

An exploratory survey study was conducted in the Delhi National Capital Region to

investigate perceptions of health and illness, perceived health risks, and health-seeking behaviors

among 240 adults. Non Probability purposive sampling was utilized to select participants who

were over 18 years old, living and working in urban areas, present at home during the time of the

study, and willing to participate. Demographic information such as age, gender, religion, family

type, education, and family income were collected using structured and validated questionnaires.

Measure

This is a non-standardized Perceived health and illness survey is a combination of various

scales curated with the motive to measure the perception of Health and Illness. The questionnaire

contains a total of 136 items and 7 internal sections including the section for the demographic

details.

Tools

Perceived Health Scale

The section called “Perception on Health” had 25 items on likert (5-point rating scale).

The 4 dimensions of health were measures namely Physical (6 items), Mental (7 items), Spiritual

(4 items), Socioeconomic (7 items) with the instructions as:

“We all are concerned about our health and describe it in a different way. Given below

are the few statements related to the meaning of health there is no right or wrong answer to any

of these statements and we are interested in your honest reactions and opinions. Please read

each statement carefully and select a response by using the following rating scale( 5-point):
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Strongly disagree (1), Disagree (2), Neither agree nor disagree (3), Agree (4), Strongly

agree (5)

Please refer to the aforementioned scale to find the meaning of each number of the scale.

Post that you are expected to mark the number that best represents your feeling and opinion

about each statement. For example: “Health is a state of physical wellbeing” If you strongly

disagree with this particular statement then for that statement you will mark 1 on the scale

indicated in front of the statement.”

Perceived Illness Scale

The section called “Perception on health” later had 20 items on Likert (5-point rating

scale). The 4 dimensions of health were measures namely Physical (6 items), Mental (4 items),

Spiritual (5 items), Socioeconomic (6 items) with the instructions as:

“We all are concerned about our health and describe it in a different way. Given below

are the few statements related to the meaning of health there is no right or wrong answer to any

of these statements and we are interested in your honest reactions and opinions. Please read

each statement carefully and select a response by using the following rating scale ( 5-point):

Strongly disagree (1), Disagree (2), Neither agree nor disagree (3), Agree (4), Strongly

agree (5)

Please refer to the aforementioned scale to find the meaning of each number of the scale.

Post that you are expected to mark the number that best represents your feeling and opinion

about each statement. For example: “Health is a state of physical wellbeing” If you strongly
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disagree with this particular statement then for that statement you will mark 1 on the scale

indicated in front of the statement.”

The next section “Perceived Health Seeking Behavior” had 22 items on likert scale with

the instructions reading “Instructions: Given below are a few statements. Please read each

statement carefully and respond by using the following rating scale.

To a very large extent (1), To a large extent (2) To some extent (3) To little extent (4) To

no extent (5)”.

Perceived Health Risk Behavior

Similarly for the next section “Perceived Health Risk Behavior” there are 48 items being

measure on 5-point Likert scale measuring the intensity to which they perceive the items as a risk

to health. The instructions provided read “Given below are the few statements please read each

statement carefully and respond by using the following rating scale.

Low (1), Slightly low (2), Moderate (3), Slightly High (4), High (5)”

Life Satisfaction Scale

The next section selected was the Life Satisfaction Scale developed by Diener which is a

widely used measure of subjective well-being that assesses global life satisfaction. It consists of

five statements, and respondents rate each statement on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly

disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

WHO Wellness Index

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Moving to the next section which had The World Health Organization (WHO) developed

set of questions to assess psychological well-being. These questions are known as the WHO-5

Well-being Index, and they aim to measure an individual's emotional well-being and overall

quality of life over the past two weeks. The following instructions were provided to the

participants before the commencement of the section:

“Given below are the few statements please read each statement carefully and respond by

using the following rating scale.

Low (1), Slightly low (2), Moderate (3), Slightly High (4), High (5)” were the instructions

provided prior to the items

Happiness Index

The Last section of the survey questionnaire was The Meyers and Smith Clinical Guide

to Alcohol Treatment which is a manual that provides guidance for clinicians who are using the

Community Reinforcement Approach (CRA) to treat alcohol addiction. The Meyers and Smith

Clinical Guide to Alcohol Treatment is not a test or questionnaire that is scored in the traditional

sense. The scale is measured on Likert 5 point scale with the instructions “Given below are a few

statements please read each statement carefully and respond by using the following rating scale

Completely unhappy (1), slightly unhappy (2), Neither happy nor unhappy (3), slightly

happy (4), completely happy (5)”

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Procedure

The process began with an extensive review of literature about the perception and

patterns of health in India. Post Identification of the topic for the exploratory study, a structured

list of Items was prepared with the collective efforts of students and Professors for the survey

based on already established studies and facts. Later items were checked and rechecked for

discrepancies by the concerned authorities and then shortlisted for finalizing the 136 questions

long survey. After the establishment of the entire questionnaire, it was translated and recast into

Hindi. Each student was given a total of 12 copies of the survey (6 in each language) to collect

and record the data according to the deliberated directive. The students formed a rapport with the

participants and later briefed them about the purpose of the study mentioning how their response

will be kept confidential and that they could withdraw from the study at any given time. The

responses were recorded and then coded in Microsoft Excel for manipulation and analysis and

later exported to SPSS version 26. A Variable sheet was prepared and data was encrypted

accordingly, using descriptive statistics the frequency and percentage were calculated for each

item.

Validity of the tools were established by submitting to six experts and there was 100%

agreement on all items with minimal correction. Administrative permission was obtained to

collect the data from the concerned authorities. The data was collected after obtaining the verbal

consent from the eligible participants. The data was analyzed using descriptive (frequency and

percentage) and inferential statistics. The analysis was done based on objectives and hypothesis

by using SPSS package version 26.

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Results

The purpose of the present study is to scrutinize the Perception of Health and Illness.

Specifically, the study seeks to understand the subjective experiences and beliefs surrounding

health and illness within the selected population. The results of this study will provide valuable

insights into the factors that influence individuals' perceptions of health and illness, which can be

used to inform health promotion and disease prevention strategies. Ultimately, the study will

contribute to the existing body of knowledge on health and illness perception and inform future

research in this area.

Table 2.

What Do You Understand by Health?

% %

FACTOR YES NO

Physical 33.3 66.6

Mental 6.7 93.3

Spiritual 3.3 96.7

Social Wellbeing 4.2 95.8

All of these 58.3 41.7

Table 2 presents the results of a survey on different factors that contribute to an

individual's understanding of health. The table shows the percentage of participants who

responded "Yes" or "No" to whether each factor contributes to their understanding of health.
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The factors included in the survey are Physical, Mental, Spiritual, and Social Wellbeing,

with an additional option for participants to select "All of these."

The results show that the majority of participants (66.6%) believe that Physical health

contributes to their understanding of health, while a smaller percentage of participants (6.7%)

believe that Mental health is a contributing factor. An even smaller percentage of participants

(3.3%) believe that Spiritual health contributes to their understanding of health, and only 4.2% of

participants believe that Social Wellbeing plays a role.

Interestingly, over half of the participants (58.3%) selected "All of these" as contributing

factors to their understanding of health. It is worth noting that 41.7% of participants did not

select this option and may have a more focused understanding of health.
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Table 3:

Health Related Information & Illness Related Information is Obtained From?

Information received on

Health Related Matters Illness Related Matters

% Percentage

YES NO YES NO

Friends 21.7 78.3 18.8 81.3

Community and
Society 30.4 69.6 27.1 72.9

Media 32.9 67.1 26.8 73.2

Educational 12.9
Institutes 87.1 4.6 95.4

25.8 26.7
Family 74.2 73.3

Medical
Practitioners 35.8 64.2 47.5 52.5

Spiritual Leaders 5.4 94.6 5.4 94.6

Others 1.3 98.3 - 100.0

Table 3 displays the sources from which health-related information and illness-related

information are obtained. The table presents the percentage of respondents who reported

obtaining such information from various sources, with separate columns indicating whether the

respondents answered "yes" or "no" for each source.

The sources of health-related information listed in the table are friends, community and

society, media, educational institutes, family, medical practitioners, spiritual leaders, and others.
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The sources of illness-related information are the same, with the exception of the educational

institutes source, which only pertains to health-related information.

According to the table, the most common source of health-related information is medical

practitioners, with 35.8% of respondents reporting obtaining such information from them. The

next most common sources are the media (32.9%), community and society (30.4%), family

(25.8%), and friends (21.7%). Educational institutes are the least common source of

health-related information, with only 12.9% of respondents reporting obtaining such information

from them.

When it comes to illness-related information, medical practitioners are again the most

common source, with 47.5% of respondents reporting obtaining such information from them.

The next most common sources are community and society (27.1%), the media (26.8%), and

family (26.7%). Friends are the least common source of illness-related information, with only

18.8% of respondents reporting obtaining such information from them.

Table 4:
Whom do you approach for solutions?

Primary approach for solutions

YES NO

Friends 11.7 88.3

Community and
Society 1.3 98.8

Family 50.0 50.0

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Medical
Practitioners 44.6 55.4

Spiritual Leaders 3.3 96.7

Self 26.7 73.3

Relatives 6.7 93.3

teachers 2.5 97.5

Table 4 presents the results of a survey asking respondents about their primary approach

for seeking solutions. The table displays the percentage of respondents who answered "yes" and

"no" for each of the options presented. The options for seeking solutions were: friends,

community and society, family, medical practitioners, spiritual leaders, self, relatives, and

teachers.

According to the table, the majority of respondents did not approach friends (88.3%) or

community and society (98.8%) for solutions. Half of the respondents (50.0%) reported

approaching family for solutions. Medical practitioners were also a popular choice, with 44.6%

of respondents reporting approaching them for solutions. In contrast, only a small percentage of

respondents approached spiritual leaders (3.3%), relatives (6.7%), and teachers (2.5%) for

solutions. Finally, 26.7% of respondents reported relying on themselves to find solutions.

Table 5:
Seek Intervention

SEEK INTERVENTION

Frequency Percent

PRIMARY 60 24.9
SYMPTOMS
 27

MODERATE 60 24.9
SYMPTOMS

SEVERE 120 50.3

SYMPTOMS

Table 5 displays the results of a survey or study that investigated seeking intervention for

mental health symptoms. The table presents three categories of symptoms: Primary, Moderate,

and Severe. The table reports the number of participants who seek intervention for each category,

presented in both frequency and percentage.

According to the table, out of the total number of participants, 24.9% sought intervention

for primary symptoms, 24.9% for moderate symptoms, and 50.3% for severe symptoms. In total,

240 participants were included in the study or survey.

 28

Figure 2: Seek Intervention

Table 6:
Perception Of Health

Variables Strongly Disagree Neither agree Agree Strongly

disagree nor disagree agree

% % % % %

Health is a state of physical well 2.5 9.6 15.0 35.0 37.9

being

I believe that health means 2.9 3.3 17.1 38.8 37.9

indulging in good habits

I believe that home prepared 2.1 0.4 8.3 32.9 56.3

foods are good for the health

I believe that yoga/meditation is 2.1 4.2 14.6 27.5 51.7

good for health

I believe that exercise protects 3.3 2.9 11.7 39.6 42.1

the health

I believe that avoiding junk food 1.7 5.8 18.8 27.9 45.8
promotes health

Health is a mental state 5.4 10.4 29.2 32.9 22.1

I believe that health is promoting 3.3 3.8 23.8 40.0 29.2

a positive attitude

I believe that health is actively 2.5 7.5 25.8 36.3 27.9

seeking out things that make me
happy

I believe that health is taking 2.1 6.7 19.6 37.5 34.2

charge of and responsibility for,
my own life

I believe that health is finding 2.1 9.6 35.4 28.4 24.6

ways to resolve any inner
conflicts
 29

I believe that health is thinking 3.8 8.3 30.0 32.5 25.4

positively and seeing the illness
as a challenge

I believe that health means 3.8 5.8 22.1 38.3 30.0

looking after myself and taking
things easy

Health is a spiritual state 4.6 10.8 27.1 33.3 24.2

I believe that health is a gift from 9.6 13.3 16.3 26.7 34.2
god

I believe that good health is a 9.6 15.0 16.3 27.9 31.3

result of good deeds(karma)

I believe that the association with 14.6 15.0 22.9 31.3 16.3
religious groups/communities is
linked to good health

Health is a state of 5.0 15.0 31.3 34.6 14.2

socioeconomic well being

I believe that health is having 5.4 13.8 18.3 40.8 21.7

easy access to medical facilities
for all

I believe health is dependent on 7.5 10.4 27.9 30.0 24.2

financial stability

I believe that health is having 3.8 10.0 28.3 39.6 17.9

meaningful interpersonal
relationships

I believe that health is residing in 2.5 5.8 13.3 43.3 35.0

a hygienic environment

I believe that health is living 5.0 10.0 35.0 28.8 21.3

with social integrity

I believe that society and the 12.5 23.8 22.9 28.8 12.1
community are responsible for
your health

Health is a state of physical, 5.8 7.5 18.8 32.9 35.0

social, mental and spiritual well
being and not merely the absence
of disease and infirmity
 30

This table presents the respondents' perceptions of health based on different variables.

The variables are Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neither Agree nor Disagree, Agree, and Strongly

Agree. The respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with

statements related to health. The statements cover different aspects of health, including physical,

mental, spiritual, socioeconomic, and holistic health.

The table shows the percentage of respondents who strongly disagree, disagree, neither

agree nor disagree, agree, and strongly agree with each statement. For instance, 37.9% of the

respondents strongly agree that health is a state of physical well-being, while 15% neither agree

nor disagree. Similarly, 56.3% of the respondents agree that home-prepared foods are good for

health, while 8.3% neither agree nor disagree.

Table 7:
Perception Of Illness

Variables Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly agree

disagree agree nor
disagree

% % % % %

Venereal diseases are caused due 3.8 7.5 28.3 29.6 30.8
to illicit sexual intercourse

Illness can be caused by indulging .4 3.8 5.4 9.6 45.8

in unhealthy food habits
 31

Inadequate calorie intake leads to 3.8 5.8 17.5 37.5 35.4

nutritional deficiency disorders

Alcohol intake causes illness 3.3 9.6 18.8 30.8 37.5

Poorly ventilated houses cause 1.7 10.0 20.0 43.8 24.6

disease

Some diseases are inherited 1.7 8.3 17.5 40.0 32.5

Some illness strongly affects the 5.4 8.3 23.3 35.8 27.1
way the patient sees himself as a
person

Illness makes me feel afraid and 10.4 22.1 37.9 20.0

angry 9.6

Mentally ill people are violent and 14.6 21.7 23.8 27.1 12.9
one should keep a safe distance
from them

Anxiety and stress are indicative 7.1 11.3 20.0 37.5 24.2
of mental illness

illness/diseases are caused by the 26.3 24.2 15.4 19.2 15.0

wrath of the god

Illness can be caused due to a 27.5 21.7 17.9 18.8 14.2

person’s past sins

Illness can be attributed to the 23.3 16.3 24.2 21.3 15.0

effect of the evil eye

Some diseases are caused due to 30.8 23.3 20.4 12.9 12.5
 32

ghost intrusion

Diseases are caused by one’s 22.9 18.3 22.1 20.0 16.7

karma

Illness can be caused by poor 11.3 14.6 23.8 33.3 17.1

economic status of people

Illness can be caused by poor 14.2 17.9 29.6 21.7 16.7

societal status of people

Illness can be traced by enemies 27.6 24.3 28.5 13.0 6.7

Passive smokers are more prone to 5.4 13.8 15.4 41.7 23.8
get certain diseases

Illness can be caused due to lack .4 8.8 48.8 36.7

of hygiene in surroundings 5.4

Illness can be caused due to 2.5 4.6 17.1 49.6 26.3

environmental change

Table 7 presents data on the perceptions of illness among the study population. The

majority of respondents believed that venereal diseases are caused by illicit sexual intercourse

(60.4%), illness can be caused by indulging in unhealthy food habits (55.2%), and inadequate

calorie intake leads to nutritional deficiency disorders (73%). Additionally, many respondents

believed that alcohol intake causes illness (68.3%), and poorly ventilated houses cause disease

(68.4%).
 33

On the other hand, beliefs related to the causes of illness were more varied, with a

significant percentage of respondents believing that illness can be caused by the wrath of the

gods (34.2%), a person's past sins (40.6%), or ghost intrusion (54.1%).

The data shows that there is a range of beliefs and attitudes regarding the causes and

effects of illness in the study population, with some beliefs reflecting scientific knowledge and

others reflecting cultural or religious beliefs

Table 8:
Perceived Health Seeking Behavior

To a very To a Large To some To little To no

large extent Extent extent extent extent

1. To what extent do you feel that you are 31.7 35.0 18.3 9.2 5.0
responsible for your own Health?

2. To what extent are the environment responsible 12.9 40.8 24.2 17.1 4.2
for our own health?
 34

3. To what extent do you feel that community & 10.4 24.2 29.6 19.2 15.8
society are responsible for your health?

4. To what extent do you opt for home remedies for 21.7 27.9 29.2 17.1 3.3
wellness?

5. To what extent do you opt for Yoga and 22.9 20.8 23.3 20.0 12.1
meditation for wellness?

6. To what extent do you opt for physical workouts 25.0 23.3 21.3 19.2 10.4
for wellness?

7. To what extent do you follow a healthy 28.3 23.8 19.6 20.8 6.7
Diet/Nutrition pattern?

8. To what extent do you try to remain calm, 21.7 32.9 30.8 11.3 2.5
composed, and easy going?

9. To what extent do you adhere to the treatment as 24.6 30.0 23.3 17.5 3.8
prescribed?

10. To what extent do you rely on Self 18.8 28.8 25.4 17.5 8.8
Medication/Medication for instant relief?

11. To what extent do you rely on non-professionals 7.9 12.1 24.2 27.5 27.5
for treatment?

12. To what extent do you rely on professionals for 27.9 36.7 17.5 12.5 4.6
treatment?

13. To what extent do you follow pain management 9.6 23.8 35.8 20.8 9.2
strategies?

14. To what extent do you opt for pathological 10.4 20.0 25.4 26.3 17.1
tests/regular health check-ups?

15. To what extent do you rely on religious/ spiritual 17.9 23.8 15.8 25.4 16.3
practices for wellbeing?

16. I am aware of my fundamental rights and 20.0 27.5 29.2 17.5 5.0
exercise them related to health and respect those
of others.

17. To what extent do you engage in 5.4 16.3 31.7 30.0 15.8
Society/Community related health programs?
 35

18. To what extent do you take efforts to avoid the 18.8 23.3 20.8 23.8 12.5
spread of rumours and miscommunication
associated with health and wellbeing?

19. To what extent do you encourage society to adopt 14.6 25.8 32.9 19.6 6.3
positive health behaviour?

20. To what extent do you take efforts for creating a 14.2 30.0 35.0 16.3 3.8
healthy environment?

21. To what extent do you abide by the rules and 18.3 31.7 29.6 16.3 3.3
protocols given by the government related to
health?

22. To what extent do you make efforts to ensure a 18.3 27.5 28.3 17.1 7.9
peaceful and violence-free society?

Table 8 displays the results of a survey on perceived health seeking behavior among a

sample population. The table consists of 22 questions, and the respondents were asked to rate the

extent to which they engage in various health-seeking behaviors on a scale of "To a very large

extent" to "To no extent."

The first three questions asked about the perceived responsibility of individuals, the

environment, and society for personal health. On average, 33.0% of respondents felt they were

very large extent responsible for their own health, while 25.8% felt community and society were

responsible to a large extent. In contrast, only 18.3% felt that the environment was responsible to

a large extent.

Questions 4-7 related to wellness behaviors, with respondents being asked to rate their

engagement in home remedies, yoga and meditation, physical workouts, and healthy diets.
 36

Respondents rated healthy diets as the most important, with 28.3% of them stating that they

engaged in such activities to a very large extent.

Questions 8-13 dealt with treatment-seeking behaviors, with respondents being asked to

rate their adherence to treatment, reliance on medication, and preference for professionals or

non-professionals for treatment. On average, 27.9% of respondents preferred to rely on

professionals for treatment, while only 12.1% relied on non-professionals.

Questions 14-22 explored engagement in health-promoting behaviors in society,

including regular health check-ups, engaging in community health programs, and taking efforts

to create a healthy environment. Respondents rated regular health check-ups as the most

important, with 26.3% of them stating that they engaged in such activities to some extent.

Table 9:
Perceived Health Risk Behaviour
Low Slightly Moderate Slightly High
Low High
1. Active Smoking 5.8 4.6 10.8 21.3 57.5
2. Passive Smoking 2.9 8.3 19.6 32.9 36.3
 37

3. Alcohol Intake 3.8 6.7 14.2 18.3 57.1

4. Tobacco Use 6.7 2.9 10.4 17.5 62.5
5. Substance Abuse 7.9 2.9 7.5 13.3 68.3
6. Self-Medication 9.2 13.8 32.9 22.5 21.3
7. Soil & Road Dust 6.7 17.1 28.8 27.5 20.0
8. Poor Ventilation 4.6 13.8 24.2 35.4 22.1
9. Overcrowding 10.4 16.3 30.4 27.5 15.4
10. Unequal Resource Distribution 9.6 11.7 30.8 32.1 15.8
11. Garbage Burning 8.3 8.8 20.4 29.6 32.9
12. Conventional Fossil Fuel Burning 7.9 5.8 23.8 32.1 30.4
13. Stubble Burning 9.2 8.3 13.8 30.0 38.8
14. Industrial Emission 8.8 3.3 14.2 34.6 39.2
15. AC Emission 5.4 10.4 27.5 32.9 23.8
16. High Tension/Stress 3.3 7.5 24.2 32.9 32.1
17. Using Polluted Water 5.8 8.3 12.5 27.9 45.0
18. Contaminated Food 5.4 10.4 12.9 27.9 43.3
19. Multiple Sex Partners 7.9 5.0 20.0 23.3 43.8
20. Unprotected Sexual Activities 7.9 4.2 18.8 19.2 50.0
21. Improper Personal Hygiene 3.8 14.6 15.0 28.3 38.3
22. Noise 12.9 17.1 34.2 19.2 16.7
23. Unhealthy Dietary Practices 9.2 10.8 25.0 34.2 20.8
24. Irregular Sleep Patterns 3.8 15.8 22.1 36.7 21.7
25. Frustration 1.7 14.2 28.8 31.3 24.2
26. Untreated Sewage Disposal 6.3 9.2 19.6 33.3 31.7
27. Physical Inactivity 7.5 8.8 31.7 28.3 23.8
28. Divorce 17.5 17.1 27.9 21.7 15.8
29. Parental/Generational Trauma 13.8 13.8 25.4 30.4 16.7
30. Strained Relationships 9.6 13.3 29.2 30.4 17.5
31. Work-Life Imbalance 6.3 11.3 25.0 37.9 19.6
32. Screen Time 6.7 16.7 21.3 25.8 29.6
33. Reduced Exposure to Sunlight 7.5 12.9 30.0 27.5 22.1
34. Consumption of processed food 4.2 13.3 30.0 25.8 26.7
(especially meat)
35. High Salt & Fat Intake 4.2 11.7 24.2 29.6 30.4
36. Attempted Suicide/Physical 9.2 7.5 11.7 24.2 47.5
Self-Harm
37. Antisocial Behaviour 8.3 11.7 25.0 28.3 26.7
38. Isolation 8.3 16.3 25.4 27.1 22.9
39. Burnout & Fatigue 5.4 13.3 25.8 29.2 26.3
40. Low Life Satisfaction 7.5 12.1 23.8 32.1 24.6
 38

41. Intentional Violence (fighting, theft, 11.3 5.8 19.2 30.0 33.8
weapon carrying)
42. Inadequate Research & the Spreading 6.7 10.0 25.8 30.0 27.5
of Misinformation
43. Low Education Attainment 10.8 13.3 25.4 27.9 22.5
44. Risk-Taking/Reckless Activities 7.9 8.8 17.9 24.6 40.8
(e.g.: Speeding, Drunk Driving)
45. Improper Child Spacing/Pregnancy 11.7 11.3 24.2 30.0 22.9
Planning
46. Childhood Neglect 7.9 15.4 29.2 22.9 24.6
47. Social Stigma & Abuse 6.3 11.3 24.2 32.9 25.4
48. Anxiety 9.3 9.8 29.9 28.4 22.5

Table 9 presents perceived health risk behavior percentages across various factors. The

table is divided into 42 rows, and each row represents a factor that contributes to health risks.

The columns of the table represent different levels of risk, from low to high, with five levels in

total.

On average, the perceived health risk behavior for each factor ranges from 5% to 30%.

The average percentage of the low-risk category is 7.4%, the slightly low-risk category is 11.4%,

the moderate-risk category is 23.4%, the slightly high-risk category is 28.8%, and the high-risk

category is 29%. The factors that are considered to have the highest risk of perceived health risk

behaviors include Attempted Suicide/Physical Self-Harm, Unprotected Sexual Activities, Using

Polluted Water, and Contaminated Food. These behaviors have an average percentage of 36.6%,

21%, 36.6%, and 37.8%, respectively.

Factors that have lower perceived health risk behaviors include High Tension/Stress, Low

Life Satisfaction, and Poor Ventilation, with an average percentage of 21.7%, 20.1%, and 20.6%,

respectively.

Table 10:
 39

Lifestyle Satisfaction

Mean 8.6

Standard Deviation 3.92

Range 19.00
Table 10 presents data on lifestyle satisfaction, including the mean, standard deviation,

and range of responses. The mean lifestyle satisfaction score is 8.6, indicating that, on average,

participants in the study reported high levels of satisfaction with their lifestyle. The standard

deviation of 3.92 suggests that there is some variability in responses, with some participants

reporting lower levels of satisfaction than others.

The range of lifestyle satisfaction scores reported in the study is 19, indicating that the

lowest reported score is 0 and the highest reported score is 19. This range suggests that there is

significant variation in how participants perceive their lifestyle, with some participants reporting

very low levels of satisfaction and others reporting very high levels of satisfaction.

Overall, the table provides a summary of the data collected on lifestyle satisfaction,

including measures of central tendency and variability. The findings suggest that while most

participants reported high levels of satisfaction with their lifestyle, there is still some variation in

responses, highlighting the importance of understanding the factors that contribute to overall

satisfaction with one's lifestyle.

Table 11:
Wellness Index

Mean 12.05
 40

Standard Deviation 7.06

Range 23.00
Table 11, titled "Wellness Index," presents summary statistics for a sample population's

overall wellness index score. The table displays three key statistics: the mean, standard deviation,

and range of the wellness index scores.

The mean wellness index score for the sample population is 12.05, indicating that, on

average, individuals in the sample have a wellness index score of approximately 12 out of a

possible range of scores. The standard deviation of 7.06 suggests that there is a fair amount of

variation in the wellness index scores within the sample population.

The range of the wellness index scores in the sample population is 23.00, indicating that

the lowest possible score is likely around -11 (since a negative score is possible) and the highest

possible score is around 12.

Overall, Table 11 provides a snapshot of the wellness index scores in the sample

population, highlighting the average score, as well as the level of variability in the scores, as

indicated by the standard deviation. This information can be used to compare the wellness index

scores of the sample population to other populations, or to identify potential areas for

improvement in the wellness of individuals within the sample.

Table 12:
Happiness Index
 41

VARIABLES COMPLETELY SLIGHTLY NEITHER SLIGHTLY COMPLETELY

UNHAPPY UNHAPPY HAPPY NOR HAPPY HAPPY
UNHAPPY

% % % % %

Alcohol/Drug Use 37.9 15.0 23.8 9.2 14.2

Job or education 5.0 7.9 19.6 31.3 36.3

progress

Money 3.8 10.4 29.2 24.6 32.1

management

Social Life 4.2 6.7 31.3 33.8 24.2

Personal Habits 2.1 11.7 27.1 32.5 26.7

Marriage/Family 7.1 7.5 24.2 32.5 28.8

relationships

Legal Issues 17.5 12.9 30.4 17.9 21.3

Emotional Life 5.8 14.6 31.3 28.3 20.0

Communication 6.3 10.4 26.3 36.7 20.4

Spiritual Life 8.3 9.2 23.3 29.6 29.6

Table 12 presents the findings of a survey or study that investigated the relationship between

various variables and individuals' level of happiness. The table consists of 10 rows, each

representing a different variable, and 5 columns, indicating the percentage of participants who

reported being completely unhappy, slightly unhappy, neither happy nor unhappy, slightly happy,

or completely happy in relation to that variable.

The data indicates that alcohol/drug use had the highest percentage of participants reporting

being completely unhappy (37.9%) compared to other variables. In contrast, personal habits had

the lowest percentage of participants reporting complete unhappiness (2.1%).

 42

Regarding job or education progress, 36.3% of participants reported being completely happy,

while only 5% reported being completely unhappy. Money management had the highest

percentage of participants reporting being neither happy nor unhappy (29.2%). Social life had the

highest percentage of participants reporting being slightly happy (33.8%).

In terms of marriage/family relationships, 28.8% of participants reported being completely

happy, while 7.1% reported being completely unhappy. Legal issues had the highest percentage

of participants reporting being completely unhappy (17.5%), while communication had the

highest percentage of participants reporting being slightly happy (36.7%).

Regarding spiritual life, 29.6% of participants reported being slightly happy or completely

happy, while 8.3% reported being completely unhappy. Overall, the table provides insights into

how different factors may impact individuals' levels of happiness

Discussion

The data presented in the tables and figures provides an overview of the demographic

characteristics, understanding of health, sources of health-related information and solutions, seek

intervention behavior, and beliefs about health in the surveyed population. The study includes

data from 240 individuals, including 51.7% males and 48.3% females, with a majority of

respondents being Hindus (90%). The highest percentage of respondents were in the adult age

group (36.3%), followed by adolescents (26.7%), late adults (19.2%), and the elderly (17.9%).

Table 2 indicates that the majority of respondents (58.3%) believe that health is a

combination of physical, mental, spiritual, and social well-being. In Table 3, it can be observed

that medical practitioners were the primary source of information on health-related matters
 43

(35.8%) and illness-related matters (47.5%). Additionally, family (25.8%) and friends (21.7%)

were also identified as important sources of information on health-related matters.

Table 4 presents data on whom individuals approach for solutions, with medical

practitioners being the primary approach (44.6%), followed by family (50%) and self (26.7%).

Table 5 shows the seek intervention behavior of the respondents, with 50.3% seeking

intervention for severe symptoms, followed by 24.9% for primary symptoms and 24.9% for

moderate symptoms.

The beliefs about health of the surveyed population are presented in Table 6. The

majority of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that health means indulging in good habits

(76.7%), avoiding junk food (73.7%), and taking charge of and responsibility for one's own life

(71.7%). Furthermore, 69.2% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that health is finding

ways to resolve any inner conflicts, and 63.4% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that

yoga/meditation is good for health.

The finding that medical practitioners were the primary source of information on

health-related matters is consistent with previous research. A study by Kim and Kim (2017)

found that healthcare professionals were the most trusted source of health information among the

general public in South Korea. Another study by Rains and Karmikel (2019) reported that

healthcare providers were the most frequently cited source of health information among adults in

the United States.

In terms of seeking intervention, the finding that a majority of respondents sought

intervention for severe symptoms is consistent with the concept of "illness behavior" in health
 44

psychology. According to Mechanic (1972), illness behavior refers to a person's response to

bodily symptoms and includes the decision to seek medical care. Mechanic proposed that the

severity of symptoms is one of the factors that influences illness behavior, and that individuals

are more likely to seek medical care for severe symptoms.

The belief that health is a combination of physical, mental, spiritual, and social

well-being is consistent with the concept of "holistic health" in health psychology. Holistic health

emphasizes the interconnectedness of physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual well-being

(Cohen, 2004). The World Health Organization (WHO) also recognizes the importance of a

holistic approach to health, stating that "health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social

well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity" (WHO, 1948).

Finally, the belief that good habits, avoiding junk food, taking charge of one's own life,

resolving inner conflicts, and practicing yoga/meditation are important for good health is

consistent with a growing body of research on lifestyle factors and health outcomes. For

example, a systematic review by Lopresti et al. (2019) found that practicing yoga and meditation

can improve mental health outcomes such as anxiety, depression, and stress. Another systematic

review by Chen et al. (2019) found that healthy lifestyle behaviors such as regular physical

activity, healthy diet, and not smoking were associated with a lower risk of chronic diseases such

as diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

Overall, the findings presented in the study are consistent with previous research in health

psychology and support the importance of medical practitioners as a source of information and
 45

solutions, the need for intervention for severe symptoms, and the importance of a holistic

approach to health

Limitations: The survey described has several limitations that may affect the

generalizability and accuracy of the findings. Firstly, the survey used purposive sampling, which

means that participants were selected based on specific criteria, and this may not be

representative of the entire population of Delhi NCR. Therefore, the findings may not be

generalizable to other populations, and it may not be possible to draw broad conclusions about

the attitudes and behaviors of adults in Delhi NCR.

Secondly, the survey relied on self-reported data, which may be subject to social

desirability bias, where participants provide answers they believe are socially acceptable rather

than their true beliefs or behaviors. This could limit the accuracy of the findings, as participants

may not provide truthful responses, especially when reporting sensitive information.

Thirdly, the survey had a limited scope, as it investigated perceptions of health and

illness, perceived health risks, and health-seeking behaviors, but it did not examine other factors

that may impact health, such as environmental factors, access to healthcare, and lifestyle factors.

This means that the survey findings may not provide a comprehensive understanding of the

factors that influence health and illness in Delhi NCR.

Fourthly, the survey was conducted in English, which may limit participation by

individuals who are not fluent in the language. Additionally, the survey relied on structured and

validated questionnaires, which may be difficult for individuals with low literacy levels to

complete accurately. This could result in a biased sample, as individuals who are unable to

complete the questionnaire accurately may be excluded from the study.

 46

Finally, the survey asked participants to recall past health-related behaviors, which may

be subject to recall bias, where participants may have difficulty accurately recalling past events

or behaviors. This could limit the accuracy of the findings, as participants may not remember

their past behaviors accurately, which may lead to incorrect conclusions being drawn.
 47

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