ANAPHY LAB (FINALS) • Involved in speech

• Olfactory receptors
• Warms air
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• Sneezing dislodges materials from nose
Functions
1. Gas exchange
Pharynx
2. Regulation of blood pH
- Throat
3. Voice Production
- Common passageway for resp. and dig.
4. Olfaction
systems
5. Innate Immunity
• Nasopharynx:
6. Ventilation
takes in air
• Oropharynx:
Upper Respiratory Tract
- extends from uvula to epiglottis
• External nose
- takes in food, drink, and air
• Nasal cavity
• Laryngopharynx:
• Pharynx
- extends from epiglottis to esophagus
- food and drink pass through
• Uvula:
- “little grape”
- extension of soft palate
• Pharyngeal tonsil:
aids in defending against infections

Nose
 External nose:
- composed of mainly of hyaline cartilage
 Nasal cavity: Lower Respiratory Tract
- extends from nares (nostrils) to choane • Larynx
- Nares or nostrils: the external openings of • Trachea
the nose which open into the nasal cavity. • Bronchi
- choan(a)e: openings to pharynx • Lungs
- Nasal septum ;divides the nasal cavity
into left & right parts Larynx
- hard palate is its roof; separates the nasal - In front of throat
cavity from the oral cavity - Consists of cartilage
• Paranasal sinuses: - Consists of an outer casing of 9
- air filled spaces within bone cartilages connected to one another (3
- open into nasal cavity are unpaired & six form 3 pairs)
- lined with mucous - Voicebox
• Conchae: These 2 maintains an open passageway for air
- on each side of nasal cavity movement
- increase surface area of nasal cavity • Thyroid cartilage:
- help in cleaning, humidifying, warming - largest piece of cartilage
of air - called Adam’s apple
• Nasolacrimal ducts: • Cricoid cartilage
- carry tears from eyes - the most inferior which forms the base
- open into nasal cavity of the larynx
Functions of Nose • Epiglottis:
• Filters - piece of cartilage
• Airway for respiration - flap that prevents swallowed
 materials from entering larynx - segment of lung tissue that is bounded
3 paired cartilages: (form an attachment site for by connective tissue partitions &
the vocal folds) supplied by a single bronchiole) of the
 Cuneiform cartilage – top cartilage lung
 Corniculate cartilage – middle cartilage
 Arytenoid cartilage – bottom cartilage Lungs
• Vocal folds/cords: - Primary organ of respiration
- true vocal cords; when touched by - Cone shaped
food or liquid triggers coughing reflex - Rest on diaphragm
- source of voice production - Right lung has 3 lobes (superior, middle
- air moves past them, they vibrate,and & inferior)
sound is produced - Left lung has 2 lobes (superior &
- force of air determine loudness inferior)
- tension determines pitch - Contains many air passageways
(divisions)
• Laryngitis:
- inflammation of vocal fold Air Passageways of Lungs
- caused by overuse, dry air, infection - Primary bronchi
- Lobar (secondary) bronchi
- Segmental (tertiary) bronchi
- Bronchioles
- Terminal bronchioles
- Respiratory bronchioles
- Alveolar ducts
- Alveoli
- Structures become smaller and
more
numerous from primary bronchi to alveoli

Trachea
- Windpipe
- Consists of 16-20 C shaped pieces of
cartilage
- Contains cilia pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
- Smoking kills cilia
- Coughing dislodges materials from
trachea
- Divides into right and left primary
bronchi (lungs)
Bronchi
- Divide from trachea
• Alveoli:
- Connect to lungs
- small air sacs
- Lined with cilia
- where gas exchange occurs
- Contain C shaped pieces of cartilage
- surrounded by capillaries
 bronchial tree
- 300 million in lungs
- In each lung, the primary bronchi
• Asthma attack:
branch into smaller & smaller airways
- contraction of terminal bronchioles
 secondary bronchi
leads to reduced air flow
- enters the lobes of the lung
- divide to form 9-10 tertiary bronchi
Respiratory Membrane
 bronchiole
- In lungs where gas exchange
- branches of the bronchial tree they
between air and blood occurs
become smaller and smaller and
- Formed by walls of alveoli and
becomes narrow to about 1mm &
capillaries
cartilage disappears
- Alveolar ducts and respiratory
 lobule
bronchioles also contribute
 - Very thin for diffusion of gases - Alveolar pressure is greater than (high)
Layers of Respiratory Membrane atmospheric pressure (low)
- Thin layer of fluid from alveolus - Air moves out of lungs
- Alveolar epithelium (simple squamous)
Lung Recoil
- Basement membrane of alveolar epithelium
- tendency for an expanded lung to
- Thin interstitial space
decrease in size
- Basement membrane of capillary - occurs during quiet expiration
endothelium - due to elastic fibers and thin film of fluid
- Capillary endothelium (simple squamous) lining alveoli

Pleural Membranes and Cavities Surfactant

 Pleura: - mixture of lipoproteins
- double-layered membrane around lungs - produced by secretory cells of alveoli
• Parietal pleura: - single layer on surface of thin fluid lining
- membrane that lines thoracic cavity alveoli
- reduces surface tension
• Visceral pleura:
- keeps lungs from collapsing
- membrane that covers lung’s surface
• Pleural cavity: Pleural Pressure
- space around each lung - pressure in pleural cavity
- less than alveolar pressure
Ventilation - keep alveoli from collapsing
- breathing
- process of moving air in and out of lungs Factors that Influence Pulmonary Ventilation
- uses diaphragm: skeletal muscle that • Lung elasticity:
separates thoracic and abdominal cavities - lungs need to recoil between ventilations
Phases of Ventilation - decreased by emphysema
• Inspiration: • Lung compliance:
- breathe in - expansion of thoracic cavity
- uses external intercostal muscles - affected if rib cage is damaged
• Expiration: • Respiratory passageway resistance:
- breathe out occurs during an asthma attack, infection,tumor
- uses internal intercostal muscles
Pulmonary Volumes
 Spirometer:
device that measures pulmonary volumes
 Tidal volume (TV):
volume of air inspired and expired during quiet
breathing
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):
volume of air that can be inspired forcefully
after a normal inspiration
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):
volume of air that can be expired forcefully
Pressure Changes and Air Flow after a normal expiration
- When thoracic cavity volume increases pressure  Residual volume (RV):
decreases. volume of air remaining in lungs after a max.
- When thoracic cavity volume decreases expiration (can’t be measured with spirometer)
pressure increases. • Vital Capacity (VC):
- Air flows from areas of high to low pressure. max. amount of air a person can expire after a
Inspiration max. inspiration
- Diaphragm descends and rib cage expands VC = IRV + ERV + TV
- Thoracic cavity volume increases, pressure • Total lung capacity (TLC):
decreases TLC = VC + RV
- Atmospheric pressure is greater than (high) Factors that Influence Pulmonary Volumes
alveolar pressure (low) - Gender
- Air moves into alveoli (lungs) - Age
Expiration - Height
- Diaphragm relaxes and rib cage recoils - Weight
- Thoracic cavity volume decreases, pressure
increases Gas Exchange
• Respiratory membrane:
 - where gas exchange between blood and air - Emotions and speech affect breathing
occurs  Hering-Breuer Reflex:
- primarily alveoli - inhibits respiratory center when lungs are
- some in respiratory bronchioles and alveolar stretched during inspiration
ducts
- does NOT occur in bronchioles, bronchi,
Chemical Control of Breathing
trachea
- influenced by thickness of membrane, total - Chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata
area of membrane, partial pressure of gases respond to changes in blood pH
- Blood pH are produced by changes in blood
Respiratory Membrane Thickness CO2 levels
- Increased thickness decreases rate of diffusion - An increase in CO2 causes decreased pH,
- Pulmonary edema decreases diffusion result is increased breathing
- Rate of gas exchange is decreased - Low blood levels of O2 stimulate
- O2 exchange is affected before CO2 because CO2 chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic
diffuse more easily than O2 bodies, increased breathin
Surface Area
- Total surface area is 70 square meters
(basketball court)
- Decreased due to removal of lung tissue,
destruction from cancer, emphysema

Partial Pressure
- pressure exerted by a specific gas in a
mixture of gases
- Ex. Total pressure of all gases is 760 (mm
Hg) and 21% of mixture is O2 then partial
pressure for O2 is 160 mm Hg
- symbol is P and gas (Po2)

Diffusion of Gases in Lungs

- Cells in body use O2 and produce CO2.
- Blood returning from tissues and entering lungs
has a decreased Po2 and increased Pco2
- O2 diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary
capillaries (blood)
- CO2 diffuses from capillaries into alveoli

Diffusion of Gases in Tissues

- Blood flow from lungs through left side of
heart to tissue capillaries
- Oxygen diffuses from capillaries into
interstitial fluid because Po2 in interstitial
fluid is lower than capillary
- Oxygen diffuses from interstitial fluid into
cells (Po2) is less

Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood pH

- CO2 diffuses from cells into capillaries
- CO2 enters blood and is transported in
plasma, comb. with blood proteins,
bicarbonate ions
- CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid
when forms H+ + bicarbonate ions
- Carbonic anhydrase (RBC) increases rate of
CO2 reacting with water
- CO2 levels increase blood pH decreases

Rhythmic Ventilation
- Higher brain centers allow voluntary
breathing
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM • Tonsils:
- palatine tonsils on each side of oral cavity
Functions - pharyngeal tonsils near internal opening of
1. Fluid balance nasal cavity (adenoid)
2. Fat Absorption - lingual tonsils posterior surface of tongue
3. Defense - form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue
around nasal and oral cavities

Components
• Lymph:
- fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries
composed of water and some solutes • Lymph nodes:
• Lymphocytes - rounded structures that vary in size
• Lymphatic vessels - located near lymphatic vessels
• Lymph nodes - groin, armpit, neck
• Tonsils - lymph passes through lymph nodes
• Spleen before entering blood
• Thymus gland - lymph moves through and immune
system is activated (lymphocytes
Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessels produced) if foreign substances are
• Carries fluid in one direction from tissues to detected
circulatory system - removal of microbes by macrophages
• Fluid moves from blood capillaries into
tissue spaces
• Lymphatic capillaries:
- tiny, closed-ended vessels
- fluid moves easily into
- in most tissues
- join to form lymphatic vessels
• Lymphatic vessels:
- resemble small veins
- where lymphatic capillaries join • Spleen:
- one way valves - size of clenched fist
• Right lymphatic duct: - located in abdomen
- where lymphatic vessels from right upper - filters blood
limb and right head, neck, chest empty - detect and respond to foreign
- empties into right subclavian vein substances
 Thoracic duct: - destroy old red blood cells
- rest of body empties from lymphatic vessels - blood reservoir
- empties into left subclavian vein - white pulp: lymphatic tissue
surrounding arteries
- red pulp: contains macrophages and
red blood cells that connect to veins

Lymphatic Organs
 - Tears, saliva, urine wash away
pathogens
Chemical Mediators
- chemicals that can kill microbes
and prevent their entry into cell
Lysozyme: found in tears and
• Thymus gland: saliva to kill bacteria
- bilobed gland Mucous membranes: prevent
- located in mediastinum behind the sternum entry of microbes
- stops growing at age 1 Histamine: promote
- at age 60 decreases in size inflammation by causing
- produces and matures lymphocytes vasodilation
Interferons: proteins that
protect against viral infections
by stimulating surrounding cells
to produce antiviral proteins

Cells
• White blood cells:
- produce in red bone marrow and
lymphatic tissue that fight foreign
substances
• Phagocytic cells:
- ingest and destroy foreign substances
- Ex. neutrophils and macrophages
• Neutrophils:
- first to respond to infection but die quickly
• Macrophages:
- monocytes
- leave blood and enter tissues
- can ingest more than neutrophils
- protect lymph in lymph nodes and blood in
spleen and liver
- given specific names for certain areas of
body (Kupffer cells in liver)
• Basophils:
- made in red bone marrow
- leave blood and enter infected tissues
- can release histamine
• Mast cells:
- made in red bone marrow
- found in skin, lungs, gastrointestinal
Immunity tract, urogenital tract
- ability to resist damage from foreign - can release leukotrienes
substances • Eosinophils:
- Ex. Microbes, toxins, cancer cells - produced in red bone marrow
Types of immunity: - release chemicals to reduce
- innate inflammation
- adaptive • Natural Killer Cells:
Innate Immunity - type of lymphocyte
- present at birth - produce in red bone marrow
- defense against any pathogen - recognize classes of cells such as
- accomplished by physical barriers, tumor
chemical mediators, cells inflammatory - cells or virus infected cells
response - release chemicals to lysis cells
Physical Barriers
- First line of defense Inflammatory Response
- Skin and mucous membranes to act - involves chemical and cells due to injury
as barriers
 - signaled by presence of foreign substance
- stimulates release of chemical mediators

Adaptive Immunity
- defense that involves specific recognition to
a specific antigen
- acquired after birth
- reacts when innate defenses don’t work
- slower than innate immunity
- has memory
- uses lymphocytes (B and T cells)
- 2 types antibody-mediated and cell-
mediated

Terms Related to Adaptive Immunity Antigen Recognition

• Antigen: - Lymphocytes have antigen receptors on
- substance that stimulates immune response their surface
- Ex. Bacteria, virus, pollen, food, drugs, etc. - Called B-cell receptors on B cells and T-cell
• Self-antigen: receptors on T cells
- molecule produced by person’s body that - Each receptor only binds with a specific
stimulates immune system response antigen
• Antibody: - When antigen receptors combine with
- proteins the body produces in response to antigen the lymphocyte is activated and
antigen adaptive immunity begins
Major histocompatibility complex molecule
Origin and Development of Lymphocytes (MHC):
• Stem cells: - contain binding sites for antigens
- red bone marrow - specific for certain antigens
- give rise to all blood cells - hold and present a processed antigen on
- give rise to some pre T cells and pre B cells the surface of the cell membrane
• Lymphocytes: - bind to antigen receptor on B or T cells and
- type of white blood cell stimulate response
- involved in adaptive immunity Cytokines:
- develop from stem cells - proteins secreted by a cell that
- differentiate into specific lymphocytes regulatesneighboring cells
- such as B or T cells - Ex. Interleukin 1 released by macrophages
• B cells: stimulates helper T cells
- type of lymphocytes Lymphocyte Proliferation
- involved in antibody-mediated 1. After antigen is processed and present to
immunity helper T cells, helper T cell produces
- originate from stem cells interleukin-2 and interleukin 2-receptors
- mature in red bone marrow 2. Interleukin-2 binds to receptors and
- move to lymphatic tissue after mature stimulates more helper T cells production
- lead to production of antibodies 3. Helper T cells are needed to produce B cells
4. B cells produce antibodies

• T cells: Dual Nature of Immune System

- type of lymphocyte - Lymphocytes give rise to 2 types of immune
- involved in cell-mediated immunity responses: antibody-mediated and cell-
primarily and antibody-mediated immunity mediated
- mature in thymus gland - Antigens can trigger both types of
- move to lymphatic tissue after mature responses
- 4 types - Both types are able to recognize self vs.
nonself, use specificity, and have memory

Antibody-Mediated
- effective against antigens in body fluids
(blood and lymph)
 - effective against bacteria, viruses, toxins - to antigen that has been seen before
- uses B cells to produce antibodies - B memory cells quickly divided to form
- plasma cells which produce antibodies
Antibody Structure - produces new memory cells
• Letter Y shape
• Variable region: Cell-Mediated Immunity
- V of Y - effective against antigens in cells and
- bind to epitopes of antigen using tissues
antigen-binding site - effective against bacteria, viruses, fungi,
• Constant region: and protozoa
- stem of Y - uses different types of T cells
- each class of immunoglobulin has same
structure Types of T cells
• Helper T cells (TH):
- activate macrophages
- help form B cells
- promote production of Tc
• Cytotoxic T cells (Tc):
precursor to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)
• Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL):
destroys antigen on contact
• Regulatory T cells (Tr):
turn off immune system response when
antigen is gone

Types of Adaptive Immunity

Naturally Acquired Immunity
• Active:
- natural exposure to antigens causes
production of antibodies
• Antigen-binding site:
- can be lifelong immunity
site on antibody where antigen binds
- Ex. Mononucleosis
- Valence:
• Passive:
number of antigen-binding sites on
- transfer of antibodies from mother to child
antibody
- Ex. Breast milk or placenta
• 5 immunoglobulins used to destroy
Artificially Acquired Immunity
antigens:
• Active:
IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD
- injection of antigens using vaccines which
cause the production of antibodies
Effects of Antibodies
- vaccine or immunization:
- Inactivate antigen
process of introducing killed, live, or
- Bind antigens together
inactivated pathogen
- Active complement cascades
• Passive:
- Initiate release of inflammatory chemicals
 injection of antibodies from another
- Facilitate phagocytosis
person or animal
Antibody Production
Primary response
- 1st exposure of B cell to antigen
- B cell undergoes division and forms plasma
cell and memory cells
• Plasma cells:
- produce antibodies
- 3-14 days to by effective against antigen
- person develop disease symptoms

Secondary Response
• Memory cells:
- occurs when immune system is exposed
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND BODY
METABOLISM
Digestion
 Breakdown of ingested food
 Absorption
 Passage of nutrients into the blood
Metabolism
 Production of cellular energy (ATP)

Organs of the Digestive System

Two main groups
 Alimentary canal – continuous coiled hollow
tube
 Accessory digestive organs

RESULT AND INTERPRETATION OF IODINE TEST

Processes of the Digestive System

 Ingestion – getting food into the mouth
 Propulsion – moving foods from one region of
the digestive system to another
 Peristalsis – alternating waves of contraction
 Segmentation – moving materials back and
forth to aid in mixing
 Mechanical digestion
 Mixing of food in the mouth by the
tongue
 Churning of food in the stomach
 Segmentation in the small intestine
 Chemical Digestion
 Enzymes break down food molecules
into their building blocks
 Each major food group uses different
enzymes
 Carbohydrates are broken to simple
sugars
 Proteins are broken to amino acids
 Fats are broken to fatty acids and
alcohols
 Absorption
- End products of digestion are
absorbed in the blood or lymph
- Food must enter mucosal cells and
then into blood or lymph capillaries
 Defecation
 Elimination of indigestible substances as
feces
URINARY STRUCTURE & URINALYSIS

URINARY SYSTEM
 Excretory System or Renal System
 consists of two kidneys, two ureters, one
urinary bladder, and one urethra
 responsible for the production, storage, and
elimination of urine.
 Nephrology is the scientific study of the
anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the
kidneys.

FUNCTIONS:
 Excretion of Waste Products
 Regulation of Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
 Acid-Base Balance (pH Regulation)
 Blood Pressure Regulation
 Erythropoiesis Regulation
 Detoxification
 Storage and Elimination of Urine
 Regulation of Vitamin D Activation
 Concentration of solutes
 Vitamin D production
 Red blood cell concentration

Components of Urinary System

 2 kidneys
 2 ureters
 1 urinary bladder
 1 urethra

CHARACTERISTICS OF URINE
 COLOR AND TRANSPARENCY
 ODOR
URINARY SYSTEM STRUCTURES
 pH
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 CASTS KIDNEYS
 are reddish, bean–shaped organs located
just above the waist between the
peritoneum and the posterior wall of the
abdomen.
 located in the retroperitoneal space, on either
side of the spine, just below the ribcage.
 e primary organs in the urinary system
 The right kidney is slightly lower than the
left because the liver occupies considerable
space on the right side superior to the
kidney.
 produce erythropoietin (for red blood cell
production) and activate vitamin D.
 Shape and size: - bean shaped - weighs 5 oz.
(bar of soap or size of fist)
 Location: between 12th thoracic and 3rd
lumbar vertebra

ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY:

 Renal hilum - an indentation or depression
in the concave border near the center of
the kidney through which the ureter
emerges from the kidney along with blood
vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
  Renal Capsule - the outer layer, is a sends signals to the brain when it is time to
smooth, transparent sheet of dense urinate.
irregular connective tissue that is  in pelvic cavity
continuous with the outer coat of the  stores urine
ureter.  can hold a few ml to a max. of 1000 ml
 protects and acts as a barrier
URETHRA
 Renal cortex – a superficial, light red region.
 a small tube leading from the internal urethral
 outer portion
orifice in the floor of the urinary bladder to the
 Renal medulla – the deep, darker reddish- exterior of the body.
brown inner region/portion.  In both males and females, the urethra is the
 Renal pyramids - several cone-shaped area terminal portion of the urinary system and the
in the renal medulla. passageway for discharging urine from the
 junction between cortex and medulla body.
 Renal papilla – the apex or narrower end of  Five times longer in males than in females
the renal medulla that points toward the  Both reproductive and urinary system structure
renal hilum. for males and only urinary in structure for
 Renal column – portions of the renal cortex females.
that separate the renal pyramids.  tube that exits bladder
 Nephron – functional unit of the kidney  carries urine from urinary bladder to outside of
body
 Minor calyx – one of the 2 cuplike
structures that receives filtrate that leads to
the major calyx.
 Major calyx – conducts urine through a
single large cavity called the renal pelvis
located in a space called renal sinus.
 Renal sinus - contains renal pelvis, blood
vessels, fat
 Renal pelvis - where calyces join - narrows to
form ureter

URINALYSIS
 an analysis of the volume and physical,
URETER
chemical, and microscopic properties of urine
 Two muscular tubes from the renal pelvis of
and can reveal much about the body.
one kidney to the urinary bladder.
 the volume of urine eliminated per day in a
 carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
normal adult is 1–2 liters.
They are muscular tubes that use peristalsis
 Water accounts for about 95% of the total
(wave-like contractions) to propel urine down
volume of urine. The remaining 5% consists of
to the bladder.
electrolytes, solutes derived from cellular
metabolism, and exogenous substances such as
URINARY BLADDER
drugs.
 a hollow, distensible muscular organ situated in
 Normal urine is virtually clear to pale yellow in
the pelvic cavity posterior to the pubic
color
symphysis. In males, it is directly anterior to the
 Two blood-screening tests can provide
rectum; in females, it is anterior to the vagina
information about kidney function. One is the
and inferior to the uterus.
blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test, which measures
 Stores urine until it is ready to be eliminated.
the blood nitrogen that is part of the urea. And,
The bladder can expand as it fills with urine and
plasma creatinine, which results from
 catabolism of creatine phosphate in skeletal through the capillary walls into the
muscle. Bowman's capsule.
 Bowman’s Capsule/Renal Capsule:
 A cup-shaped structure that
surrounds the glomerulus and
collects the filtrate from the
glomerular capillaries.
 enlarged end of nephron
 opens into proximal tubule
 contains podocytes (specialized cells
around glomerular capillaries)
2. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT):
 Located just after the Bowman's
capsule, the PCT is a highly coiled
structure where most of the
reabsorption of water occurs.
3. Loop of Henle/Nephron Loop:
 A U-shaped structure that dips into
the medulla of the kidney.
 contains descending and ascending
loops
 water and solutes pass through thin
walls by diffusion
 Descending Limb:
 Permeable to water but not to
solutes, allowing water to be
reabsorbed into the surrounding
tissue.
 Ascending Limb:
 Impermeable to water but actively
transports sodium, potassium &
Chloride ions out into the
surrounding tissue, which helps
create a concentration gradient in
the kidney and facilitates water
NEPHRON reabsorption.
 functional unit of the kidney, responsible for 4. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT):
filtering blood, removing waste products, and  Located after the Loop of Henle, the DCT is
regulating fluid and electrolyte balance. involved in the further regulation of ion
 over 1 million/kidney balance .
► TWO MAJOR STRUCTURES: 5. Collecting Duct:
 RENAL CORPUSCLE  Multiple nephrons drain their filtrate into a
 RENAL TUBULES common collecting duct.
► TWO KINDS OF NEPHRON  The collecting duct plays a key role in water
 CORTICAL NEPHRONE – are most numerous, reabsorption under the influence of the
making up about 85% of nephrons. hormone antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
 JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRON – are located When ADH is present, it increases the
deep in the cortex at the border with the permeability of the duct to water, allowing
medulla more water to be reabsorbed into the
 Play an important role in concentrating urine. blood.
 The collecting duct ultimately drains urine
STRUCTURES; into the renal pelvis, from where it passes
1. Renal Corpuscle (Filtering Component) through the ureter to the bladder
 Glomerulus: 6. Filtration membrane:
 A tangled ball of capillaries  in renal corpuscle - includes glomerular
surrounded by the Bowman's capillaries, podocytes, basement
capsule. membrane
 Blood enters the glomerulus via the 7. Filtrate
afferent arteriole, and the filtered  fluid that passes across filtration
fluid (called filtrate) is pushed membrane
8. Proximal tubule
  where filtrate passes first  Aldosterone increases rate of active
transport of Na+ in distal tubules and
collecting duct
 Volume of water in urine decreases

Flow of Filtrate through Nephron

 Renal corpuscle
 Proximal tubule
 Descending loop of Henle
 Ascending loop of Henle
 Distal tubule
[Link] Hormone
 Collecting duct
 ADH is secreted by posterior pituitary gland.
 Calyx
 ADH acts of kidneys and they absorb more
 Renal pelvis
water (decrease urine volume)
 Ureter
 Result is maintain blood volume and blood
Blood Flow through Kidneys
pressure
 Renal artery
 Interlobal artery
 Arcuate artery
 Interlobular artery
 Afferent arteriole
 Glomerulus
 Efferent ateriole
 Peritubular capillaries
 Vasa recta
 Interlobular vein
 Arcuate vein
 Interlobar vein [Link] Natriuretic Hormone
 ANH is secreted from cardiac muscle to right
atrium of heart when blood pressure increases
 ANH acts on kidneys to decrease Na+
reabsorption
 Sodium ions remain in nephron to become
urine
 Increased loss of sodium and water reduced
blood volume and blood pressure

Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume

Three Hormonal Mechanisms
[Link]-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
 Renin acts on angtiotensinogen to produce
angiotensin I
 . Angiotensin-converting enzyme converts
angiotensin I to angtiotensin II
 Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction Urine Movement
 Angiotensin II acts on adrenal cortex to Micturition reflex - activated by stretch of urinary
release aldosterone bladder wall
  Action potentials are conducted from  2 types are resp. acidosis and metabolic
bladder to spinal cord through pelvic acidosis
nerves  Alkalosis occurs when pH of blood increases
 Parasympathetic action potentials cause above 7.45
bladder to contract
 Stretching of bladder stimulates sensory Measuring Specific Gravity
neurons to inform brain person needs to Urinometer
urinate  Measures specific gravity
 Reading the meniscus
Body Fluid Compartments  Take temperature of urine into account
 Intracellular fluid Refractometer
 Extracellular fluid  Most common tool for
 measuring specific gravity of liquids Measures
refractive index
 of urine Reads about 0.002 below
 that of true specific gravity Needs 1 drop of
urine
Regulation of Extracellular Fluid Composition
 Easy to use but more expensive
 Thirst Regulation
- Water intake is controlled by
hypothalamus in thirst center
- Conc. of blood increase thirst center
responds by initiating sensation of
thirst
- When water is consumed, conc. of
blood decreases and sensation of
thirst decreases

 Ion Concentration Regulation

Regulation of Acid-Base Balance

 Buffers
- Chemicals resist change in pH of a
sol’n
- Buffers in body contain salts of weak
acids or bases that combine with H+
- 3 classes of buffers: proteins,
phosphate buffer, bicarbonate buffer
 Respiratory System
- Responds rapidly to change in pH
- Increased resp. rate raise pH due to
rate of carbon dioxide elimination
being increased
- Reduced respiratory rate reduced pH
due to rate of carbon dioxide
elimination being reduced
 Kidneys
- Nephrons secrete H+ into urine and
directly regulate pH of body fluids
- More H+ if pH is decreasing and less
H+ if pH is increasing

Acidosis and Alkalosis

 Acidosis occurs when pH of blood falls below
7.35
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Functions
1. Production of gametes
2. Fertilization
3. Development and nourishment of new individuals
4. Production of sex hormones

Formation of Sex Cells

• Gametes: - sex cells - sperm in males - oocytes (eggs)
in females
• Meiosis: special type of cell division that leads to
formation of sex cells Urethra:
• Each sperm cell and each oocyte contains 23 - extends from urinary bladder to end of penis
chromosomes - passageway for urine and male reproductive fluids
• Fertilization: union of sperm and oocyte (not at same time)
• Zygote: - what develops after fertilization - develops Penis:
into an embryo 3-14 days after fertilization - corporus cavernosum, corpus spongiosum, spongy
• Embryo: 14-56 days after fertilization urethra: 3 columns of erectile tissue which fill with
• Fetus: 56 days after fertilization blood for erection
- transfer sperm from male to female
Functions of Male Reproductive System - excrete urine
• Produce sperm cells (sex cells)
• Produce male sex hormones Glands
• Transfer sperm cells to female • Seminal Vesicles:
- next to ductus deferens help form
Male Reproductive Organs ejaculatory duct
Scrotum: • Prostate gland:
- contains testes - surrounds urethra
- contains dartos muscle that moves scrotum and - size of a walnut
testes close to and away from body depending on temp. • Bulbourethral gland:
- sperm must develop at temp. less than body temp. - small mucus secreting glands near
Testes: base of prostate gland
- primary male reproductive organ
- produces sperm
- in scrotum
- contain seminiferous tubules: where sperm is
produced
- contain interstitial cells: secrete testosterone
- contain germ cells: begin of sperm cell
- contain Sustentacular cells: nourish germ cells and
produce hormones
Epididymis:
- thread-like tubules on side of each testis
- where seminiferous tubules empty new sperm
- where sperm continue to mature develop ability to
swim and bind to oocytes
Ductus deferens
- “vas deferens”
- extends from epididymis and joins seminal vesicle
- cut during a vasectomy
 - seminiferous tubules produce germ
cells and Sustentacular cells

Production of Sperm Cell

1. Germ cells
2. Spermatogonia
3. Primary spermatocytes
4. Secondary spermatocytes
5. Spermatids
6. Sperm cells

Sperm Cells Structure

• Head: contain a nucleus and DNA
• Midpiece: contain mitochondria
• Tail: flagellum for movement

Secretions
• Semen:
- mixture of sperm and secretions from glands
- provides a transport medium and nutrients that
protect and activate sperm
- 60% of fluid is from seminal vesicle
s - 30% of fluid is from prostate gland
- 5% of fluid is from bulbourethral gland
- 5% of fluid is from testes
• Seminal vesicles
Male Sex Hormones
- provide fructose
- contain prostaglandins which decrease mucus
thickness around cervix and uterine tubes and help
sperm move through female repro. tract
- contains coagulants that help deliver semen into
female
• Prostate gland:
- contains enzymes to liquefy semen after it is inside
female
- neutralizes acidity of vagina
• Bulbourethral gland:
-neutralize acidity of male urethra and female vagina
• Testicular secretions:
-include sperm and small amount of fluid
• 2-5 ml of semen is ejaculated each time Male Puberty
• 1 ml of semen contains 100 million sperm - sequence of events in which a boy
• Sperm can live for 72 hours once inside female begins to produce male hormones
and sperm cells
Path of Sperm - begins at 12-14 and ends around 18
1. Sperm develop in seminiferous tubules (testes) - testosterone is major male hormone
2. Epididymis (mature) - secondary sexual characteristics
3. Ductus deferens develop: Ex. Skin texture, fat
4. Receive secretions from seminal vesicles, prostate distribution, hair growth, skeletal
gland, and bulbourethral gland muscle growth, and larynx changes
5. Urethra where semen (sperm) exit body
Functions of Female Reproductive System
Spermatogenesis • Produce female oocytes (sex cells)
- formation of sperm cells • Produce female sex hormones
- begins at puberty • Receive sperm from males
- interstitial cells (in semin. tubules) • Develop and nourish embryos
increase in number and size
- seminiferous tubules enlarge External Female Genitalia
• Vulva:
 - external female sex organs
- mons pubis, labia majora and minora, clitoris, and
vestibule
• Mons pubis:
- fatty layer of skin covering pubic symphysis
• Labia majora:
- larger, outer folds of ski - equivalent to male scrotum
• Labia minora:
-thin, inner folds of skin
• Clitoris: • Uterus:
- small erectile structure located in vestibule - pear sized structure located in pelvic cavity
- equivalent to male penis - functions: receive, retain, and provide nourishment
• Prepuce: for fertilized oocyte, where embryo resides and
- where 2 labia minora unite over clitoris develops
• Vestibule: - body: main part
-space in which vagina and urethra are located - cervix: narrow region that leads to vagina
• Uterus layers:
- perimetrium (serous): outermost layer
- myometrium (muscular): middle layer composed of
smooth muscle
- endometrium: innermost layer that is sloughed off
during menstruation

• Vagina:
- extends from uterus to outside of body
- female copulation organ that receives penis during
intercourse
- allows menstrual flow
- involved in childbirth
- contains very muscular walls and a mucous membrane
- very acidic to keep bacteria out

Female Reproductive Organs

• Ovaries
: - primary female reproductive organ
- produces oocytes and sex hormones
- one on either side of uterus
- ovarian ligaments: anchor ovaries to uterus
- suspensory ligaments: anchor ovaries to pelvic cavity
- ovarian follicle: cells in ovaries that contain oocytes

• Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes:

- part of uterus which extends toward ovaries and
receive oocytes
- fimbriae: fringe-like structures around opening of
uterine tubes that help sweep oocyte into uterine tubes
- tubal ligation (sterilization of female) Ovulation
- ectopic pregnancy: if fertilized oocyte (zygote) - when a mature follicle ruptures
implants somewhere beside uterus (usually in uterine forcing oocyte into peritoneal (pelvic)
tube) cavity
- due to LH (anterior pit. gland)
• Corpus luteum:
- mature follicle after ovulation
- degenerates if egg is not fertilized

Other Female Reproductive Facts

• Females are born with all of their oogonia (2 million),
unlike males that only begin to produce sperm during
puberty.
• At puberty about 300,000-400,000 oogonia are left.
• Puberty to menopause, FSH stimulates several
follicles to begin developing during each menstrual
cycle but only 1 follicle should be ovulated. Menstrual Cycle
• Oocytes are swept into one of uterine tubes by - series of changes that occur in
fimbriae. sexually mature, nonpregnant females
• If sperm is present in uterine tube during ovulation  Menses: time when endometrium is shed from
oocyte could be fertilized. uterus
• If fertilization occurs then zygote implants in uterus.  Average is 28 days and results from cyclical
• Oocyte only lives for 24 hours, so if no sperm is changes that occur in endometrium
present at ovulation no zygote develops, and oocyte
dies. Stages of Menstrual Cycle
• Days 1-5 Menses (shedding of endometrium)
Female Puberty - menstrual bleeding (menses)
• Begins between 11-13 and is usually completed by 16 - estrogen and progesterone levels are low
• Menarche first episode of menstrual bleeding - follicle begins to mature
• Vagina, uterus, uterine tubes, and external genitalia to • Days 6-13 Proliferative (between end of menses and
enlarge and fat is deposited in breast and hips ovulation)
• Elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone are - endometrium rebuilds
secreted by ovaries - estrogen levels begin to increase
- progesterone levels remain low
Mammary Glands - follicle matures 57
• Organs of milk production in breasts • Day 14 Ovulation
• Modified sweat glands - oocyte is released due to LH
• Female breasts begin to enlarge during puberty - estrogen levels high
• Consists of lobes covered by adipose - progesterone levels are increasing
• Lobes, ducts, lobules are altered during lactation to - cervical mucus thins
expel milk • Days 15-28 Secretory (between ovulation and next
menses)
- endometrium is preparing for implantation
- estrogen levels decrease (low)
- progesterone levels high
- cervical mucus thickens

Menopause
- time when ovaries secrete less
hormones and number of follicles in
ovaries is low
- menstrual cycle and ovulation are less
regular
- hot flashes, fatigue, irritability may
occur
- estrogen replacement therapy may be
used to decreases side effects