P.

O Box 342-01000
Thika
Email: Info@[Link]
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SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: BBY 1210

COURSE TITLE: TAXONOMY

Author’s Name: Judith Museve

Contacts: 0722 444240

copyright@2016-All rights reserved for MKU

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MEANING OF SYMBOLS

Objectives

Activity

!
Key note

Summary

Self Assessment Question (SAQs)

Further Reading

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COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course unit, the trainees should be able to :
i. Discuss the general characteristics and life cycle of the major plant and animal goups
ii. Discuss the classification of plants and animals into subgroups
iii. Learn on the morphological and anatomical features of bth plants and animals so as to
undertake the basis of cllassifcation
iv. Learn on Botanical nomenclature , principles and rules in Taxonomic ranks and the
principles of priority
v. Prepare a dichotomous key

COURSE OUTLINE
Week Topic Lectures
1 Introduction – History of 1 – History and Fundamentals of classification
classification, Objectives of
classification and types of
classification
2 General charactristics of 2 – General characteristics of living organisms and
living organisms and types the differences between Eukaryotic and
of cells Prokaryotic cell
3 Kingdom Fungi 3 – General characteristics and Classification of fungi
4 Kingdom Protoctista 4– General characteristics and Classification of
Protists – Plant like protists and Animal like
protists
5 Kingdom Monera 5 – General characteristics and Classification of
Bacteria
6&7 Kingdom Plantae 6 – General characteristics and classification of
Plants – Divisions Bryophyta and Filicinophyta
7 – General charactraistics and classification of
plants – Divisions Coniferophyta and
Angiospermatophyta
8, 9, 10 Kingdom Animalia 8 – General characteristics and clasification of
& 11 Animals – Phyla Porifera, Cnidaria and
Platyhelminthes

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 9 – General characteristics and classification of
Animals – Phyla Nematoda, Annellida,
Mollusca
10 – General characteristics and classification of
Animals – Phyla Echinodermata and Arthropoda
11 – General characteristics and classification of
Phylum Chordata

TABLE OF CONTENT
1. History and fundamentals of classification………………………………….….4
2. General characteristics of iving things…………………………………….…..20
3. Kingdom Fungi…………………………………………………………….........22
4. Kingdom Protoctista………………………………………………………….....36
5. Kingdom Monera………………………………………………………………..45
6. Kingdom Plantae –Divisions Bryophyta and Filicinophyta……………..........50
7. Kingdom Plantae– Divisions Coniferophyta and Angiospermatophyta…......59
8. Kingdom Animalia- Phyla Porifera, Cnidaria and Platyhelminthes…………69
9. Kingdom Animalia-Phyla Nematoda, Annelida and Mollusca…………….….78
10. Kingdom Animalia-Phyla Echinodermata and Arthropoda……………….…83
11. Kingdom Animalia – Phylum Chordata……………………………………….95

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 Lecture 1
History and Fundamentals of classification

You will be required to complete an activity while working through this session and
reading from the recommended text

Taxonomy is the science of classifying living things (biodiversity).

It has 2 branches:

i. Nomenclature – This is the naming of organisms

ii. Systematics – This is the placing organisms into groups according to their
similarities and differences.

In taxonomy, organism are identified, named and grouped according to their

characteristics and evolutionary history. Organisms with certain basic features in common
are grouped together.

1.1 History of classification

Classification begun with the early natural historians. Early natural historians sought a
means to organize biological diversity. Initiall, they started with plants due to their
medicinal value. With time classification was extended to animals and othe organisms.
The contributions of natural historians are as follows:

Early ages

285 -370 BC – Theophrastus ( Plato & Aristotles’s student) classified plants into 4 groups:

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 herbs, subshrubs, shrubs and trees. He distinguished between flowering

and non- flowering plants. He suggested that corolla and calyx are

modified leaves. He described about 500 plants in details and some names

are applicable to date. Eg. Asparagus, Daucas

23 – 79 AD – Caius Plinius Secundus described the biological, medicinal and agricultural

aspects of the plants known to the world then. He introduced the word”

stamen”

62 – 128 AD – Pedanios Dioscorides described the botany of 600 species of medicinal

plants.

This was compiled as Medical Materail(Materia Medica) which is used to-

date. He suggested names such as Aloe, Anemone, Phaseolus.

Middle ages

1200 – 1280AD – Albertus Magnus introduced a scheme of classification of plants that

recognized monocots and dicots, and separated vascular from non-

vascular.

16th century

1500AD onwards- Many people motivated to publish their own botanical medical books.

The books were called herbals and the authors were called herbalists.

16th century known as the “time of great herbalists”, most of whom

were based in Germany.

17th century

1560 – 1624 – Gaspar Bauhin (Swiss botanist) compiled a register of all the different

plants known to science then. He introduced systematic botany and

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 initiated the use of binomial nomenclature though it was inconsistent. He

distinguished the concept of genus and species.

1686 – John Ray (English) suggested a scheme of classification of plants

1656 – 1708 – Joseph Pitton de Tournefort arranged over 9000 kinds of plants in about

700 genera and grouped them into classes.

18th century

1707 – 1778 – Carolus Linnaeus used the binomial system of nomenclature consistently.

In 1753 Linnaeus proposed a system that gave each organism two names,

Denoting genus and species (eg Homo sapiens). He then grouped genera

into families, families into orders, orders into classes, classes into phyla,

and phyla into kingdoms. He identified two kingdoms: Animalia (animals)

and Plantae (plants). However, several unrelated organisms were classified

together.

Animal kingdom contained motile organisms that feed heterotrophically while the plant
kingdom contained mainly static organisms which feed autotrophically by photosynthesis.
Unicellular heterotrophs (protozoa) were put in the animal kingdom while unicellular
autotrophs (protophyta) were put in the plant kingdom.

Challenges with 2 kingdom system:

i. Unicellular flagellates such as Euglena are put with protozoa in the animal
kingdom yet they contain chlorophyll and feed autotrophically. Some flagellates
can feed autrophically or heterotrophically depending on conditions hence could
alternate between plant and animal kingdom

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ii. Fungi had been classified with plants yet they lack chlorophyll and feed
heterotrophically. Also there cell structure is different from that of plants in several
ways.

iii. Bacteria and blue-green algae are similar to each other(prokaryotes) and are very
different from all other organisms that are eukaryotic

The challenges were addressed by classifying the organisms in 5 kingdoms

In 1969 - Thomas Whittaker proposed a "five kingdom" system in which three kingdoms,

that is Monera (bacteria), Protista, and Fungi were added to the animals and

plants. Whittaker defined the kingdoms by a number of special characteristics.

First, he specified whether the organisms possessed a true nucleus (eukaryotic)

or not (prokaryotic). Monera are prokaryotic and all are unicellular. The other 4

kingdoms are Eukaryotic. Eukaryotic unicellular organisms were placed into the

kingdom Protista. The five kingdoms system captured the diversity of life much

better than the 2 kingdom system.

Activity 1.1
What is the contribution of Carolus Linnaeus in taxonomy?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

1.2 Objectives of Classification

The role of classification is to bring order among the many existing organisms in the
world by organizing and categorizing them. The purpose of classification is to identify and
make natural groups

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 Objectives:

i. To help clarify relationships among organisms

ii. To help us remember organisms and their traits

iii. To enable us to communicate clearly the identity of organisms being studied

iv. To improve our predictive powers

v. To provide stable names for organisms

Importance of classification systems:

 improve our ability to explain relationships among things. This is especially important
in the attempt to reconstruct the evolutionary pathways that have produced the
diversity of organisms living today.

 Make it easier to remember organisms by grouping them into categories, whose

members share many characteristics.

 provide relatively stable, unique, and unequivocal names for organisms. If those
names are changed, the systems provide means of tracing the changes.

 greatly improves our predictive powers such that if the general characteristics of a
group of organisms(class, genus etc) are known, a prediction can be made for a newly
discovered organism that has most of the traits even if some may be non-functional.
Eg mammals – hair on skin, mammary glands, feed young one on milk, constant high
body temperature etc. if new organism has all other traits but mammary glands are
non-functional – male = mammal

1.3 Taxonomic Hierarchy

This is the system of grouping organisms into hierarchical categories. It is based on

Carolus Linnaeus classification. He used the morphology of organisms to categorize them
and devised 7 different levels of organization. These categories in descending order are :

Kingdom

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Phyla/ Division

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species

The 7 levels are called taxonomic categories (ranks) and collectively make up the
taxonomic hierarchy. The kingdom is the largest category (unit). Each category (unit) is
split into number of units of the category below it. As one goes down the taxonomic
hierarchy from kingdom to species, the number of organisms in each group decreases and
similarities between them increase. Species is the smallest grouping and it contains a
single organism type. If the members of the same species show significant variation then
subsets called sub-species are formed. The subsets are sub-species in the case of animals
or varieties in the case of plants.

1.4 Binomial Nomenclature (Two-Part Naming System)

This is the system of scientific naming organisms using two-part names. The first part of
the name is the genus and the second part of the name is the species (species identifier).
Usually, the species identifier is a descriptive word. Eg. The scientific name for humans is
Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus. Sapiens is the species identifier and it means “wise”.

The generic name begins with a capital letter while the specific name starts with a small
letter. Both names must be written in italics or underlined.

If an organism belongs to a subspecies or variety then the scientific name has 3 parts. That
is, the genus, species identifier and subspecies or variety name. eg. The scientific name for
the eastern box turtle of the triungui subspecies of the Carolina species in the genus
terrapene is written as: Terrapene Carolina triungui.

Species names are Latinized so that they are the same in every language. This enables
scientists around the world to identify organisms by the same name. A species name may
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 describe the organism or be in honour of a person or it may suggest the geographic range
of the organism. Eg. Linnaea borealis is a species of a flower that was Linnaeus favourite.
Borealis means “northern”.

Example of classification hierarchy of organisms:

Taxonomic group Eg. Plant Eg. Animal

Kingdom Plant Animal

Phylum/ Division Angiospermatophyta Chordata

Class Magnoliopsida(Dicotyledons) Mammalia

Order Ranales Carnivora

Family Ranunculaceae Felidae

Genus Ranunculus Panthera

Species Acris Leo

Scientific name Ranunculus acris Panthera leo

Common name Meadow buttercup Lion

Importance of scientific names

They are very important in agriculture and medicine. In agriculture for the purposes of
plant breeding, biological control and chemical control of pests.

In medicine the names are useful in developing drugs such as antibiotics because it is
important to know the particular pathogenic organisms they are intended to destroy.

1.5 Identification of Organisms

Organisms are identified using the observable characteristics. These are readily observable
morphological features such as shape, colour, number of appendages, segments etc. The
feature may be used either in a manner that is either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative
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 use of features includes shape and colour of abdomen while quantitative features include
number of hairs, number of appendages and length of stem. The chosen characteristic
must be constant for that species and not subject to variation due to environmental
influences. Qualities of a good characteristic are : it is constant, easily observable, exist in
two or more forms, external and be able to be used either qualitatively or quantitatively.

There are many types of identification (diagnostic) keys but the simplest and most
common is the dichotomous key.

A dichotomous key is a system of identifying organisms whereby the organisms are split
into 2 successive groups of equal size based on a certain clearly distinguishable feature.
The feature must exist in two or more states. There are 2 types of dichotomous keys,
spider key and linear key. In a spider key, the organisms are split into 2 successive pairs of
groups of approximately equal size on the basis of the specific distinguishable feature.
This gives a spider key from which each specimen can be identified.

The same information can be rearranged in the form of a linear key. A statement is made
based on a specific feature and there is a number referring to the next lead to be
considered if the specimen matches the feature. The number of steps in a linear key should
be one step fewer than the number of organisms being identified. A linear key is more
convenient than a spider key since it takes up less space.

Keys are usually restricted to particular groups or to organisms that occur in a

specific habitat for convenience. Books containing plant keys alone are Floras. Books
containing animal keys alone are Faunas.

Activity 1.2
What is the qualities of a good characteristic in classification
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

1.6 Characteristics used in identification

i. External structure

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External features visible to the naked eye permit quick identification of [Link] shape of
leaves, presence of petiole, presence or number of antennae, number of appendages, number
of wings, shape of abdomen etc. Such features are useful for identification at higher level such
as families and genera. Distinguishing between specie requires smaller features to be used
necessitating the use of hand lens or microscope.

ii. Cell structure

Cell structure is used to make basic split in the classification of living things into prokaryotes
and eukaryotes. The number of chromosomes in the cell of an organism is used to distinguish
between organisms in the same species.

iii. Chemical constitution

Similar organisms can be distinguished by comparing the chemical substances which they
contain. Techniques such as chromatography and electrophoresis are used to compare the
amino acids in the proteins of different organisms. The sequence of amino acids in a particular
protein or DNA can also be determined. This analysis is useful in determining phylogenetic
relationships. Chemical composition is particularly useful when identifying bacteria which
may all look alike and have an identical cell structure. Other characteristics used in
identification are immunological reactions, types of symbionts that organisms associate with
and the behavior of the organisms such as the way they respond to stimuli or the way they
build their nests.

1.7 Process of identification

1. Decide on type of sample. Eg plants or animals. Plants- leaves, flowers or fruits.

Animal-insects etc

2. Sample collection and organization

3. Determine and list down the characteristics to be used in identification

4. The presence or absence of the different characteristics is presented on a data matrix

Eg. Data matrix showing the presence or absence of a series of 5 different characteristics in

10 hypothetical organisms; A – J
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 Organisms Characteristics

1 2 3 4 5

A √ X √ √ √

B X √ X X X

C √ X √ √ X

D X √ √ X X

E X X X √ √

F √ √ X √ X

G √ √ √ X X

H X X √ X √

I X √ X √ X

J √ X √ X X

5. These characteristics are then used to identify the different types of organisms that
have been collected and /or to split them into groups.

The use of various characteristics to split organisms into groups is the basis of taxonomy.

1.8 Types of Classification

There are 2 main categories of classification: Artificial classification and Natural classification

Artificial classification is based on one or few easily observable characteristics. Eg Linnaeus

classification of all worm-like organisms as vermes etc. This put snakes and worms in the
same group.

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Natural classification uses the natural relationship between organisms. It is based on
characteristics such as anatomy (physical structures visible to the naked eye), Physiology, Cell
structure, Biochemistry (chemical constitution & reactions).

Taxonomy uses natural classification. There are 3 types of natural classification:

1. Phylogenetic classification (cladistics /evolutionary)

Based on evolutionary relationship and ancestry alone. It shows the degree to which different
groups are connected in evolution. The organisms are classified into groups according to the
presence or absence of certain basic characteristics. It ignores their degree of morphological
similarity or difference. A cladist looks for features which different organisms have in
common based on their ancestry and constructs a branched diagram called a cladogram
(phylogenetic tree). A group with shared features is a clade. A clade contains one ancestor
(which can be an organism, a population, or a species) and all its descendants. The closeness
of organisms on a cladogram indicates the presumed time since they diverged from their most
recent common ancestor. The clades are the taxa. Each clade (taxon) is a single lineage that
includes all-and only-the descendants of a single ancestor.

Example:

In first illustration : A , B and C are all descendants of X, hence form a clade.

In second illustration: A , B and C are all descendats of X. A , B and X form a clade. C is not
part of the clade, C diverted from the ancestor X and forms a diferent evolutionary path. This
can be caused by a mutation in organism C that gave rise unique characteristics to C , thus
making C very different from the rest of the descendants of ancestor X.

2. Numerical (phenetic) classification

Based on numerous characteristics. The closeness between different groups is determined by

the total number of individual characteristics which they have in common. Usually 10 – 100
characteristics are selected and they all carry equal weight. The greater the number of

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characteristics, the more valid the classification is presumed to be. Any observable
characteristic may be chosen:

 Morphological

 Physiological

 Anatomical

 Biochemical

 Behavioural etc

It is called phenetic because it is not based on any preconceived ideas.

Phenetic classification can be applied to any taxa from species to phyla.

EXAMPLE

To classify 10 different groups of organisms A – J

a) Draw a list of the observable characteristics

b) Construct a data matrix whereby you record whether or not each characteristic is
present in each group.

c) Each group is compared with each of the other groups with respect to all
characteristics and the degree of similarity is estimated as follows:

Number of characteristics common to the two groups x 100

Total number of characteristics being considered

If the 2 groups share 21 out of 50 characteristics, then the similarity between them is;

21 x 100 = 42%
50
Degree of similarity is 100 % if the 2 groups are identical and 0% if the 2 groups are
completely different.

d) Display the percentages on a similarity matrix

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 A B C D E F G H I J
A 100 54 80 63 62 81 50 83 50 61
B 54 100 55 57 57 55 86 56 87 56
C 80 55 100 62 64 85 51 86 50 62
D 63 57 62 100 74 63 56 65 56 96
E 62 57 64 74 100 64 56 67 56 72
F 81 55 85 63 64 100 54 67 52 65
G 50 86 51 56 56 54 100 87 85 55
H 83 56 86 65 67 87 54 100 54 67
I 50 87 50 56 56 52 85 54 100 55
J 61 56 62 90 72 65 55 67 55 100

e) Rearrange the similarity matrix so that groups which show the

closest similarity are clustered together. This is done by looking at
the figures. If the groups are too many then a computer is used.

A C F H J D E G I B
A 100
C 80 100
F 81 85 100
H 83 86 87 100
J 61 62 65 67 100
D 63 62 63 65 90 100
E 62 64 64 67 72 74 100
G 50 51 54 54 55 56 56 100
I 50 50 52 54 55 56 56 85 100
B 54 55 55 56 56 57 57 86 87 100
There should be no value after the 100 figure

f) Link the various groups together according to the degree of similarities between them
to form a tree-like diagram called a dendogram. Classification is then constructed
from the dendogram

Dendogram

A C F H J D E G I B

90

80

70

60

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50

40

30

20

10

3. Orthodox classification

This is a combination of numerical (phenetic) and phylogenetic (cladistics). It uses both

evolutionary relationships and other characteristics to classify organisms.

NB: Modern taxonomy uses the orthodox classification

Activity 1.3
Research on the hints of constructing a dichotomous key.

You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the
following:
 The history of classification
 Objectives of classification
 Taxonomic hierarchoes
 Binomial nomenclature
 Characteristics used in classification
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 Types of classification

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your break,
answer the following questions:

1. Define Taxonomy
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain the branches of taxonomy.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. List down the taxonomic ranks in descending order

_________________________________________________________________________

4. Outline 5 qualities of a good characteristic in classification

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Describe the binomial nomenclature system of naming organisms
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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 Further reading
1. Quentin D. W. (2008) The New Taxonomy (Series –Systematics Association Special
Volume) Taylo & Francis ISBN: 0849390885
2. Sharma, O. P. (2009) Plant Taxonomy. Tata MacGraw Hill Publishing Company
Limited. ISBN: 0070141592

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 Lecture 2
General characteristics of living organisms

2.1 General characteristics of living organisms

i. All living things share basic properties:

Living things are made of cells - All living things are made up of cell. A cell is the basic unit
that can be alive. There are 2 main types of cells in the kingdoms: prokaryotic cell and
eukaryotic cell. Prokaryotic cell is found in Kingdom Monera while the other kingdoms have
eukaryotic cells.

ii. Living things obtain and use energy - need energy to grow, develop, repair dam-
age,

and reproduce.

iii. Living things grow and develop – Growth means increase in size. Development

involves a change in the physical form or physiological

make-up of an organism.

iv. Living things reproduce- Reproduction is the process of producing new organisms of

the same type.

v. Living things respond to their environment- Organisms react to stimuli such as:

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  Light
 Temperature
 Oduor
 Sound
 Gravity
 Heat
 Water
 Pressure
vi. Living things adapt to their environment through evolution. Evolution is a process
that enables organisms to become better suited to their environment.
vii. Living things are based on universal genetic code - Genes carry hereditary information
that is passed on from one generation to another.

viii. Living things maintain a stable internal environment(homeostasis)

2.2 Types of cells in living organisms

There are 2 types of cells in living organisms: Prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell.
Prokaryotic cell
A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear membrane thus lacks a nucleus. It also lacks or-
ganelles. It has small circular DNA and ribosomes which are scattered in the cytoplasm.

Cytoplasm contains all enzymes needed for metabolic reactions since there are no organelles.
Ribosomes are small type
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DNA is circular and not associated with any protein to form chromatin
Plasmid – small loops of DNA that are used to exchange DNA between bacterial cells, ge-
netic engineering and contain genes that make bacteria resistant to antibiotics.
Cell membrane is made of protein and phospholipids, similar to eukaryotic membrane
Mesosome – tightly folded region of cell membrane containing all the membrane bound pro-
teins necessary for respiration and photosynthesis
Cell wall is made up of murein (glycoprotein). There are 2 types of cell wall differentiated by
their staining ability. Gram positive bacteria have a thick cell wall which stains purple and re-
tains the stain. Gram negative bacteria have a thin wall that stains pink since some of the stain
diffuses out.
Capsule – This is a thick polysaccharide layer outside the cell wall found in Gram positive
bacteria only. Used for:
 sticking together of the cells
 protection against desiccation, chemicals, phagocytosis
 Food reserve
Flagellum – rigid rotating tail used for propulsion. It rotates clockwise driven by the H+ gradi-
ent across the cell membrane

Eukaryotic cell
It has a nuclear membrane thus has a true nucleus. It has well organized organelles which per-
form specific functions. Its DNA is in the nucleus and ribosomes are attached to the Rough
endoplasmic reticulum.

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The cell has 3 main parts:
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
This is a double lipid-protein semi-permeable membrane which surrounds the cytoplasm.
The cell membrane provides outer covering for the cell and is also involved in cell transport.
Activity 1.1

Describe the structure of the cell membrane of a eukaryotic cell

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Nucleus
It is a dense body within the cell enveloped by a nuclear membrane. It consists of nucleoli, nu-
cleoplasm and chromatin. Nucleoli are made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and are involved in
protein synthesis. Chromatin contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or genes which are re-
sponsible for inherited characteristics. The nucleus controls chemical reactions that take part
in the cell and reproduction of the cell.

Cytoplasm
This is the protoplasm inside the cell membrane. It is a granular jelly-like substance in which
the cell organelles are suspended. Organelles are small physical structures which perform spe-
cific functions.

Cell organelles:
a) Mitochondria
It is the cell’s power house. They are rod shaped structures with a double lipid-protein
membrane. Mitochondria are the centers of cell respiration and produce the energy
needed by the cell. Cristae increase the surface area for respiration while the matrix
provides a medium for enzyme activity.
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b) Endoplasmic reticulum
A network of tubular structures with a membrane similar in structure to the cell mem-
brane. It is linked to the nuclear membrane and cell membrane. Part of the endoplas-
mic reticulum with ribosomes attached to it is the rough (granular) endoplasmic reticu-
lum. The part of endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes attached to it is the
smooth (agranular) endoplasmic reticulum.
The endoplasmic reticulum establishes a channel for the transport of materials
throughout the cytoplasm. Rough endoplasmic reticulum provides a site for protein
synthesis while smooth endoplasmic reticulum contains enzymes responsible for meta-
bolic pathways.

c) Golgi apparatus
Sac like structures similar in structure to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Golgi ap-
paratus store the substances formed by the cell and process them to form other cell
components. eg. packaging of proteins from rough endoplasmic reticulum.

d) Lysosomes (suicide bag)

Spherical bodies that contain an array of hydrolytic enzymes which operate in an
acidic medium. The lysosome is the intracellular digestive system and digests un-
wanted substances and structures in the cell. Eg. Bacteria.

e) Ribosomes
Tiny nucleoprotein granules containing enzymes necessary for protein synthesis. Ribo-
somes synthesize proteins. They are located on the surface of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.

f) Centrioles
Microtubules found in the centrosome. They are involved in cell division and also play
an important role in formation of cilia and flagella. Centrosome is a specialized region
near the nucleus.

g) Microfilaments
Tiny strands of protein that support and maintain the characteristic shape of the cell.

24
 h) Microtubules
Tiny contractile protein structures that are involved in the movement of the cell and of or-
ganelles within the cell.

i) Secretory vesicles(granules)
Storage vesicles consisting of a membrane enclosing a secretory substance.
Activity 1.2
Read about the two kinds of cells : Strauss E. and Lisowski M. (1998) .
Biology , The Web of Life. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. USA. Section
3.2, Pg 64.

You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the fol-

lowing:
 The charactersitics of living organisms
 The structure of the prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your break,
answer the following questions:

[Link] a prokaryotic cell froma eukaryotic cell

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Outline the differences between a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

25
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Strauss E. and Lisowski M. (1998) . Biology , The Web of Life. Addison Wesley Longman,
Inc. USA
Holt, Rinehart and Winston (2002). Time Warner company, USA

26
 Lecture 3
Kingdom Fungi

3.1 Main characteristics of Fungi

 Multi cellular eukaryotes, a few are unicellular
 Have heterotrophic nutrition – they are saprophytes or parasites
 Body consists of a network of thread like hyphae (mycelium) with cellulose or chiti-
nous walls
 In some forms, hyphae are divided into multinucleate compartments by cross walls
(septa). In other forms hyphae are undivided (aseptate)
 They have no plastids
 Have both sexual and asexual reproduction. Asexual by means of spores and sexual
by simple sexual conjugation
 Rigid cell wall containing chitin, cellulose, manna and other polysaccharides .
 Non-motile

3.2 Structure of fungi

The main body of most fungi is made up of fine, tubular branching threads called hyphae.
Each fungus will have large numbers of these hyphae forming a mass called mycelium. Each
hypha has a chitin wall. The protoplasm in the hyphae may be divided into compartments by
septa. Hyphae with compartments are septate while those without compartments are non-sep-
tate (aseptate). The hyphae aggregate to form more solid structures such as the spore-produc-
ing bodies which may be sporangia or conidia. In sporangia, the spores are produced inside a
27
protective casing. In conidia the spores are not in a protective casing. They are exposed or
naked spores. Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. sexual reproduction is by conju-
gation hyphae of different mating types fuse and give rise to a specialized structure that pro-
duces spores ( diploid). Spores multiply mitotically, get released and develop into new indi-
viduals.

Sporangium

Conidia

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 Activity 1.1
What are the differences between fungi and plants?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

3.3 Classification of Fungi

Kingdom Fungi has 5 phyla
i. Phylum Zygomycota (Zygomycetes)
ii. Phylum Ascomycota (Ascomycetes)
iii. Phylum Basidiomycota(Basidiomycetes)
iv. Phylum Oomycota (Oomycetes)
v. Phylum Myxomycota (Myxomycetes)

3.3.1 Phylum Zygomycota

Main Features
i. Asexual reproduction by non-motile spores. Spores produced from a stalked spore
[Link] sporangium
ii. Sexual reproduction by conjugation. Conjugation occurs between neighbouring hy-
phae
iii. Non-aseptate hyphae and large well developed mycelium. Hyphae may be coenocytic,
forming septa only where gametes are formed or to wall off dead hyphae.
Eg. – Mucor - Mucor indicus, Mortierella romanniana, Rhizopus oryzae, Rhizopus
delemar

29
3.3.2 Phylum Ascomycota
Main Features
i. Are multicellular but a few such as yeast are unicellular
ii. Both sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is by conjugation of hy-
phae which is followed by formation of spores in asexual reproduction. Spores are
formed inside a sac like structure called ascus, hence are called ascopores. The struc-
tures for sexual reproduction are called gametangia. These structures are either male or
female. The male gametangia may be a detached cell (called a spermatium) or a differ-
entiated region called an antheridium. The female structure is always a differentiated
region known as the ascogonium. The male and female gametangia fuse to form a cup-
shaped fruiting body called perithecium. Perithecium is the fruiting body in as-
comycetes that contains ascopores. Asci are grouped together in the perithecium
iii. Septate hyphae
Eg. sordaria, neurospora, Penicillium and yeast

3.3.3Phylum Basidiomycota
Main Features

30
 i. Asexual reproduction by means of basidiospores which are produced on a club-shaped
basidium.
ii. Basidia are located in a fruiting body made of densely packed hyphae e.g. mushroom
iii. Septate hyphae

Eg. mushrooms, puffballs, stinkhorns, bracket fungi, jelly fungi, boletes, chanterelles, earth
stars, smut

Mushroom

Basidium

3.3.4 Phylum Oomycota

Main Features

31
 i. Have both sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction by fusion of motile
flagellated zoospores which are the male gamete with an egg contained inside an
oogonium. Egg constitutes the female sexual spores, also called oospores. Male and
female gametes are found in conjugating hyphae. Flagellated zoospores fuse with the
oospores to form a fruiting body that produces the conidia.. Conidia contain conid-
iospores (2n). Asexual reproduction by non-motile conidia
ii. Rarely have septa. They are coenocytic
iii. No chitin in the cell wall

e.g. Genus Plasmospara

Genus , Phytopthora . eg Phytophtora infestans (potato blight fungus)

Also known as “egg fungi” because of the large round oogonia (structures containing the fe-
male gametes) that is characteristic of the oomycetes.

3.3.5 Phylum Myxomycota

Main Features
i. They are multicellular
ii. Grow in damp places. They are known as ‘cellular slime moulds’. Moulds are fur-like
growth of minute fungi
iii. Change forms during life cycle (curious life cycle) in which free-living ‘amoebas’ ag-
gregate into a slimy multinucleate “slug” which forms a spore producing sporangium.
The spores develop into a new generation of ‘amoebas’
E.g. Dictyostelium.

NB: Oomycota and Myxomycota are sometimes referred to “Not true “ fungi and are placed in a dif-
ferent kingdom.
Activity 1.2
Sometimes Oomycota and Myxomycota are classified in a different king-
dom. What kingdom are they placed in?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

32
 _________________________________________________________

3.4 Conditions necessary for growth of fungi

i. Low moisture
ii. Warm temperature
iii. Acidic environment
iv. High osmotic pressure
v. Low nitrogen
vi. Environments that contain complex carbohydrates that even bacteria generally cannot
metabolize

3.5 Economic Importance of Kingdom Fungi

1. Fungi can attack the tissues of living plants and animals and cause diseases.
Eg. Some of Human Fungal Diseases
Disease Fungus
1. Athletes foot Trichophyton species (Ascomycetes) [Link]-
worm Microsporum, Trichophyton species
3. Vaginal Yeast Infection Candida
4. Tinea Cruris (jockitch) Microporum, Trichophyton
5. Histoplasmosis Histoplasma capsulatum (Ascomycete)
2. They attack food sources such as bread, thus causing food spoilage

3. Fungi produce many products used in non-food industries.

i. Penicillium produces penicillin antibiotic
ii. Cephalosporium species produces cephalosporin antibiotic
iii. Rhizopus transforms specific chemicals to make cortisone. Cortisone is used to
reduce joint swelling
iv. The yeast saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in genetic engineering
v. Yeast is used to produce ethanol

4. Fungi are a valuable food source for humans

i. Yeast saccharomyces is an important nutritional supplement because it con-
tains vitamins, minerals and other nutrients

33
 ii. Agaricus (white button), portabella, truffels and morels are important delica-
cies

5. Fungi produce several chemical compounds that are important to the food-processing
industry such as citric and gluconic acids. Citric acid is used in soft drinks and candies.
Gluconic acid is fed to chicken to enhance the hardness of eggshells.
6. Environmental cleaning and sewage treatment – Fungi are decomposers and get rid of
organic matter in the environment by breaking them down into simpler substances.

You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the fol-
lowing:
 The general characteristics of fungi
 Classification of fungi
 Conditions necessary for fungal growth
 Economic importance of fungi

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your break,
answer the following questions:

1. Explain the difference between a sporangium and a conidia

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain why fungi are heterotrophic.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

34
 Further reading
1. Quentin D. W. (2008) The New Taxonomy (Series –Systematics Association Special
Volume) Taylo & Francis ISBN: 0849390885
2. Strauss E. and Lisowski M. (1998) . Biology , The Web of Life. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc. USA

35
 Lecture 4
Kingdom Protoctista (Protista)

There are 2 categories of protists: animal like (protozoa) and plant-like (protopyhta). You will
be required to complete an activity while working through this session and reading from the
recommended text.

4.1 Characteristics of protists

i. Mostly unicellular eukaryotes that are not plants, animals or fungi. Some are multicel-
lular and colonial organisms. Cells lack specialized functions
ii. Varied nutrition including photosynthesis. Photosynthetic pigments include chloro-
phyll, xanthophylls, phycobilins, and carotene.
iii. They are either free-living or parasitic.
iv. Sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual is by conjugation via mating papillae. Asex-
ual is mainly by fission.
v. Flagella and cilia may be present
vi. All have a membrane bound nucleus, many have chloroplasts and most have cell walls

Kingdom Protoctista has various phyla:

4.2 Plant-like protists (Algae)
a) Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)
Main characteristics
i. Unicellular
ii. Have chlorophyll A and B for photosynthesis
36
 iii. Form colonies
iv. Have one or more flagella at some stage in life
v. Store Carbohydrates as starch.
vi. Have pellicle – flexible outer covering. No cell wall
vii. Have both sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual is by conjugation while asexual is
by fission
viii. Found in damp places
Examples include chlamydomonas, chlorella, spirogyra, volvox

b) Phylum Euglenophyta
Main characteristics
i. Unicellular
ii. Cells lack a cell wall and are surrounded by a flexible protein covering called pellicle
iii. Both photosynthetic and heterotrophic nutrition species. Photosynthetic ones have
chlorophyll A and B
iv. Most live in fresh water
v. Have one flagellum
vi. Animal like movement
vii. Have asexual reproduction by binary fission
E.g. Euglena

37
 c) Phylum Rhodophyta (Red Algae)
Main features
i. Most are multicellular
ii. Have chlorophyll A and a phosphorescent red pigment
iii. Have 2 flagellated(di-flagellated)
iv. Have toxins
v. Are marine
Examples : Coralline algae

d) Phylum Phaephyta (Brown algae/fucus)

Main features
i. Multicellular
ii. Mostly marine ( only 3 genera are fresh water). Found on rocky shores.
iii. Dominant photosynthetic pigment is brown in color, called fucoxanthin. Some have
chlorophyll a and b present. Fucoxanthin strongly absorbs blue light which is able to
penetrate deep into the water.
iv. Store carbohydrates as mannitol and laminarin. They also store fat
v. Possess air bladders for buoyancy
vi. Have dichotomous branching to allow easy flow of water without being washed away.
Eg. Fucus, Laminaria

38
Diagram of fucus

e) Phylum Bacillariophyta
Main features
i. Unicellular
ii. Exist as colonies
iii. Maybe marine or freshwater
iv. Photosynthetic pigment is fucoxanthin

4.3 Animal like protists

a) Phylum Sarcodina (Rhizopoda)

Main features
i. Unicellular
ii. Heterotrophic nutrition
iii. More by means of pseudopodia (false feet) or similar structures
iv. Aquatic (fresh and salt water). The fresh water have contractile vacuoles for osmoreg-
ulation
v. Most are free living but a few are parasitic
vi. Undergo sexual and asexual reproduction, by conjugation and binary fission respec-
tively
For example: Amoeba proteus, Entamoeba histolytica

39
Adaptations of rhizopoda
i. Have a contractile vacuole for excretion hence maintaining osmotic pressure
ii. Reproduce fast by fission
iii. Build a transparent dome (arcella) from whatever material it finds in water which it
encloses itself in for protection.
iv. Easy and quick means of respiration by diffusion across the cell membrane

b) Phylum Ciliophora
Main features
i. Unicellular complex single cells
ii. Have a pellicle
iii. Mainly fresh water. They have a contractile vacuole for osmoregulation
iv. Have cilia at some stage in life cycle. Cilia used for locomotion and feeding
v. Heterotrophic
vi. Have sexual and asexual reproduction, by conjugation and binary fission respectively
vii. Have 2 nuclei, meganucleus and micronucleus. Micronucleus used in sexual conjuga-
tion
For example Paramecium, Vorticella

40
Diagram of paramecium

Adaptations of Ciliophora
i. They are double nucleated, with micronucleus for sexual conjugation and mega nu-
cleus for other cellular activities.
ii. They are ciliated, which helps in locomotion and feeding
iii. They have a kinetic in their cell cortex which has at least one kinetosome and its
cilium has two microtubular ribbons and a striated kinetodesmal fibril that help in
identifying a ciliate to a particular major class.
iv. They have a contractile vacuole that helps in excretion of water and metabolic
waste hence maintaining osmotic pressure

c) Phylum Sporozoa (Apicomplexa)

Main features
i. Unicellular
ii. Heterotrophic. All are animal parasites
iii. No external locomotory devices
iv. Have complex life cycles with asexual and sexual stages. Asexual stages involve
spores while sexual stages involve gametes.
Examples: Genus Plasmodium – Plasmodium falciparum

Genus Monocystis(Monocystis lumbrici)

41
Adaptations of sporozoa

i. They have an apicoplast, which is an adaptation of organisms that penetrate hosts

ii. They have a contractile vacuole for osmoregulation

iii. They adapt to host response and parasite competition by changing sex ratios so that
they maximize reproductive and transmission sources.

iv. They have multiple erythrocytic inversions as a strategy for defense mechanism.
They have a high degree of morphological variability some of which increase host
growth rate and reduce death of host despite heavy parasite infestation, thus
enhancing parasite survival.

d) Phylum Zooflagellata (Zoomastigina)

Main features

i. Mostly unicellular

ii. Heterotrophic. They are either parasitic or symbiotic

iii. Have at least one flagellum in their life cycle

iv. Complex life cycle. Unclear whether they have sexual or asexual reproduction

[Link] Trypanosomes – Trypanosoma cruzi

Genus Giardia – Giardia lamblia

Diagram of trypanosome

42
4.4 Conditions for the growth of protoctista

i. Moist habitat

ii. A suitable host

iii. Many protoctista have adaptations for responding to changes in the environment. The
adaptations include eyespots and cyst formation

4.5 Economic importance of Kingdom protoctista

1. Most protoctista are parasites and cause human and other animal diseases for example:

Protoctista Disease

Trypanosome African sleeping sickness

Giardia Giardiasis

Plasmodium Malaria

2. Algae are important as:

a) Food for aquatic organisms

b) They are producers and grow in large numbers therefore contribute to net global
oxygen available to humans and other terrestrial animals

c) Reduce biological oxygen demand (BOD) for other aquatic organisms

You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the

following:

 The general characteristics of protists

 Classification of Protists

 Determinants of community health

 Economic importance of protists

43
Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your break,
answer the following questions:

1. Outline the adaptations of Phaephyta to their environment

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. What is the difference between a pellicle and a cell wall?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

3. State the differences between plants and plant-like protists

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

1. Quentin, d. w.(2008) The New Taxonomy (Series –Systematics Association Special

Volume) Taylor and Francis ISBN: 0849390885.

2. Strauss E. and Lisowski M. (1998) . Biology , The Web of Life. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc. USA

44
 Lecture 5
Kingdom Monera
Kingdom comprisesof bacteria.

5.1 Main characteristics of bacteria

i. Unicellular

ii. Prokaryotic – have no membrane, bound organelles or nucleus

iii. Varied types of nutrition- may be heterotrophic or autotrophic

iv. Simple methods of reproduction. Have both asexual and sexual reproduction. Sexual
by conjugation and asexual by binary fission or fragmentation

5.2 The kingdom has 2 main phyla

a) Phylum Eubacteria

Main features

i. Unicellular but cells may be grouped together in clumps or chains

ii. Nutrition can be heterotrophic by absorption or autotrophic by photosynthesis or

chemosynthesis

iii. Reproduce asexually by binary fission or sexually by very simple conjugation

b) Phylum cyanobacteria
45
Main features

i. Unicellular or filaments

ii. Feed by photosynthesis. Photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll, phycoerythtin

and phycocyanin

iii. Reproduce by binary fission or fragmentation

Examples

a) Chroococcus – single spherical cell, reproduce by binary fission

b) Anabaena – unbranched filament consisting of chain of cells. They reproduce by

fragmentation

5.3 Classification of bacteria

1. Classification based on shape of cell.

Bacteria are classified according to the shape of individual cells as follows:

a) Cocci – have a spherical or oval cell. Based on the arrangement of cells, they are
classified as:

i. Monococcus – one spherical cell

ii. Diplococcus – occur in pairs

46
 iii. Staphylococcus – occur in lumps

iv. Streptococcus – chain of spherical cells

v. Tetrad - group of 4 cells

vi. Sarcina – group of 8 cells

b) Bacilli – rod shaped bacteria. On the basis of arrangement of the cells, they are
classified as:

i. Diplobacilli – pair of rod shaped cells

ii. Streptobacilli – chain of rod shaped cells

iii. Palisades

iv. Coccibacilli – Shape in between spherical & rod shape

c) Vibrio - Comma shaped or bent rod

d) Spirillum – spirally coiled cell with tuft of flagella

2. Classification of bacteria according to energy utilization

a) Photosynthetic bacteria – bacteria that synthesize their own food using sunlight as a
source of energy

b) Chemosynthetic bacteria – bacteria that make their own food using energy derived
from chemical reactions. They get energy by oxidizing chemical substances

H2S + O2 S + H2O

3. Based on respiration, they can be classified as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria

4. Based on the staining ability, they are classified as gram positive and gram negative
bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are a class of bacteria that take up and retain the
crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of bacterial differentiation.
Gram-negative bacteria cannot retain the violet stain.

5.4 Conditions necessary for growth of bacteria

47
Warm temperature

Oxygen

Water

Neutral pH

Isotonic environment (osmotic pressure)

5.5 Economic importance of Kingdom Monera

1. Some bacteria cause diseases by producing poisons called toxins. Toxins produced by
bacteria and released into the surrounding environment are exotoxins. They are made
of protein. Endotoxins are made of lipids and carbohydrates. They are not released by
the bacteria until the bacteria die. Bacteria also cause disease by destroying body
tissue. They adhere to cells and secrete digestive enzymes which damage the cell.

2. Useful bacteria are applied as follows:

a) Sewage treatment where bacteria act as decomposers

b) In producing and processing food. For example, bacteria ferment lactose in milk to
produce sour milk, sour cream, yoghurt. Bacteria also digest the protein in milk to
produce cottage cheese

c) Bacteria are used in industrial chemical production. They

- produce organic chemicals and fuels

- are used in mining minerals

- are used petroleum recovery

- in insecticides

- used to clean up environment form chemical and oil spills

You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the

following:

 The general characteristics of bacteria

48
  Classification of bacteia

 Conditions necessary for bacterial growth

 Economic importance of bacteria

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your
break, answer the following questions:

1. Distinguish bewtween heterotrophic and autotrophic bacteria

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the beneficial aspects of bacteria ?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

1. Quentin, d. w.(2008) The New Taxonomy (Series –Systematics Association Special

Volume) Taylor and Francis ISBN: 0849390885

2. Strauss E. and Lisowski M. (1998) . Biology , The Web of Life. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc. USA

49
 Lecture 6
Kingdom Plantae – Divisions Bryophyta and Filicinophyta

This kingdom comprises of plants.

6.1 General characteristics of plants

 Multicellular eukaryotes

 Photosynthetic nutrition

 Cells have cellulose cell wall, sap vacuole, plastids and several photosynthetic
pigments including chlorophyll a.

 Have sexual & asexual reproduction

6.2 Divisions in kingdom plantae

a. Bryophyta

b. Filicinophyta

c. Coniferophyta

d. Angiospermatophyta

50
6.2.1 DIVISION BRYOPHYTA

These are liverworts and mosses. They are the simplest land plants that evolved from algae.
They are not well adapted to life on land thus found in damp places.

General characteristics

i. Have alternation of generations in which gametophyte (n) generation is dominant. The

Plant body is a gametophyte.

ii. Body is a thallus or differentiated into simple leaves and stem.

iii. Sporophyte is attached to and is dependent on the gametophyte for nutrition

iv. Spores are produced by sporophyte in a spore capsule on the head of the end of a
slender stalk above the gametophyte

v. They grow in damp, shady areas which are in between the aquatic and terrestrial
habitats i.e. amphibious zone and hence known as amphibious plants.

vi. There are no true roots, stem or leaves. Rhizoids (root like structure) serve the function
of roots

vii. No vascular tissue, ie. No xylem & phloem

viii. The plants are green and possess chloroplasts

NB: A thallus is a plant body that is not differentiated into stem and leaves and lacks true roots

and a vascular system

Alternation of generations

The bryophytes have 2 alternating generations. There is a haploid gametophyte generation and
a diploid sporophyte generation. The haploid(n) gametophyte produces haploid gametes by
mitosis. The gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote (2n). The diploid zygote undergoes
repeated divisions to form a multi-cellular diploid sporophyte(2n). The sporophyte produces
haploid spores (n) called homospores, by meiosis which germinate into haploid

51
gametophytes(n) plants. The gametophytes form gametes by mitosis which fuse to from a
sporophyte and the cycle is repeated again. Sporophyte generally consists of foot, seta and
capsule. The haploid (n) gametophyte forms gametes in a mitotic division thus gametes are
haploid in nature. Male reproductive organ is known as antheridium. It is a club shaped
structure borne by a narrow stalk. It produces biflagellate and motile male gametes or
antherozoids. The female sex organ is known as archegonium. It is a flask shaped structure
having a swollen base and a narrow neck. The generation that occupies a greater portion of
the life cycle of the organism becomes the dominant generation. Water is essential for
fertilization.

There are 2 classes in this division:

i. Class Hepaticea

ii. Class Musci

Class Hepaticea (Liverworts)

General characteristics

 Gametophyte is flattened structure that varies from thallus to leafy

 Leaves are in 3 ranks along stem

52
  Rhizoids are unicellular

 Sporophyte is split into 4 valves to aid in spore dispersal

 Found on banks of streams, wet vegetation and damp rocks.

Eg. Pelia- Thallose liverwort

Marchantia – Thallose liverwort

Lophocolea – Leafy liverwort

Thallus liverwort

Class Musci

General characteristics

 Gametophyte is leafy with a stem

 Leaves are spirally arranged

 Rhizoids are multicellular

 Capsule of sporophyte has an elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal that involves

teeth or spores. It is dependent on dry conditions.

 Found in damp places. Often form a dense cushion. They are a common weed in green
houses and gardens

They have a more differentiated structure than liverworts

53
Eg. Funaria – woodland moss

Sphagnum – bog moss found in acid habitats

Adaptations of bryophytes to land

Mosses are better adapted to terrestrial environment based on their mode of spore dispersal.
The spore capsule needs to dry out so as to crack open and release the small light spores
which are dispersed by the wind. The gametes formed in gametophyte develop in enclosed
structures, the antheridia and archegonia. The rhizoids provide anchorage to solid substratum
(surface)

However, they still depend on water for:

 Swimming of sperms to the archegonia. Thus the antheridia burst open to release
sperms only when water is available.

 Since they do not have roots to penetrate the substrate, they are dependent on
availability of water and mineral salts close to or on the surface of the soil.

 They do not have special support structures thus the plants restricted in their upward.
They tend to be short plants.

54
[Link] FILICINOPHYTA (FERNS)

 Have alternation of generations with the sporophyte being dominant.

Gametophyte is reduced to a small, simple prothallus

 Vascular tissues are present in sporophyte

 Sporophyte has true roots, stems and leaves

 Leaves are relatively large and are called fronds

 Spores are produced in sporangia. Sporangia occur in clusters called sori

The presence of roots enables the plant to obtain water and dissolved mineral salts more easily
from the soil. The water is transported to other parts of the plant by the xylem vessel.

The leaves of the sporophyte grow from a thick horizontal stem called a rhizome. They may
have a height of one meter or more and are called fronds. The base of the frond is covered by
dry brown scales called ramenta. Ramenta protect the young leaves from drought and frost.
The young leaves are usually tightly rolled together. The ramenta gradually becomes smaller
at the main axis of the frond. The axis is called the rachis and the leaflets on either side are the
pinnae. The small rounded subdivisions of the pinnae are called pinnules. The rhizome has
adventitious roots. Branches from the main stem can break away eventually and give rise to a
new plant in vegetative reproduction.

55
Life cycle of fern

Ferns produce their spores in the dry season. The spores develop in sporangia which form
clusters called sori on the lower side of the pinnules. Each sorus has a protective covering
called an indusium. In the sporangium, the spore mother cells divide by meiosis to form
haploid spores. When the spores mature, the indusium shrivels and falls off and the exposed
sporangium begins to dry out. Eventually the sporangium raptures releasing the spores which
germinate to form the gametophyte. The heart shaped gametophyte (prothallus) is anchored to
the soil by rhizoids. The prothallus does not have a cuticle and is prone to drying out thus it
can only survive in damp conditions. The gametophyte (prothallus) has simple antheridia and
archegonia which produce the male and female gametes respectively. The Each sperm has
flagella. When the antheridium is ripe and water is available, it releases its sperms which
swim to the archegonia. Fertilization takes place with the formation of a diploid zygote. The
zygote develops into a sporophyte. The young embryo gets nutrients from the gametophyte
until its own roots ad leaves develop and take over the role of nutrition. The gametophyte then
withers and dies

56
 You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the

following:

 The general characteristics of plants

 Classification of plants into divisions

 Classification of division Bryophyta

 Classification of division Filicinophyta

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your
break, answer the following questions:

1. Outline the diffeences between Liverworts and mosses

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Describe the structure of ferns

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

57
1. Quentin, d. w.(2008) The New Taxonomy (Series –Systematics Association Special
Volume) Taylor and Francis ISBN: 0849390885

2. Sharma, O. P.(2009). Plant Taxonomy. Tata MacGraw Hill Publishing company

Limited. ISBN: 0070141592

58
 Lecture 7
Kingdom Plantae – Divisions Coniferophyta and Angiospermatophyta

Coniferophyta and angiospermatophyta are seed bearing plants.

7.1 Seed bearing plants

These are the most successful group of plants. They comprise of the conifers and angiosperms

General characteristics of seed bearing plants

i. Sporophyte is the dominant generation. Gametophyte is severely reduced and

incorporated into sporophyte.

ii. Sporophyte produces megaspores and microspores which give rise to

female(embryo sac) and male (pollen grain) gametes respectively.

iii. Gametes are enclosed thus protected from dessication. Male gametes are in the
pollen sac(microsporangium) while female gametes are in ovule(megasporangium)

iv. The female gamete(embryo sac) is enclosed in an ovule(megasporangium) which

later develops into seed

v. The male gametes are conveyed to the ovum by a pollen tube to effect fertilization.

vi. They have complex vascular tissues in roots, stems and leaves.

59
7.2 DIVISION CONIFEROPHYTA (CONIFERS)

7.2.1 Characteristics of conifers

i. They produce cones on which sporangia, spores and seeds develop.

ii. The seeds are located on the surfaces of specialized scale leaves called ovuliferous
scales. The leaves are arranged in cones.

iii. Ovules are unprotected. No ovary

iv. They do not form fruits due to absence of ovary

v. The xylem consists of only tracheids. There are no vessels

Conifers are widely distributed on the earth. They comprise of shrubs and trees that are
evergreen with needle like leaves. They produce soft wood and are used for timber, resins,
turpentine and wood pulp. The trunk and main branches grow continuously each year from the
apical bud. This phenomenon is called unlimited growth. Each year a whorl of lateral buds
around the stem grow into a whorl of branches. The conical appearance of the trees is due to
the transition from whorls of younger shorter branches at the top to older longer branches
lower down. The older branches usually die and drop off as the tree grows causing mature
trees to be bare for some distance up the trunk. The branches have spirally arranged scale
leaves. There are buds in the axils of the leaves which develop into dwarf shoots. The shoots
grow 2 leaves at the tip and stop growing. This is limited growth. Once the shoot has grown,
the scale leaf at its base drops off leaving a scar. The leaves are needle-like to reduce the
surface area available for loss of water. They also have a thick waxy cuticle and sunken
stomata to prevent water loss. After 2-3 years, the dwarf shoots and leaves fall off leaving a
bigger scar. Eg. Pine tree (pinus), fir tree, cypress, cedar, redwood, larch, yew

60
7.2.2 Life cycle of conifers

The tree is the sporophyte generation. The male and female cones are produced on the same
tree. The male cones develop in the axils of scale leaves in the place of dwarf shoots. They
form clusters behind the apical buds at the base of new shoots. The female cones develop
from the axil of the scale leaves at the tip of new strong shoots. They have a scattered
arrangement and are at a distance from the male cones. They are larger than the male cones
and vary in size on the same tree. They are green when young but become brown (reddish-
brown) when older. Both male and female cones consist of spirally arranged modified leaves
arranged around a central axis called sporophylls. Each male sporophyll has two pollen sacs
(microsporangia) on its lower side in which pollen grains are produced by meiosis. Pollen
grains are the male gametes. Each pollen grain has 2 large air sacs which aid in wind
dispersal. The cones wither and die after releasing pollen. Each female sporophyll has a bract
and an ovuliferous scale. The ovuliferous scale contains 2 ovules on its upper surface in which
the female gametes are produced. Pollination takes place during the first year of the cone
development. Fertilization takes place in the 2nd year when the pollen tube has grown. The
fertilized ovules then become winged seeds which mature in the 2nd year and are dispersed in
the 3rd year. At this time the cone is woody and the scales bend down to expose the seeds. The
seeds germinate to produce a new tree (sporophyte) and the cycle is repeated.

61
7.3 DIVISION ANGIOSPERMATOPHYTA

7.3.1 Characteristics of angiosperms

i. Produce flowers in which sporangia, spores and seeds develop. Reproductive

structures are flowers.

ii. Ovules are protected in ovary

iii. Seeds are enclosed in ovary

iv. After fertilization, ovary develops into fruit

v. Xylem has vessels

These are flowering plants that are better adapted to life on land. The presence of flowers
enables them to use insects and other animals as agents of pollination. The flowers are usually
coloured or scented and offer nectar or pollen as food. The flower undergoes adaption to
maximize the chances of pollen transfer hence the process is more reliable than wind
pollination.

7.3.2 Life cycle of Angiospermatophyta

The adult, or sporophyte phase is the main phase of an angiosperm's life cycle .The flower
bears the male (stamens) and female (pistils) reproductive structures. The stamen is the male
gametophyte. It has the microsporangia (pollen sac) which generate microspores (pollen
grains) as the male gametophytes. The pistil is the female gametophyte. It has the
megasporangia ((ovule) which generate the megaspores (embryo sac). Inside the anthers'
microsporangia, the pollen mother cell divides by meiosis to generate haploid microspores
(pollen grains). Each pollen grain contains two nuclei, one generative nucleus and tube
nucleus. The generative nucleus undergoes division to form 2 male nuclei which carry out
fertilization. Inside the ovule, The ovule, the spore mother cell undergoes meiosis generating
four megaspores: three small and one large. Only the large megaspore survives; it produces
the female gametophyte referred to as the embryo sac. The megaspore divides three times to
form an eight-cell stage. Four of these cells migrate to each pole of the embryo sac; two come
to the equator forming the polar nuclei and eventually fuse to form a 2n polar nucleus. The

62
three cells away from the egg form anti-podals while the two cells closest to the egg become
the synergids.

The mature embryo sac contains one egg cell, two synergids ("helper" cells), three antipodal
cells, and two polar nuclei in a central cell. When a pollen grain reaches the stigma, a pollen
tube extends from the grain, grows down the style, and enters through the micropyle, an
opening in the integuments of the ovule. The two male nuclei (sperm cells) are deposited in
the embryo sac.

A double fertilization event then occurs. One sperm and the egg combine, forming a diploid
zygote, the future embryo. The other sperm fuses with the 2n polar nuclei, forming a triploid
cell that will develop into the endosperm, which is tissue that serves as a food reserve. The
zygote develops into an embryo with a radicle, or small root, and one (monocot) or two
(dicot) leaf-like organs called cotyledons. This difference in the number of embryonic leaves
is the basis for the two major groups of angiosperms: the monocots and the dicots. The
fertilized ovule is a seed. The seed germinates under favourable environmental conditions and
develops into a new plant.

[Link] There are 2 classes in this division:

i. Dicotyledons
63
 ii. Monocotyledons

Class Dicotyledons

 Embryo has 2 seed leaves

 Leaves have a network of veins

 Stem contains a ring of vascular bundles

 Have secondary growth

 Tap root system

 Flowers have petals in multiples of 4 or 5

Orders in class dicotyledons

a) Order Rosaceae - rose

b) Order Ranunculaceae – buttercup

c) Order Cruciferae – wall flower, cabbage, kales

d) Order Hypericaceae – St. John’s worts

e) Order Cactaceae –prickly pear

f) Order Euphorbiaceae – spurge

g) Order Leguminosae – pea, bean

h) Order Labiate – deadnettle

i) Order Compositae – daisy

Class Monocotyledons

 Embryo has 1 seed leaf

64
  Leaves have parallel veins

 Stem has scattered vascular bundles

 No secondary growth hence monocots do not achieve great size. Exception is palm

 Fibrous root system

 Flowers in multiples of 3

Orders in class monocotyledons

a) Orde Liliaceae – blue bell

b) Order Juncaceae – rush

c) Order Iridiceae – iris

d) Order Orchidaceae – orchid

e) Order Graminae – wheat & other grasses

f) Order Palmaceae – coconut, palm

7.3.2 2 Differences between Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons

Monocots (or monocotyledons) and dicots (or dicotyledons) are the two main types of flowering
plants. They differ in morphological characteristics of leaves, stems, flowers and fruit of flowering
plants.

Dicot Monocot
Monocotyledons have one
Embryo: The dicotyledons embryo has two cotyledons.
cotyledon.

Leaf vena- Leaf veins are parallel.

Leaf veins are reticulated (branched).
tion:

Petals in multiples of four or five. May bear

Flowers: Multiples of three
fruit ( if tree)
Often present Absent
Secondary

65
 Dicot Monocot
growth:

Bundles of vascular tissue

Stem and vas- Bundles of vascular tissue arranged in a ring.
scattered throughout the stem
cular system: The vascular system is divided into a cortex
with no particular arrangement,
and stele.
and has no cortex.

Pollen: Pollen with three furrows or pores Pollen with a single furrow or
pore

Root Pattern: Taproot system Fibrous roots

Presence or
Both herbaceous and woody Herbaceous
absence of
wood:

No. of seed 2 seed leaves 1 seed leaf

leaves:

Grains, (wheat, corn, rice, millet) lilies, daf-

Legumes (pea, beans, lentils,
Examples: fodils, sugarcane, banana, palm, ginger,
peanuts) daisies, mint, lettuce,
onions, bamboo, sugarcane, coconut, palm
tomato, oak tree,mango etc.
tree, banana tree, grass

NB: There are about 65,000 species of monocots. There are about 250,000 species of dicots .

Exceptions

There are some exceptions to this classification. Some species belonging to monocots can
have characters belonging to dicots and vice-versa, since the two groups have a shared
ancestry. [Link] bean (facia faba) is a dicot which exhibits hypogeal germination like
monocots.

66
 You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the

following:

 The general characteristics of seed bearing plants

 Classification of division Coniferophyta

 Classification of division Angiospermatophyta

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your
break, answer the following questions:

1. Outline the differences between Conifers and Angiosperms

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Explain why angiosperms are better adapted to life on and than conifers

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

67
1. Quentin, d. w.(2008) The New Taxonomy (Series –Systematics Association Special
Volume) Taylor and Francis ISBN: 0849390885

2. Sharma, O. P.(2009). Plant Taxonomy. Tata MacGraw Hill Publishing company

Limited. ISBN: 0070141592

68
 Lecture 8

Kingdom Animalia – Phyla Porifera, Cnidaria and Platyhelminthes

Kingdom animalia comprises of animals.

8.1 General characteristics of animals

- Multi-cellular

- Eukaryotic cells – no cell walls or plastids/ chloroplasts

- Heterotrophic

- Nutrition is mainly by ingestion

- Most have specialized tissues, many have organs and organ systems

- Sexual reproduction mainly

There main phyla in the animal kingdom are:

i. Phylum Porifera

ii. Coelenterate (Cnidaria)

69
 iii. Platyhelminthes

iv. Nematoda

v. Annelida

vi. Mollusca

vii. Anthropoda

viii. Echinodermata

ix. Chordata

8.2 Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

Porifera means pore (hole) bearer

Main characteristics

- Lack tissues and organs

- Skeleton consists of calcareous or silica spicules or horny fibres (spongin)

- Always sessile

- Body has two layers of cells- ectoderm and endoderm

- Body contains a single cavity or system of cavities

- Cavity connected to exterior by pores found in body wall

- Mostly marine

- Sexual and asexual reproduction (budding). All are hermaphrodites

Dead end phylum which d oes not give rise to any other group of organisms.

Classification

70
There are 3 classes in this phylum

i. Class Calcarea

ii. Class Hexactinellida

iii. Class Demospongiae

Class Calcarea (Calcispongiae)

- Bony Sponges

- Spicules are made of calcium carbonate

- Spicules are straight or have three or four rays

- Most are small with tubular or vase shapes

- Many are drab (dull) in color, but some are bright yellow, green, red, or lavender

Example: Sycon

Class Hexactinellida

- Glass sponges

- Spicules are made of six-rayed spicules of silica. This form their skeleton

- Strong Internal skeleton with fused spicules

- Nearly all are deep-sea forms, cup shaped

Class Demospongiae

- Contains 95% of living sponge species

- Spicules or skeletal system contains spongin

71
 - Leuconoid body form ( Have a canal like body)

- All marine except for Spongillidae, the freshwater sponges

 Freshwater sponges

- Widely distributed in well-oxygenated ponds and springs

- Flourish in summer and die in late autumn

- Leave behind gemmules

- Reproduce sexually, but existing genotypes may also reappear annually from
gemmules

 Marine Demosponges

- Highly varied in color and shape

- Bath sponges

- Lacks siliceous spicules

- Have spongin skeletons

Economic importance of Sponges

i. They are food for other marine organisms

ii. Used for bathing

72
 iii. Used as ornaments for decoration

Activity 1.1

Explain why Phylum Porifera is known as a dead-end phylum

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

8.3 Phylum coelenterate (cnidaria)

Main characteristics

 Sac –like bod y cavity which serves as a gut

 Radially symmetrical- a section passing through any diameter gives 2 equal halves

 Body has 2 layers (diploblastic)- ectoderm and endoderm which are separated by non-
cellular mesoglea

 They exist in 2 forms (dimorphic) – That is polyp and medusa forms. Polyp is
cylindrical and sessile. Medusa is umbrella shaped and free-swimming or floating. In
typical coelenterates, the 2 forms alternate with each other

 They have tentacles that have explosive cells (nematoblasts) which can pierce prey.

There are 3 classes:

i. Class Hydrozoa – Hydra-like in appearance. Polyp or medusa forms may be

present

or one of the forms is severely reduced. Eg Hydra - No medusa form,

semi-sessile polyp, solitary. Obelia has a sessile polyp stage and free-

swimming medusoid stage

73
 ii. Class Scyphozoa –complex medusa with gastrovascular system consisting of
ciliated

water-filled canals. Polyp stage [Link] Jellyfish

iii. Class Anthozoa- medusa stage lost in life cycle. Eg Sea anemone, corals

8.4 Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flat worms)

This Phylum contains many important parasites

Main characteristics

 Body is flattened dorsal-ventrally

 Are triploblastic – 3 layers with ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm

 Have a mouth but no anus

 Gut has numerous blind ended branches

 Have flame cells for excretion and osmoregulation

 Are hermaphroditic organisms but have features that minimize self-fertilization

There are 3 classes in the phylum:

i. Class Turbellaria – flatworms, non-parasites, produce poisonous (narcotic) mucus

to

74
 entangle prey, usually ciliated on the underside. Eg Planaria(Planariidae)

ii. Class Trematoda – body shaped like long, thin leaf, have suckers, are parasitic,

mainly found in blood, cells, mucus. Eg Liver fluke (Fasciola

hepatica), Schistosoma

iii. Class Cestoda – ribbon shaped body, no head, no mouth, no digestive system, body

divided into sections called proglottids, have hooks or spines on head

(scolex), are parasitic and infest host intestines .eg Tape worm (Taenia

saginata, Taenia solium). Not all members of the genus Taenia have an

armed scolex .eg Taenia saginata has an unarmed scolex, while Taenia solium

has an armed scolex.

Planaria

75
 You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the

following:

 The general characteristics of animals

 Classification of Phylum Porifera

 Classification of Phylum Cnidaria

 Classification of Phylum Platyhelmintes

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your
break, answer the following questions:

1. Outline the differences between the Calcarea and Hexactenellida

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

76
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Distiguish between the polyp and medusoid forms of cnidarians

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. What is a scolex ?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

1. Quentin, d. w.(2008) The New Taxonomy (Series –Systematics Association Special

Volume) Taylor and Francis ISBN: 0849390885

2. Strauss E. and Lisowski M. (1998) . Biology , The Web of Life. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc. USA

3. Roberts, M.B.V (1986). Biology : A functional Approach. 4th Edition. United Kingdom
Nelson Thornes

77
 Lecture 9

Kingdom Animalia – Phyla Nematoda, Annellida, Mollusca

9.1 Phylum Nematoda (Rounds worms)

The phylum contains many important parasites

Main characteristics

 Body rounded in cross section

 Are triploblastic- coelom (internal body cavity) separates gut from body wall. This
provides space for organs and room for development

 The body is narrow and pointed at both ends. The male has a curved posterior end
with projections that transfer sperms to female during copulation

 Have a thick elastic cuticle

 They have longitudinal muscles but no circular muscles

 They have separate sexes

Eg Hook worms (Ancylostoma duodenale), Round worms (Ascaris lumbricoides)

78
Diagram of Round worms

9.2 Phylum Annelida(Segmented worms)

Main characteristics

 Body has metameric segmentation

 Body segments have bristle-like structures called chaetae. Chaetae are used to
grip soil, hold the animal in a tube and increase surface area

 May or may not have parapodia(muscular appendage )

 Have organ systems and more structures

 Have reproductive structure called clitellum

 Have nephridia for excretion and osmoregulation

 Have a trochophore larva. This is a free-swimming ciliated larva

 Have bilateral symmetry

 Are triploblastic

There are 3 classes in the phylum

i. Class Polychaeta – Have numerous chaetae, chaetae borne on parapodia,

separate
79
 sexes, marine Eg Rag worm (Nereis pelagica ), Lug worm(Arenicola

marina)

ii. Class Oligochaeta – Few chaetae, no parapodia, hermaphroditic, fresh water &

terrestrial. eg Lumbricus (earth worm)

iii. Class Hirudinea – No chaetae or parapodia, have suckers at anterior &

posterior

ends, some of them are ectoparasites. Eg. Leech

Diagram of Lumbricus

9.3 Phylum Mollusca

Main characteristics

 Have a soft muscular foot on ventral side

 Have a visceral hump containing digestive organs on dorsal side

 Most have a shell protecting the visceral hump

 Most have a tongue-like radula for feeding

 Have gills called ctenidia located in mantle cavity. Ctenidia are used for respiration
and in some cases they may also be used or for filter feeding

 Have trocophore larva during development. This links them to annelids

80
  Have simple eye spots that can detect light and dark

 Have 2 or 4 sensory tentacles

 They lay eggs

Classes in phylum Mollusca:

i. Class Monoplacophora -have single conical shell (Univalve) with opening on the
side. Have metameric [Link] Neopilina (Neopilina galatheae)

ii. Class Polyplacophora(Amphineura) –shell divided into many [Link]

Chiton(Chaetopleura gemma)

iii. Class Gastropoda – have single spiral shell made of calcareous material. The
visceral hump rotates during development hence coiling of shell. In some, the gills
are lost and the mantle becomes the lungs. They have a large foot for locomotion.
Eg Marine snail, Garden snail(Helix aspersa)

iv. Class Lamellibranchiata (Bivalvia) – shell divided into 2 halves. Head & foot are
greatly reduced, and used for burrowing in sand or mud. They are filter feeders and
have no tentacles. Eg. Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)

v. Class Cephalopoda- shell is internal and reduced or absent. Foot incorporated into
the head and modified into sucker bearing tentacles. Radula has a horny beak.
Good sense organs and nerves. The animals are active and adapted for swimming.
Eg Octopus (Octopus vulgaris)

Octopus

81
 You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the

following:

 Classification of Phylum Nematoda

 Classification of Phylum Annelida

 Classification of Phylum Mollusca

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your
break, answer the following questions:

1. Outline the differences between the Nematoda and Annelida

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

[Link] the various classes of Molluscs

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

1. Quentin, d. w.(2008) The New Taxonomy (Series –Systematics Association Special

Volume) Taylor and Francis ISBN: 0849390885

82
 2. Roberts, M.B.V (1986). Biology : A functional Approach. 4th Edition. United Kingdom
Nelson Thornes

Lecture 10

Kingdom Animalia – Phyla Echinodermata and Arthropoda

10.1 PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

Echinodermata means spiny skin

Main characteristics

 Skin has calcareous ossicles and spines

 Exclusively marine

 Pentaradiate in adult stage but larva has bilateral symmetry

 Mouth is on lower side (oral side) while anus is on upper side(aboral side)

 Have numerous suctorial feet used for movement

 No proper circulatory system

Classes in phylum:

83
i. Class Asterias (Stellaroidea) – star shaped, flattened, 5 short arms with tube
feet on lower side, few calcareous plates in [Link] Starfish

ii. Class Echinoidea(Echinus) – globular(spherical body), no arms, 5 rows of tube

feet, numerous calcareous plates in body wall. Eg. Sea urchin

iii. Class Ophiothrix - slender arms which permit crawling and swimming
movements, tube feet reduced. Eg Brittle star

iv. Class Cucumaria – body elongated in oral- aboral axis. Severe reduction in
calcareous plates, worm-like movements. Eg Sea cucumber

84
10.2 PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

10. 2. 1 Main characteristics

 Have chitinous cuticle which is hardened to varying degrees.

 Undergo moulting (ecdysis) whereby cuticle is shed off to allow for growth

 Muscles attached to cuticle hence cuticle functions as exoskeleton. Exoskeleton

is strong, impermeable and provides structural support

85
  Have haemocoel

 Nervous system is ventral (belly side) while circulatory system is dorsal(back

side)

 Have metameric segmentation

 Some groups have compound eye for vision. Others have simple eyes called
ocelli

 Coelom much reduced. Main body cavity is haemocoel

 Are triploblastic

 Have bilateral symmetry

10.2. 2 There are 2 sub-phyla

i. Sub-phylum Mandibulata

ii. Sub-phylum Chelicerata

A. Sub-Phylum Mandibulata

Main characteristics

1. Have a distinct head

2. Have 1 or 2 pairs of antennae

3. Have distinct mouth parts with a pair of mandibles

Classes in Mandibulata

1. Class Crustacea

Characteristics

86
 i. Mainly aquatic

ii. Have a cephalothorax (head and thorax not distinctly separated)

iii. 2 pairs of antennae

iv. At least 3 pairs of mouthparts

v. Have a pair of compound eyes raised on stalks

vi. Have 3 or more pairs of appendages – upto 5 pairs appendages often modified for
swimming

vii. Larval form occurs

viii. Have gills for gaseous exchange

ix. Are carnivores, detritivores or filter feeders

Example include: crayfish (Astacus), water flea (Daphnia), lobsters, crabs

2. Class Chilopoda

Characteristics

i. Mainly terrestrial

ii. Clearly (well) defined head. Other body segments are similar, therefore they have head
region and trunk

iii. Body is dorso-ventrally flattened

iv. 1 pair of antennae

v. 1 pair of mouth parts (jaws). Have a pair of fangs under the head

vi. Eyes may be present or absent. If present they are simple or compound

vii. Have numerous appendages( legs). They are all identical with one pair per body
segment. Appendages are attached to the side of the body

viii. No larval form

87
 ix. Have trachea for gaseous exchange

x. Are carnivorous

Examples include: centipede (Lithobius)- it has 18 pairs of legs

3. Class Diplopoda

Characteristics

i. Mainly terrestrial

ii. Clearly defined head, other body parts segmented are similar therefore have a head
region and trunk

iii. Body is cylindrical

iv. 1 pair of mouth parts

v. Eyes may be simple, compound or absent

vi. Have numerous legs. They are all identical with 2 pairs of legs per body segment.
Appendages are attached (on the lower side) under the body

vii. No larval form

viii. Have trachea for gaseous exchange

ix. Are herbivorous

Examples include: millipede (lulus)- it has 70 pairs of legs

Eg. Giant African millipede- (Archispirostreptus gigas)

NB: chilopoda and diplopoda are collectively called myriapods meaning many legs

4. Class Insecta

Characteristics

88
 i. Mainly terrestrial, a few in water and air

ii. Well defined head, thorax and abdomen. Body segments fused into 3 regions with
well-defined head, thorax and abdomen. The head comprises of 6 fused segments,
thorax has 3 and abdomen has 11

iii. 1 pair of antennae

iv. 3 pairs of mouth parts – maxilla, mandibles, labium (lowerlip) and labrum (upperlip)

v. 1 pair of compound eyes

vi. 3 pairs of legs (appendages) – attached to thorax

vii. May have 1 or 2 pairs of wings or none. Wings are attached to thorax(2nd and 3rd
portions of thorax)

viii. Lifecycle commonly involves [Link] they undergo metamorphosis

ix. Have trachea for gaseous exchange

x. Undergo moulting

xi. Excretion is by means of malpighian tubules

89
 Activity 1.1

Explain why class Insecta is the most successful among animals

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Sub-classes in insecta

a) Apterygota – wingless insects. They undergo little or no metamorphosis, hence

ametabola.

b) Pterygota – winged insects. They undergo metamorphosis

2 categories of pterygota

i. Exopterygota –(Hemimetabola)

They undergo incomplete metamorphosis. The successive larval stages (forms) resemble the
adult. The stages in between larval and adult (image) stages is the nymph or instar. It
undergoes several stages of moulting to form the adult. The nymph is a miniature form of the
adult hence also called a juvenile. It has adaptive features that enable it to live in a different
habitat and eat different food from the adult. This avoids competition between the juvenile and
the adult. Three distinct stages in life cycle.

Egg Nymph Adult

Examples include lice, bugs and leaf insects

ii. Endopterygota (Holometabola)

They undergo complete metamorphosis. The larval stages are very different from each other
and the adult. Four distinct stages in their life cycle.

Egg Larva Pupa Adult

90
The final larval moult produces a pupa from which an adult is formed using components from
the degenerating larval tissues. Larva stage is a feeding stage. They feed voraciously and grow
rapidly. They stock up enough nutrients to take organism through the pupa stage.

As adult emerges from pupa, it undergoes a short rest to allow wings to dry and hardening of
exoskeleton.

Examples are house flies, bees, wasps etc

Major Orders in class insecta:

i. Order Thysanura- Silverfishes

ii. Order Ephemeroptera – Mayflies

iii. Order Odonata- Dragonflies, damsel flies

iv. Order Orthoptera – Grasshoppers, coakroaches

v. Order Isoptera – Termites

vi. Order Dermaptera- Earwigs

vii. Order Anoplura – Sucking lice

viii. Order Hemiptera – True bugs

ix. Order Homoptera – Aphids, scale insects

x. Order Neuroptera – Lacewings, ant lions

xi. Order Coleoptera – Beetles, ladybirds

xii. Order Lepidoptera – Butterflies, moths

xiii. Order Diptera – House flies, mosquitoes

xiv. Order Siphonaptera – fleas

xv. Order Hymenoptera – Bees, ants, wasps, hornets

91
NB: Anthropoda has very many orders within its classes especially class insecta. These many
number make it the most important and successful phylum of organisms.

Moulting

As an insect grows it needs to replace the rigid exoskeleton regularly. Moulting may occur up
to three or four times or, in some insects, fifty times or more during its life. Moulting is
complex process controlled by hormones. It includes the cuticle of the body wall, the cuticular
lining of the tracheae, foregut, hindgut and endoskeletal structures.

The stages of moulting:

i. Apolysis—moulting hormones are released into the haemolymph and the old cuticle
separates from the underlying epidermal cells. The epidermis increases in size due to
mitosis and then the new cuticle is produced. Enzymes secreted by the epidermal cells
digest the old endocuticle (procuticle), not affecting the old sclerotized exocuticle
(epicuticle).

ii. Ecdysis—this begins with the splitting of the old cuticle, usually starting in the
midline of the thorax’s dorsal side. The rupturing force is mostly from haemolymph
pressure that has been forced into thorax by abdominal muscle contractions caused by
the insect swallowing air or water. After this the insect wriggles out of the old cuticle.
The discarded cuticle is called exuviate

iii. Sclerotization—after emergence the new cuticle is soft and this a particularly
vulnerable time for the insect as its hard protective coating is missing. After an hour or
two the exocuticle hardens and darkens. The wings expand by the force of
haemolymph into the wing veins.

B. Sub Phyum Chelicerata

Main characteristics

i. Have cephalothorax – head fused with thorax

92
 ii. Head has a pair of jaw-like (pincer-like) appendages used for grasping and crushing
called chelicerae

iii. 1 pair of sensory pedipalps – 2nd pair of appendages near mouth specialized for
feeding, locomotion, copulation

iv. Have 4 pairs of appendages (legs)

Classes in chelicerata

a) Class Pycnogonida – abdomen is greatly reduced, marine. eg Sea spiders

b) Class Merostomata – primitive chelicerans with a broad cephalothorax, marine. eg

Horse shoe crab (Limulus)

c) Class Scorpionida (scorpions) – have large pedipalps, flattened body, simple eyes,
recurved stinging tail, terrestrial

d) Class Arachnida (arachnids) – terrestrial

- Have cephalothorax

- Abdomen separated from thorax by narrow waist-like constriction

- Simple eyes

- No antennae

- Have trachea for gaseous exchange. Some may have “lung” books or “gill” books

- Chelicerae have poison glands.

Eg. Spiders, ticks, mites

93
 You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the

following:

 Classification of Phylum Echinodermata

 Classification of Phylum Arthropoda

 Process of moulting in insects

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your
break, answer the following questions:

[Link] the distinguishing features of the classes in phylum Echinodermata

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

94
 2. Explain the difference between holometabola and hemimetabola

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

1. Quentin, d. w.(2008) The New Taxonomy (Series –Systematics Association Special

Volume) Taylor and Francis ISBN: 0849390885

2. Strauss E. and Lisowski M. (1998) . Biology , The Web of Life. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc. USA

3. Roberts, M.B.V (1986). Biology : A functional Approach. 4th Edition. United Kingdom
Nelson Thornes

95
 Lecture 11

Kingdom Animalia – Phylum Chordata

11.1 Main characteristics of chordates

- Notochord present at some stage in life history

- Hollow, dorsal nerve tube(central nervous system)

- Pharyngeal clefts (filter feeding organs)

- Segmented muscle blocks(myotomes) on either side of the body

- Post-anal tail

- Circulatory system in which blood flows forwards ventrally and backwards

dorsally

- Limbs form from more than one body segment

- Bilateral symmetry

- Triploblastic coelomate

11.2 There are 3 sub-phyla in phylum chordata

1. Sub-phylum Urochordata – Notochord present only in larva where it is confined to the

96
 tail. Eg. Sea squirt

3. Sub-phylum Cephalochordata – Notochord persists and extends to the head.

Eg Amphioxus

4. Sub-phylum Vertebrata (Craniata) – Notochord is replaced by vertebral column

(backbone) in the adult. Brain is enclosed in cranium.

11.3 Sub-Phylum Vertebrata

Characteristics

- Notochord replaced by vertebral column (backbone) in the adult. Vertebrae may be

made of cartilage or bone

- Well-developed central nervous system including brain. Brain enclosed in cranium.

- Endoskeleton

- Pharyngeal clefts are few in number

- Two pairs of fins or limbs. Limbs attached to rest of body by girdles: pectoral &
pelvic girdle

11. 4 Classes in sub-phylum vertebrata

 Fish (Pisces)

 Amphibia (amphibians)

 Reptilia (reptiles)

 Birds(Aves)

 Mammalia (mammals)

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i. Class Pisces

There are 2 sub-classes of fish:

a) Sub-class Chondricthyes (cartiliginous fish)

Characteristics of chondricthyes

– skeleton made of cartilage

-Skin has placoid (tooth-like) scales

-paired pectoral & pelvic fins. Fins are fleshy.

-Asymmetrical tail fin prevents fish from sinking

- 5 pairs of visceral clefts present as separate gill openings

- No external ear

-Have internal fertilization

-Poikilotherms

Modern cartilaginous fish are called elasmobranchs. These include sharks, rays and dogfish

Internal fertilization in fish

All cartilaginous fish reproduce using internal fertilization. The male uses "claspers" to grasp
the female, and then he releases sperm to fertilize the female's oocytes. After fertilization,
reproduction can differ among sharks, skates and rays. Sharks may lay eggs or give birth to
live young, rays give birth to live young, and skates lay eggs that are deposited inside an egg
case.

In sharks and rays, the young may be nourished by a placenta, yolk sac in the case of live-
births. Where fertilized eggs are laid, the young ones feed on unfertilized egg capsules or on
other young. Young skates are nourished by a yolk in the egg case. When cartilaginous fish
are born, they are miniature forms of the adults.

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 b) Sub-class Osteichthyes(bony fish)

Characteristics of osteichtyes

- Skeleton is made of bone

- Skin has cycloid (thin, round) scales

- Paired pectoral and pelvic fins which are supported by bony rays

- Symmetrical tail fin

- 4 pairs of visceral clefts present as separate gill openings. Visceral clefts covered
by operculum.

- No external ear

- Have external fertilization. A few have internal fertilization.

2 types of bony fish:

a) Teleosts - Modern bony fish. They have air sacs which serve as swim bladder. Eg.
Eel, cod, trout, sole, herring

b) Dipnoans – Lung fish. They are found in oxygen deficient swamps and breathe air
by means of lungs

External fertilization

In external fertilization, the eggs are fertilized outside the bodies of the parents. These animals
must return to the water to reproduce. Usually the eggs or roe are released into the water by
the female animal. Then the male releases sperm or milt into the same area. Sometimes a
crude nest is constructed, but most of the time the eggs are just released onto the gravel.

The eggs are on their own. The embryos which hatch from them fend for themselves right
from the moment they hatch. Those with internal fertilization vary from one species to
another. There is great variation in the development stage at which offspring are released:
fertilized eggs, larvae, juvenile fish, or even sexually mature adults.

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[Link] Amphibia

Characteristics

- Part aquatic, part terrestrial

- Have a soft moist skin which acts as a supplementary respiratory surface

- No scales

- Bony skeleton

- 2 pairs of pentadactyl limbs

- External fertilization. Adult must return to water for reproduction

- Visceral clefts present in aquatic larva only (tadpole). Adults are mostly terrestrial
and have lungs

- Metamorphosis from larva to adult in life cycle

- No external ear

- Poikilotherms

Orders in class Amphibia

a. Order Apoda(Gymnophiona) – Caccilins

b. Oder Urodela(caudata) – Salamanders and newts

c. Order Anura – Frogs & toads

Order Apoda - without legs

 Tropical, burrowing amphibians

 Small, bony scales embedded in skin

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  Legless

 Carnivorous

 Male deposits sperm directly into female

 Females may have live young ones or lay eggs

Order Urodela- Long tail

 Elongated bodies with long tails

 Smooth, moist skin; Require moisture

 External fertilization in water or moist area

– Internal fertilization- females insert sperm packet into cloaca

– Larvae gilled, carnivorous, smaller version of adult

– Some retain gills as adults (neoteny- never lose larval characteristics)

Order Anura- without a tail(tailless)

 Adults are carnivores

 Skin with mucus and some with poison glands

 Sticky tongue, hinged at the front, attaches to prey

– Vomerine teeth- two small nobs help hold in prey

 Hind legs adapted for jumping –Frogs have longer legs while toads have shorter legs

 Frogs have a smooth skin while Toads have a rough skin

 Most frogs depend on water for life cycle, hence ar found in water while toads are
mainly on land

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[Link] Reptilia

Characteristics of reptiles

- Mainly terrestrial

- Dry skin with scales

- Bony skeleton

- 2 pairs of pentadactyl limbs

- Visceral clefts do not develop into gills. Have lungs for respiration

- Internal fertilization. Fertilized eggs either laid on land or retained until hatching.

- Eggs are yolky ( amniotic egg) and covered in a shell (cleidoic)

- No external ear

- Poikilotherms

Orders in Reptilia

 Order Rhynchocephalia – Tautarus

 Order Chelonia – Tortoises and turtles

 Order Crocodilia – Crocodiles, alligators, gavials

 Order Squamata – Lizards and Snakes

a) Order Rhynchocephalia

 slow growth and low reproductive rates

 reach sexual maturity at 10 to 20 years of age

102
 Tuatara have two rows of teeth in their upper jaw and one row of teeth in their lower
jaw.

 diapsid skull with two temporal openings. [Link] holes on each side of their skull.

 prominent parietal eye on top of head. A light-sensitive spot located on the top of the
animal's head which is thought to play a role in setting circadian rhythm

b) Order Chelonia

 Rigid shell enclosing the internal organs. Dorsal part is Carapace while ventral part is
Plastron

 Shell is composed of dermal bony elements covered by keratinous scutes or leathery

skin

 Shell shape –ranges from domed(in terrestrial species) to flat or hydrodynamic shaped
(aquatic and marine species)

 Absence of teeth (keratinous beak instead)

 Limb structure – varies: Marine species have flippers, freshwater species have
webbing between digits while terrestrial species have stout limbs with thickened pads

 Have internal fertilization- All species are oviparous and females dig nests or lay eggs
on land. No parental care

 Males have a penis (protrusion of cloaca)

 Sex (mating) determined by temperature in most species

 Long-living creatures, low recruitment, late sexual maturity

c) Order crocodilia

 muscular tail

 large protective scales

103
  streamlined body

 eyes and nostrils that are positioned on top of the head.

 Have elongated, structurally reinforced skull

 Have an extra transparent eyelid on each eye that can be closed to protect their eye
when underwater. They also have a flap of skin at the back of their throat that prevents
water from seeping in when they attack prey underwater. They can also close their
nostrils and ears in a similar manner to prevent the unwanted influx of water.

 Are carnivores.

 Are diapsids

 Have powerful jaw muscles

 Teeth set in sockets

 Females lay their eggs on land, near water in a nest built out of vegetation and mud or
in a hollow in the ground. Females care for the young after they hatch, providing them
with protection until they grow large enough to defend themselves. In many species of
crocodilians, the female carries her tiny offspring in her mouth.

Difference between crocodile & alligator- crocodile has smaller upper lip in comparison to
lower lip hence teeth exposed. Both upper & lower teeth of crocodile are exposed when mouth
is closed. In alligator, only upper teeth show when mouth is closed. Crocodile has long
pointed jaw(V- shape) while alligator has wide rounded jaw(U-shaped). Crocodile usually
brown and found in fresh or salty water. Alligators are black and found mainly in fresh water

d) Order Squamata

 they shed their skin periodically either in one piece(snakes) or in bits (lizard)

 Uniquely jointed skulls and jaws, which are both strong and flexible. The
extraordinary jaw mobility of squamates enables them to open their mouths very wide
and be able to consume large prey. The strength of their skull and jaws provides them a
powerful bite grip

104
  paired copulatory organs

 they have loss or reduction of limbs and the ability to lose the tail (caudal autotomy).
No limbs-snakes. Loss of tail-lizards

[Link] Aves (Birds)

Characteristics

- Body covered with feathers

- Legs covered with scales

- 2 pairs of pentadactyl limbs. Forelimbs modified into wings. Sternum well

developed for attachment of flight muscles

- Have a four chambered heart

- Have toothless jaws covered by a horny beak

- Internal fertilization. Fertilized eggs laid on land

- Have a well-developed amniotic egg which has a calcareous shell (cleidoic)

- Bony skeleton

- No external ear

- Homoitherms

Orders in Aves

a) Order Gaviiformes –Loons

b) Order Pelecaniformes- Pelicans, ganets, cormorants

c) Order Ciconiiformes(Phoenicopteriformes) – Herons, storks, egrets, ibises, flamingo

d) Order Anseriformes – Ducks, geese, swans

105
 e) Order Falconiformes – Hawks, falcons, eagles, kites, vultures

f) Order Galliformes- Turkeys, pheasants, quails, partridges, guinea fowls, chickens

g) Order Gruiformes – Cranes, rails

h) Order Chara driiformes- Snies, sandpipers, gulls

i) Order Procellariiformes – Albatross

j) Order Columbiformes – Pigeons, doves

k) Order Cuculiformes – Cuckoos, road runners

l) Order Strigiformes – Owls

m) Order Caprimulgiformes – Night hawks, goat suckers

n) Order Apodiformes – Swifts, humming birds

o) Order Coraciiformes- Kingfishers

p) Order Sphenisciformes – Penguins

q) Order Piciformes – Woodpeckers, honeyguides, sapsuckers

r) Order Passeriformes – Robins, blue birds, sparrows, thrushes

s) Order Struthioniformes – Ostriches, kiwis, rheas

[Link] Mammalia

Characteristics

 Have hair on the skin or at least a part of the body

 Have a bony skeleton

 2 pairs of pentadactyl limbs

 Have lungs for respiration

 Have external ear. This is connected to middle & inner ear

106
  Young ones nourished by milk secreted by mammary glands

 Internal fertilization

 Homoitherms

There are 2 sub-classes in class mammalia:

 Sub-class Monotremata

 Sub-class Marsupialia

 Sub-class Eutheria

a)Sub-class Monotremata

These are primitive egg laying mammals found in Australia.

 Lay eggs

 Young ones are nourished by modified forms of milk.

 possess a single external opening for the reproductive, excretory and digestive systems
called the cloaca

eg Duck-billed platypus, spiny ant-eater

b)Sub-class Marsupialia

These are pouched mammals.

 Young ones are born in a miniature state and migrate into a pouch(marsupium) where
they are fed on milk from mammary glands. Lack the placenta that connects the
mother with the developing foetus in the womb. Some marsupials have a rudimentary
non-allantoic placenta that functions for only a short time

107
  The female has two vaginas both of which open externally through one orifice, but
lead to different compartments within the uterus. Males usually have a two-pronged
penis, which corresponds to the females' two vaginas. The penis only passes sperm.

Eg Kangaroo, koala bear, Tasmanian wolf

c) Sub-class Eutheria

Mammals with a more complex allantoic placenta.

 Young ones are born in a more mature state. Marsupium is absent.

 Young ones nourished by placenta before birth

 Different openings for urination and defaecation

 No epipupic bones

 Corpus collosum present in the brain

Orders in sub-class mammalia

a) Order Insectivora – Moles, shrews

b) Order Chiroptera – Bats

c) Order Rodentia – Rats, mice, squirrels, beavers, woodchucks

d) Order Carnivora – Lions, tigers, leopards, bears, cats, dogs

e) Order Artiodactyla – Even toed [Link]. Cattle, sheep, camels, hippo, giraffe etc

f) Order Cetacea – Whales, dolphins, porpoises

g) Order Proboscidea – Elephants

h) Order Primates – Humans, monkeys, gorillas

i) Order Edentata –Armadillos, sloths, ant eaters

j) Order Pholidota – Pangolins

108
 k) Order Lagomorpha – Rabbits, hares, pikas

l) Order Sirenia –Mannates, sea cows, dugongs

m) Order Pinnipedia – Seals, walrus, sea lions

n) Order Perissodactyla- odd toed, hoofed mammals. Eg. Rhinocerus, horses, zebras,
tapirs

o) Order Macroscelidae – Elephant shrews

p) Order Tubulidentata – Aardvark

q) Order Scandentia – Tree shrews

r) Order Hyracoidea Hyraxes

s) Order Dermoptera – Flying lemurs

NB: Artiodactyla & Perssiodactyla are collectively called ungulates. Sometimes they are

classified together in order Ungulata

You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the

following:

 Classification of Phylum Chordata

Now take a break and reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today. After your
break, answer the following questions:

[Link] the distinguishing features of the Chondricthyes and Osteichthyes

109
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

[Link] and turtle are both chelonians. Explain the differences between the two

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. Describe the sub-classes in class mammalia

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

1. Quentin, d. w.(2008) The New Taxonomy (Series –Systematics Association Special

Volume) Taylor and Francis ISBN: 0849390885

2. Roberts, M.B.V (1986). Biology : A functional Approach. 4th Edition. United Kingdom
Nelson Thornes

110