Unit 2

Ecology –
It is an interdisciplinary field that deals scientific analysis and study of interactions among
organisms and their environment.

Ecology can be studied as –

❑ Autecology –the study of individual organism or individual species. Also known as
population ecology.
❑ Synecology - the study of group of organisms of different species which are associated
together as a unit in form of a community. Also known as community ecology.
Ecotone
Transitional area between two biomes or diverse ecosystems (where two
communities meet & integrate). It may appear as a gradual blending of the two
communities across a broad area, or may manifest itself as a sharp boundary line.
Sometimes the number of species & population density of some of the species is
much greater in this zone than either community, known as edge effect. Organisms
which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge species

For example - between a field and forest, between forest and grassland
Biomes are defined as the world's major communities, classified according to the
predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that
particular environment" (Campbell).

Eight different biomes of the world:

❑ Tundra
❑ Taiga (also called boreal forest)
❑ Temperate deciduous forest
❑ Scrub forest (called chaparral in California)
❑ Grassland
❑ Desert
❑ Tropical rain forest
❑ Temperate rain forest
 A system comprising of living and non - living organisms and their interactions
is known as ecosystem.

Components of
Ecosystem

Biotic Abiotic

Producers Decomposers
Physical Inorganic
Plants Consumers Microorganisms Organic
factors factors
Primary factors
Temperature
Secondary K+, Na+, Protein
Humidity
Tertiary CO2, N2 etc Carbohydrate
Light
Atmospheric Lipid
pressure
Food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy
pass as one organism eats another.

Characteristics of food chain

➢ There is a repeated eating where each group eats the smaller one and is
being eaten by the larger one. Thus it involves nutritive interaction of the
biotic components of the ecosystem.
➢ It is the unidirectional flow of energy from Sun to producers and then to
a series of consumers of various types. Thus, a food chain is always straight
and proceeds in a progressing straight line.
➢ Only 10% of the energy level flows from one trophic level to the next
one.
 Grazing food chain
Green plants passes
on to herbivorous
primary consumers
and ends with
carnivorous animals

Types
of food
Detritous chain Parasitic
This begins with dead In this type of food
organic matter goes to chain either the
micro organisms and producer or the
then passes on to organ-
isms that feed on
consumer is parasitized
detrivores (organisms and therefore the food
that - eat detritus) and passes to the smaller
their predators. organism.
Food web is a system of interlocking and interdependent
food chains.
 Ecological pyramids
They are the graphical representation
which depicts the number of organisms,
biomass and productivity at each trophic
level.
The concept of ecological pyramid was
developed by Charles Elton.

Types of ecological pyramids –

❑ pyramid of number
❑ pyramid of energy
❑ pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of numbers –
It depicts the relationship in terms of the number of producers, herbivores and
the carnivores at their successive trophic levels. There is a decrease in the
number of individuals from the lower to the higher trophic levels.

Types of pyramid of numbers -:

Found in aquatic and

Mainly found in forest ecosystem
grassland ecosystem
where the number of producers It is seen in parasitic food
where numerous small
are lesser in number and support chain where one primary
autotrophs which support
a greater number of herbivores producer supports numerous
lesser herbivores which
and which in turn support a parasites which support more
in turn support smaller
fewer number of carnivores. hyperparasites.
number of carnivores
Pyramid of energy
This shows the flow of energy from one trophic level
to another and it is always upright and vertical. It
depicts the energy is minimum as the highest trophic
level and is maximum at the lowest trophic level.
At each trophic level, there is successive loss of
energy in the form of heat and respiration, etc.

Ten percent law of energy transfer

According to this law, during the transfer of
energy from organic food from one trophic
level to the next, only about ten percent of
the energy from organic matter is stored as
flesh. The remaining is lost during transfer,
broken down in respiration, or lost to
incomplete digestion by higher trophic
level.
Pyramid of biomass-
Here the biomass is the net organisms collected from each feeding level and are
then dried and weighed. This dry weight is the biomass and it represents the amount
of energy available in the form of organic matter of the organisms.
So it represents the quantitative relationships of the standing crops. In this pyramid
there is a gradual decrease in the biomass from the producers to the higher trophic
levels.

Types of pyramid of biomass –

 Ecological succession
The gradual process by which the structure of biological community evolve over
time
Mechanism of ecological succession –
1. Nudation
2. Invasion
3. Competition and co- action
4. Reaction
5. Stabilization (Climax)
Ecological succession
The gradual process by which the structure of
biological community evolve over time

Different types of ecological successions –

❑ Primary succession and Secondary
succession
Primary ecological succession occurs in the
lifeless areas like in the regions which are incapable
of sustaining life as result of lava flows, sand dunes
newly formed; left over rocks from the retreating
glacier. It is the beginning of a new habitat in a
uninfluenced area without any pre-existing
communities.

Secondary ecological succession occurs in areas

where a community has been removed from a
previously existing area. This succession may be
triggered by smaller-scale disturbances and they do
not eliminate all the life and nutrients from the pre-
existing environment. Secondary succession occurs
after the disruption of a pre-existing community.
❑ Autotrophic and heterotrophic succession –

1. Autotrophic succession - It begins in a predominantly inorganic environment

and is characterized by early and continued dominance by autotrophic organisms.
2. Heterotrophic succession – It is characterized by early dominance of
heterotrophy and usually starts in primarily organic environment.

❑ Autogenic and allogenic succession –

1. Autogenic succession - Changes caused by endogenous factors (the plants

themselves) and is driven by the biotic components of the ecosystem
2. Allogenic succession - changes caused by exogenous factors like volcanic
eruptions, meteor or comet strike, flooding, drought, earthquakes etc.
Pioneer species –
❑ Establish over a previously bare area
❑ Environment is unfavorable for pioneer species
NUTRIENT CYCLE

movement and exchange of organic

and inorganic matter back into
the production of living matter

Ecosystems convert mineral nutrients

into the production of biomass and
recycle locally. On a larger scale they
participate in a global system of inputs
and outputs where matter is
exchanged and transported through a
larger system of biogeochemical
cycles.
• Nutrient cycling occurs in ecosystems that
participate in the larger biogeochemical cycles
of the earth through a system of inputs and
outputs.
• The difference between nutrient cycle and
biogeochemical cycle is a matter of scale and
compartmentalization with nutrient cycles
feeding into global biogeochemical cycles
 Biogeochemical cycles

Types of biogeochemical cycles -

1. Hydrological cycle – Water cycle
2. Gaseous cycle – Carbon cycle, oxygen cycle and nitrogen cycle.
3. Sedimentary cycle – Sulphur and phosphorus cycle
Water Cycle
Carbon cycle 1 – A long term cycle linking atmosphere, oceans and sediments
Carbon cycle 2 – It involves atmosphere and lithosphere
Carbon cycle 3- It links atmosphere and hydrosphere
Sulphur cycle
 Different types of ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystem – It comprises of relationships between the biotic and

abiotic components on landmasses such as continents and islands.

Classification of terrestrial ecosystem

❑ Forest ecosystem
❑ Grassland ecosystem
❑ Desert ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystem- It is any water-based environment in which plants and

animals interact with the chemical and physical features of the environment

Classification of aquatic ecosystem

❑ Fresh water ecosystem
❑ Marine ecosystem
 Examples
o Tropical rain forest
o Tropical evergreen
o Tropical deciduous
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Characteristics –
❑ dominated by trees
❑ mature forests often exhibit distinct vertical layers – forest floor, herb layer, shrub layer,
understory, canopy, emergents

Biotic components –
➢ Producers – Pine, Teak, Sal, Rosewood, maple etc.
➢ Consumers – Elephant, deer, monkey, frog, snake , wolf, lion, tiger etc.
➢ Decomposers – Nitrobacter, Clostridium, Agaricus etc.

Abiotic components –
❑ Physical/ climatic - Rainfall, humidity, light, temperature etc
❑ Inorganic – Carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, sulphur etc.
❑ Organic – Protein, carbohydrate, fat, chlorophyll etc.
 Examples
o Prairies in North
America
o Asian steppes
o Savannahs and Veldts
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM in Africa

Characteristics –
❑ dominated by grass
❑ grasslands can be classified as tropical and temperate

Biotic components –
➢ Producers – Grasses, sedged, rushes, cyanobacteria. lichens, mosses, Setaria etc.
➢ Consumers – Lizards, snakes, rabbits, moles , hares, small deers, wild dogs, foxes etc.
➢ Decomposers – Mucor, Rhizopus, Aspegillus etc.

Abiotic components –
❑ Physical/ climatic - rainfall, temperature, wind flow, ground moisture etc
❑ Inorganic – Sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, iron etc.
❑ Organic – Protein, carbohydrate, fat, chlorophyll etc.
 Examples
o Sahara
o Kalahari
o Thar etc
DESERT ECOSYSTEM

Characteristics –
❑ Dry areas with sandy soil, little rainfall and scanty vegetation
❑ Hot deserts are mainly found inECOSYSTEM
DESERT tropical places of the world while cold deserts are
found towards the Polar Regions.

Biotic components –
➢ Producers – shrubs, especially some grasses, bushes and few trees. Some lower plants
like xerophytic mosses and lichens
➢ Consumers – Reptiles, insects, nocturnal rodents, birds, and camels
➢ Decomposers – fungi and bacteria most of which are thermophilic.

Abiotic components –
❑ Physical/ climatic - very low rainfall, temperature, sandy soil, light.
❑ Inorganic – minerals are comparatively less
❑ Organic – carbohydrate, fat, chlorophyll etc
 Examples
Ponds, Ganga, Tapti
etc

FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM

Characteristics –
❑ it includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, wetlands etc
❑ salinity is lesser than marine ecosystem
❑ it can be further classified as lentic ecosystem (still water) and lotic ecosystem
(flowing water)

Biotic components –
Blue green algae, Euglena, Spirogyra Protozoa, Insects, small fish, large fish, Frog, Aquatic
birds etc.

Abiotic components –
❑ Physical/ climatic - Turbidity of water , light penetration, pH, temperature, salinity
❑ Inorganic – Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Nitrogen , Oxygen, Carbon dioxide.
❑ Organic – Chlorophyll, protein, carbohydrate, fat
 Example
Atlantic ocean, Red
Sea, Indian ocean
MARINE ECOSYSTEM

Characteristics –
❑ includes oceans, seas, salt marsh etc
❑ marked by high salinity
❑ it is the earth’s largest ecosystem covering two- third of the earth’s surface

Biotic components –
Red algae, brown algae, crustaceans, molluscs, herring, shark, whale, marine barophilic
bacteria

Abiotic components –
❑Physical/ climatic - Turbidity of water , light penetration, pH, temperature, salinity
❑ Inorganic – Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Nitrogen , Oxygen, Carbon dioxide,
pressure
❑ Organic – Chlorophyll, protein, carbohydrate, fat
 Neutralism
Interspecific interaction in
which the populations do
not harm each other

SPECIES
INTERACTIONS IN
ECOSYSTEM

2. Beneficial interaction 3. Harmful or negative

a) Proto cooperation interaction
b) Symbiosis (also a) Antagonism/
known as mutualism) ammensalism
c) Commensalism b) Competition
d) Scavenging c) Predation
d)Parasitism
 Ecological Interactions
It can be classified as
❑ interspecific and intraspecific - Intraspecific ecological interactions are those between
individuals of the same species and interspecific ecological interactions are ecological
interactions between individuals of different species.
❑ harmonious and inharmonious - An harmonious, or positive, ecological interaction is when
none of the participating organisms is harmed while an inharmonious, or negative, ecological
interaction is when at least one of the participating organisms is harmed.
 Intraspecific ecological interactions

Main harmonious intraspecific ecological interactions are

➢ Colonies - functional integrated aggregates formed by individuals of the same species. For
example - coral reefs, filamentous algae etc.
➢ Societies - interactions for labour division and collaboration among individuals of the same
species. For example human societies. bees, ants, termites also form societies.

The main inharmonious intraspecific ecological interactions are

✓ Intraspecific competition - Competition is the ecological interaction in which individuals
explore the same ecological niche or their ecological niches partially coincide and so
competition for the same environmental resources takes place. Competition is harmful for
all participating organism.
✓ Cannibalism - an interaction between organisms of the same species where an individual
eats others of the same species .
This occurs in some insects and arachnids.

Interspecific interactions
❑ Harmonious or positive interaction ❑ Inharmonious or negative or interactions
✓ protocooperation, ▪ interspecific competition
✓ mutualism ▪ parasitism
✓ commensalism ▪ predatism
▪ ammensalism
 Protocooperation
❑ Both the participants get benefit
❑ Non – obligatory for survival
For example
▪ removal of ectoparasites from the back
of bovines by some birds that eat the
parasites
▪ the hermit crab, which live inside shells
on top of which sea anemones live (these
offer protection to the crab and gain
mobility to obtain food).
Mutualism
• both participants benefit
• obligatory for their survival
For example
➢ the association between microorganisms
that digest cellulose and the ruminants or
insects within which they live
➢ lichens, formed by algae or cyanobacteria
that produce organic material for the fungi
and absorb water with their help
➢ Rhizobia reside in the root nodules of the
plants and fix nitrogen and in turn get food
from the plant.
 Commensalism
❑ one individual benefits while the other is neither
benefits nor is harmed
❑ The commensal, species that benefits from the
association—may obtain nutrients, shelter, support,
or locomotion from the host species, which is
unaffected
❑ For example,
➢ Remora, also called suckerfish, attaches itself
to the bodies of sharks, and uses the shark for
transportation as well as protection from its
predators. It also eats up the scraps of food
that are left over when the shark eats its prey.
➢ bacteria that live on the skin and in the
digestive tract of humans without being
pathogenic or beneficial
➢ relationship between cattle egrets and
livestock where the cattle egret eats up the
insects hiding under vegetation close to the
grounds, which get stirred up when the cattle
walk through them.
 Interspecific competition
❑ competition between snakes and eagles for
rodents
❑ disputes among vultures, worms, flies and
microorganisms for carrion and the

Parasitism
➢ an organism lives at the expense of another
➢ one participant is harmed while the other benefits
➢ For example
▪ Tapeworms are segmented flatworms that attach
themselves to the insides of the intestines of animals
such as cows, pigs, and humans. They get food by
eating the host's partly digested food,
depriving the host of nutrients
▪ trees (host) and parasitic helminthes (parasite)
▪ cattle (host) and ticks (parasite)
 Predatism
❑ one participant is harmed
❑ one individual mutilates or kills another to
get food.
❑ Herbivorism is a form of predatism in which
first order consumers feed on producers
(plants or algae)
❑ For example ,Carnivorous predators kill and
eat their prey.

Ammensalism
❑ one organism is harmed or inhibited and the other is
unaffected
For example
▪ humans and other species under threat of
extinction due to human actions such as
habitat devastation by fires, ecological
accidents, leisure hunting, etc.
▪ release of chemical toxins by plants that can
inhibit the growth of other plant species like
release of chemical from the roots of Black
walnut.