•Electron microscopes have a much Comparison of light and electron microscopes

higher resolution, and therefore •Light microscopes are used for specimens larger than 200 nm
magnification, than light microscopes • Light microscopes shine light through the specimen
as electrons have a much smaller • The specimens can be living, and therefore can be moving, or dead
wavelength than visible light • Light microscopes are useful for looking at whole cells, small plant
• Electron microscopes can achieve a and animal organisms, and tissues within organs such as in leaves
resolution of 0.5 nm or skin
•Electron microscopes, both scanning and transmission, are used for
The resolving power of electron microscopes is much greater
specimens larger than 0.5 nm

Cell Structure
than that of light microscopes due to the smaller wavelength
of electrons in comparison to visible light • Electron microscopes fire a beam of electrons at the specimen
• Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) fire
electrons through a specimen
• Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) bounce electrons off the
surface of a specimen
• The electrons are picked up by an electromagnetic lens which then
shows the image
• Electron microscopy requires the specimen to be dead, meaning
that they can only be used to capture a snapshot in time, and not
active life processes as they occur
• Electron microscopes are useful for looking at organelles,
viruses and DNA as well as looking at whole cells in more detail

Resolution of light and electron microscopes diagram

Comparing light & electron microscopes table

Electron microscope Light microscope

Large machines that are permanently

Small and portable
installed in laboratories

Need to create a vacuum for electrons to

No vacuum required
travel through

Specimen preparation is complex Specimen preparation can be simple

Maximum magnification of x500 000 Maximum magnification of x2000

Maximum resolution of 0.5 nm Maximum resolution of 200 nm

Specimens are always dead Specimens can be living or dead

Microscope Slide Preparation
•In order to observe cellular material in more detail, specimens can be prepared for viewing
under a light microscope
•Samples need to be thin enough to allow light to pass through Preparing a microscope slide
•The type of preparation that is appropriate is dependent on the cellular material that needs to •Specimens can be viewed under a light microscope; this allows some details of cellular material
be viewed to be observed
•Samples sometimes need to be stained, as the cytosol and other cell structures may be •Pre-prepared permanent slides can be viewed
transparent or difficult to distinguish • Such slides are produced by cutting very thin layers of tissue which are stained and
•To stain a slide the sample needs to be first air-dried and then heated by passing it through a permanently mounted on a glass slide for repeated use
Bunsen burner flame – this will allow the sample to be fixed to the slide and to take up the stain •Different methods will be used to view different types of specimen, e.g. temporary slide
•As with the type of preparation required, the type of stain used is dependent on what type of preparations can be produced in the school laboratory as described below
specimen is being used
Preparing a slide using a liquid specimen
1.Add a few drops containing the liquid sample to a clean slide using a pipette
2.Lower a coverslip over the specimen and gently press down to remove air bubbles
1. Coverslips protect the microscope lens from liquids and help to prevent drying out

Preparing a microscope slide using onion cells diagram

Preparing a slide using human cells
1.Brush teeth thoroughly with normal toothbrush and Preparing a microscope slide using cheek cells diagram
Preparing a microscope slide using a solid toothpaste
specimen 1. This removes bacteria from teeth so they don't
obscure the view of the cheek cells
1.Use scissors or a scalpel to cut a small sample of 2.Take a sterile cotton swab and gently scrape the inside
tissue, and peel away or cut a very thin layer of cheek surface of the mouth for 5-10 seconds
3.Smear the cotton swab on the centre of the microscope
cells from the tissue sample
slide for 2-3 seconds
1. The preparation method always needs to 4.Add a drop of methylene blue solution
ensure that samples are thin enough to 1. Methylene blue stains negatively charged molecules
allow light to pass through in the cell, including DNA and RNA
2.Place the sample onto a slide 2. This causes the nucleus and mitochondria to appear
1. A drop of water may be added at this point darker than their surroundings
3.Apply iodine stain 5.Place a coverslip on top
4.Gently lower a coverslip over the specimen and 1. Lay the coverslip down at one edge and then gently
press down to remove any air bubbles lower the other edge until it is flat
2. This reduces bubble formation under the coverslip
6.Absorb any excess solution by allowing a paper towel to
touch one side of the coverslip
Cheek cells can be stained using methylene blue
 Drawing Cells
•To record the observations seen under a microscope, a labelled biological drawing is often made
Common microscope stains & uses table •Biological drawings are line drawings which show specific features that have been observed when the specimen was viewed
•There are a number of rules/conventions that are followed when making a biological drawing
• The drawing must have a title
Staining specimens • The magnification under which the observations shown by the drawing are made should be recorded if possible
•The cytoplasm and other cell structures may be transparent or difficult to distinguish; stains allow • A scale bar may be used
them to be viewed clearly under a light microscope • A sharp pencil should be used
•As with the type of preparation required, the type of stain used is dependent on the specimen • Drawings should be on plain white paper
being viewed • Lines should be clear, single lines without sketching
• No shading should be used
• The drawing should take up as much of the space on the page as possible
• Well-defined structures should be drawn
• Only visible structures should be drawn, and the drawing should look like the specimen
• The drawing should be made with proper proportions
• Structures should be clearly labelled with label lines that:
• Do not cross
• Do not have arrowheads
• Connect directly to the part of the drawing being labelled
Stains starch blue-black, and colours nuclei
Iodine • Are on one side of the drawing
and plant cell walls pale yellow
• Are drawn with a ruler
•Drawings of cells are typically made when visualizing cells at a higher magnification power, whereas plan drawings are typically made
of tissues viewed under lower magnifications (individual cells are never drawn in a plan diagram)

Plant cell biological drawing Bacterial cell biological drawings

Magnification Calculations
•Magnification is the number of times that a real-life specimen has
been enlarged to give a larger view/image
• E.g. a magnification of x100 means that a specimen has
been enlarged 100 times to give the image shown
•The magnification (M) of an object can be calculated if both the
size of the image (I), and the actual size of the specimen (A), is
known
Animal cell drawing An equation triangle for calculating magnification
•When carrying out calculations relating to magnification, the following steps should be followed:
• Rearrange the equation
• A=I÷M
• M=I÷A
• I=AxM
• Read and measure the relevant values from the question stem and/or any images provided
• Convert any units
• Substitute numbers into the rearranged equation
• Consider whether this value makes sense in the context provided
 Converting units during magnification calculations •The size of cells is typically measured using the micrometre (μm) scale, with cellular
•Cellular structures are usually measured in either micrometers (μm) or nanometers (nm), while any structures measured in either micrometers (μm) or nanometers (nm)
measurements carried out in an exam with a ruler are likely to be in millimeters (mm) •When doing calculations all measurements must be in the same units. It is best to
• There are 1000 µm in a mm use the smallest unit of measurement shown in the question
• There are 1000 nm in a µm •To convert units, multiply or divide depending if the units are increasing or
•When doing calculations all measurements must be expressed using the same units decreasing
• It is best to use the smallest unit of measurement shown in the question •Magnification does not have units
• Note that magnification does not have units
•To convert units, multiply or divide depending on whether the units are increasing or decreasing
• Multiply when converting from a larger unit to a smaller unit
• Divide when converting a smaller unit to a larger unit Worked example
An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has
been magnified by a factor of X 3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?

Converting units of measurement

Calculate the actual diameter of the starch grain between points C-D in the image.
Worked example Give your answer in μm.
Step 1: Rearrange the equation
Worked out Example
A starch grain inside a plant cell was viewed
We have been asked to calculate actual size, A, so the new equation should be
under a microscope at a magnification of x850.
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification
The image of the starch grain captured using the Step 2: Read and measure relevant values
Step 1: Check that units in magnification microscope is shown below. We need to know the image size and the magnification
questions are the same The image size has been given in the image as 20 mm
The magnification has been included in the question stem and is x850
Remember that 1mm = 1000µm Step 3: Convert any units
2000 / 1000 = 2, so the actual thickness of The actual diameter of a structure inside a cell would normally be measured in μm
The image size has been given in mm, so we need to convert this to μm
the leaf is 2 mm and the drawing thickness 1 mm = 1000 μm, so we multiply mm by 1000 to give the value in μm
is 50 mm 20 x 1000 = 20 000 μm
Step 4: Substitute number into the equation
Actual size = 20 000 ÷ 850
Step 2: Calculate Magnification = 23.53 μm
Step 5: Consider whether the value makes sense
Magnification = image size / actual size = Plant cells measure between 10-100 μm, and the starch grain takes up a large
50 / 2 = 25 proportion of the cell in the image. A diameter of around 23 μm could therefore be
right for this starch grain
So the magnification is x 25 If we had forgotten to convert the units and come up with a value of 0.024 μm, then
this step would show us that this is probably too small and that we must have
therefore made a mistake somewhere
 Eyepiece Graticules & Stage Micrometers

•An eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer are used to

Calculating the size of a specimen
measure the size of an object when viewed under a microscope •The calibrated eyepiece graticule can be used to measure the
•The eyepiece graticule is an engraved ruler that is visible when length of an object
looking through the eyepiece of a microscope
• Eyepiece graticules are often divided into 100 smaller •The number of graticule divisions covered by an object need to
divisions known as graticule divisions, or eyepiece be multiplied by the magnification factor:
units
•The values of the divisions in an eyepiece graticule vary
depending on the magnification used, so the graticule needs graticule divisions covered by object x magnification factor =
to be calibrated every time an object is viewed •In the diagram, two stage micrometer divisions of 0.1
length of object (µm)
•The calibration is done using a stage micrometer; this is a slide mm, or 100 μm, are visible
that contains a tiny ruler with an accurate known scale •Each 100 µm division is equal to 40 eyepiece graticule
• Stage micrometer rulers can vary, but often have larger divisions
divisions of 0.1 mm (100 μm) and smaller divisions of • 40 graticule divisions = 100 µm
0.01 mm (10 μm) 1 graticule division = number of µm ÷ number of
graticule divisions
•1 graticule division = 100 ÷ 40 = 2.5 µm; this is
the magnification factor

Worked example
A student viewed some onion cells under a
Use the stage micrometer to calibrate the eyepiece graticule
and calculate the actual length of the cell labelled C-D in the Resolution & Magnification
microscope. image.
The image below shows the cells with an eyepiece Step 1: Calculate the size of each eyepiece division Magnification
graticule (left) and the eyepiece graticule alongside There are 40 graticule divisions per large micrometer division,
•Magnification is the number of times that a real-life specimen has been enlarged to
a stage micrometer (right). or per 100 μm
1 graticule division = no. of μm ÷ no. of graticule divisions give a larger view/image
Note that each large division on the stage
= 10 ÷ 40 • E.g. a magnification of x100 means that a specimen has been enlarged 100
micrometer here is 100 μm, and each small division
is 10 μm. = 2.5 μm times to give the image shown
This value can now be used as a magnification factor •A light microscope has two types of lens which allow it to achieve different levels of
Step 2: Calculate the length of the cell magnification:
Specimen size = no. of graticule divisions x magnification factor • An eyepiece lens, which often has a magnification of x10
The cell closest to the ruler covers 27 graticule divisions • A series of objective lenses, each with a different magnification, e.g. x4, x10,
= 27 x 2.5 x40 and x100
= 67.5 μm
•To calculate the total magnification of a specimen being viewed, the magnification
Step 3: Consider whether this answer makes sense in context
Plant cells usually measure between 10-100 μm, so a result of of the eyepiece lens and the objective lens are multiplied together:
67.5 μm sounds sensible in this context. total magnification = eyepiece lens magnification x objective lens magnification
Resolution
•The resolution of a microscope is its ability to distinguish two separate points on an image as separate
objects; this determines the ability of a microscope to show detail
• If resolution is too low then two separate objects will be observed as one point, and an image will Calculating Actual Size
appear blurry, or an object will not be visible at all
• The resolution of a microscope limits the magnification that it can usefully achieve; there is no •When using microscopes to study biological specimens, it is
point in increasing the magnification to a higher level if the resolution is poor possible to calculate the actual size of organisms, cells, and
•The resolution of a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light parts of cells
• Visible light falls within a set range of light wavelengths; 400-700 nm •The actual size of specimens can be calculated using
the magnification and the measured size of an image as
• The resolution of a light microscope cannot be smaller than half the wavelength of visible light
follows:
• The shortest wavelength of visible light is 400 nm, so the maximum resolution of a light Actual size = image size ÷ magnification
microscope is 200 nm • Magnification is sometimes provided in an exam
• E.g. the structure of a phospholipid bilayer cannot be observed under a light microscope due to question stem
low resolution: • Magnification can be calculated from the scale bar of
• The width of the phospholipid bilayer is about 10 nm an image
• The maximum resolution of a light microscope is 200 nm, so any points that are separated by a • Sometimes magnification is calculated from
distance of less than 200 nm, such as the 10 nm phospholipid bilayer, cannot be resolved by a information about the magnification of the eyepiece
light microscope and therefore will not be distinguishable as separate objects lens and the objective lens
•Remember that the equation above is part of the equation
triangle from calculating magnification

Worked example
Using lens magnification to calculate actual size
Worked example Use the information provided to calculate the actual length of a • A scientist looked at a sample of red blood cells under a
Using a scale bar to calculate actual size bacterial cell in the image. light microscope.
A lab technician observed bacterial cells with an Step 1: Use the scale bar to calculate the magnification of the • The eyepiece lens of the microscope had a magnification of Step 1: Calculate the total magnification of the
electron microscope, and produced the image image ×10 and the objective lens had a magnification of ×40. specimen
below. The equation triangle for magnification tells us that: • The scientist produced a photomicrograph of the blood total magnification = eyepiece lens magnification ×
The scale bar measures 2 cm in length, and the Magnification = image size ÷ actual size cells, shown below, in which the red blood cells have an objective lens magnification
length of the technician's image of one bacterial The scale bar measures 2 cm = 20 mm = 20 000 μm average diameter of 3 mm when measured using a ruler. 10 × 40 = 400
cell measures 7.6 cm. The scale bar represents an actual size of 1 μm ❑ Calculate the average diameter of the red blood cells in Magnification = ×400
Magnification = 20 000 ÷ 1 the sample. Give your answer in micrometres. Step 2: Convert the image size into μm
= 20 000 1 mm = 1000 μm
Step 2: Substitute values into the equation for actual size 3 × 1000 = 3000
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification Image size = 3000 μm
The question stem tells us that one cell = 7.6 cm = 76 mm = 76 Step 3: Substitute values into equation for actual
000 μm size
Magnification is ×20 000 Actual size = image size ÷ magnification
Actual size = 76 000 ÷ 20 000 Actual size = 3000 ÷ 400
= 3.8 = 7.5
Therefore, the actual length of a bacterial cell in this image Therefore, the average size of a red blood cell in this
is 3.8 μm sample is 7.5 μm
Eukaryotic Cell Structures & Functions
•Cells can be divided into two broad types; eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
•Eukaryotic cells have a more complex ultrastructure than prokaryotic cells
• The term ultrastructure refers to the internal structure of cells
•The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells is divided up into membrane-bound
compartments called organelles Cell surface membrane diagram

Cell organelles
Cell surface membrane
•All cells are surrounded by a cell surface membrane which separates the
inside of cells from their surroundings
•Cell surface membranes controls the exchange of materials between the
internal cell environment and the external environment
• The membrane is described as being partially permeable as it allows
the passage of some substances and not others
•The cell membrane is formed from a phospholipid bilayer and spans a Cell surface membranes separate cell
diameter of around 10 nm contents from the surrounding environment
and control the passage of substances into
and out of cells

Nucleus Rough & smooth endoplasmic reticulum

•Present in all eukaryotic cells, the nucleus is the a large •The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is made up of a series of
organelle that is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membranes that form flattened sacs within the cell
membrane cytoplasm
Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum diagram
•The nucleus contains the DNA, which is arranged into •The ER is linked with the nuclear envelope
chromosomes •There are two distinct types of ER, with different roles
• Chromosomes contain DNA and proteins, which within the cell
are collectively referred to as chromatin • The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
•The nuclear membrane is known as the nuclear envelope, • Continuous folds of membrane that are linked
and contains many pores with the nuclear envelope
•Nuclear pores are important channels for allowing mRNA • The surface of the RER is covered in ribosomes
and ribosomes to travel out of the nucleus, as well as • The role of the RER is to process proteins that
allowing enzymes and signalling molecules to move in are produced on the ribosomes
•The nucleus contains a region known as the nucleolus, • The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
which is the site of ribosome production • The SER does not have ribosomes on the surface
• It is involved in the production of lipids, and
The nucleus of a cell contains the genetic material
of steroid hormones such as oestrogen and
testosterone

The RER has ribosomes on its outer surface and is

continuous with the nuclear envelope, while the
SER lacks ribosomes
 Mitochondria
•Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are
Golgi body relatively large organelles surrounded by a
•The Golgi body is often referred to as the double-membrane
Golgi apparatus or the Golgi complex • They are smaller than the nucleus and
•It consists of a series of flattened sacs of chloroplasts, but can be seen with a light
membrane microscope
•It can be clearly distinguished from the ER, as •The inner membrane is folded to form cristae
it is not connected to other membrane-bound •Mitochondria are the site of aerobic
compartments, and it has a distinctive 'wifi respiration within eukaryotic cells
symbol' appearance •The mitochondrial matrix
•Its role is to modify contains enzymes needed for aerobic respiration
proteins and package them into vesicles •Small, circular pieces of DNA, known
as mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes are also
found in the matrix Mitochondria have a highly folded inner membrane;
• This allows the production of proteins this provides a large surface area for embedded
The Golgi body processes proteins and packages
required for respiration proteins that are involved with aerobic respiration
them into vesicles

Ribosomes
•Ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm of all
cells or as part of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum in eukaryotic cells
•Each ribosome is a complex of ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and proteins Vesicles
•80S ribosomes (composed of 60S and 40S •Vesicles are small, membrane-bound sacs
subunits) are found in eukaryotic cells used by cells for transport and storage
• Smaller, 70S ribosomes (composed of •They can be pinched off the ends of the
50S and 30S subunits) are found in Golgi body; these are known as Golgi vesicles
prokaryotes, mitochondria and •They can fuse with the cell surface
chloroplasts membrane to allow exocytosis, or bud from
•Ribosomes are the site of translation the membrane during endocytosis
during protein synthesis
Vesicles carry out transport and storage of
substances within cells
 Lysosomes
•Lysosomes are specialised vesicles which
contain hydrolytic enzymes
•Hydrolytic enzymes break down biological
molecules, e.g. Centrioles
• Waste materials, such as worn-out
•Centrioles are hollow fibres made
organelles
of microtubules
• Engulfed pathogens during phagocytosis
•Two centrioles at right angles to each other
• Cell debris during
form a centrosome, which organises
apoptosis (programmed cell death)
the spindle fibres during cell division
•Note that centrioles are not found in
Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes for the flowering plants and fungi
breakdown of biological molecules

Centrioles are involved with the movement of

chromosomes during cell division

Microtubules
•Mictrotubules are hollow tubes made of tubulin protein
• α and β tubulin proteins combine to form dimers, which are then joined into protofilaments Cilia
• Thirteen protofilaments in a cylinder make a microtubule •Cilia are hair-like projections made
•Microtubules make up the cytoskeleton of the cell from microtubules
• The cytoskeleton is used to provide support and movement of the cell •They can be found of the surface of some
cells where they Allow the movement of
substances over the cell surface
Microtubules are tubes of protein that are involved with the structure of cell cytoskeletons • E.g. ciliated epithelial cells in the
airways waft mucus away from the
lungs

Ciliated cells form ciliated epithelium in the airways

Microvilli
•Microvilli are cell membrane projections Cell wall
that increase the surface area for absorption
•Cell walls are outside cell surface membranes
•Microvilli are found in parts of the body that
and offer structural support to some types of
carry out absorption, e.g.
cell
• The lining of the small intestine
• Structural support is provided by the
• The kidney tubules
polysaccharide cellulose in plants, and by
chitin in fungi
•Cell walls are freely permeable and do not play
a role in controlling the movement of
substances into and out of cells
Microvilli increase the surface area of the cell Plant cell walls contain cellulose
surface membrane

Chloroplasts
•Chloroplasts are larger than mitochondria, and
are also surrounded by a double-membrane
•Membrane-bound compartments
called thylakoids stack together to form Plasmodesmata
structures called grana •Plasmodesmata are bridges of
•Grana are joined together by lamellae cytoplasm between neighbouring plant
•Photosynthetic pigments such cells
as chlorophyll are found in the membranes of •They allow the transfer of substances
the thylakoids, where their role is to absorb between plant cells
light energy for photosynthesis
•Chloroplasts contain small circular pieces of
DNA and ribosomes used to synthesise proteins Plasmodesmata mean that the cytoplasm of
needed in chloroplast replication and neighbouring plant cells is continuous; this allows
substances to move easily between cells, e.g. sucrose
photosynthesis
Chloroplasts are found in the green parts of a plant can move easily from the surrounding cells into the
phloem
 Electron Micrographs: Animal Cells
•Exam questions will not always contain neat diagrams of cellular
structures, but may instead present images taken using microscopes
• Such images are known as micrographs
Large permanent vacuole •It is possible to identify organelles in micrographs of animal cells on the
basis of their shape, location, and size relative to other organelles, e.g.
•Large permanent vacuoles are found in • The nucleus will always be the largest organelle
plant cells, where they store cell sap and • Mitochondria are the next largest, and are often cylindrical with
provide additional structural support to a folded inner membrane
cells • Note that mitochondria are not always cylindrical, but can
• Vacuoles are sometimes found in also be circular; their shape will depend on their age, and on
animal cells, but these will be the angle at which they were sliced during specimen
small and temporary preparation
•Vacuoles are surrounded by • RER will be near the nucleus, and ribosomes can sometime be
Large permanent vacuoles store cell sap inside plant cells seen
the tonoplast, which is a partially
• Lysosomes and vesicles will be smaller than mitochondria
permeable membrane

Structure of Animal & Plant Cells

Electron Micrographs: Plant Cells
•Animal and plant cells have many common
structures:
• Cell surface membrane
•Plant cell micrographs can be interpreted using the • Cytoplasm
same techniques as animal cells • Nucleus
• Large, seemingly empty spaces inside cells • Mitochondria
will be vacuoles • Rough and smooth endoplasmic
• The nucleus will be the largest dark region in reticulum
the cell • Golgi bodies
• Chloroplasts are the next-largest organelles, • Vesicles and lysosomes
and grana are often visible • Ribosomes
• Microtubules
 The Vital Role of ATP
•All organisms require a constant supply of energy to maintain
their cells and stay alive
•Plant cells are larger and more regular in shape •This energy is required
than animal cells, and have the following • In anabolic reactions to build larger molecules from
additional structures smaller molecules
• Cellulose cell wall • To move substances across the cell membrane in active
• Large permanent vacuoles transport, or to move substances within the cell
• Chloroplasts • In animals, energy is required
• Plasmodesmata • For muscle contraction
• In the conduction of nerve impulses
•The only structures found in animal cells but not
•In all known forms of life, ATP from respiration is used to transfer
plant cells are centrioles and microvilli energy in all energy-requiring processes in cells; this is why ATP is
known as the universal energy currency
• Energy is released from ATP when it is broken down to ATP is the energy currency of cells
ADP and inorganic phosphate
• This process is reversed during respiration to make ATP
and maintain a supply of energy
•Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide
• The monomers of DNA and RNA are also nucleotides
Plant cells have a larger, more regular
structure in comparison to animal cells

Structural Features of Typical Prokaryotic Cells

•Animal and plant cells are eukaryotic cells, whereas bacterial cells
are prokaryotic
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cell Structures
Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
•Prokaryotes have a cellular structure that is distinct from eukaryotes:
Size 0.5-5 μm Up to 100 μm
• Their genetic material is free in the cytoplasm and is circular
• Eukaryotic genetic material is packaged as linear
chromosomes in the nucleus Genetic material
Circular chromosome in the cytoplasm Linear chromosomes in the nucleus
Not associated with proteins Associated with histone proteins
• Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles
• This means that they do not have any internal structures
surrounded by membrane, e.g. a nucleus or mitochondria
Mitosis or meiosis
• They are many times smaller than eukaryotic cells Cell division
Binary fission
No spindle fibres involved
Chromosomes are separated by
spindle fibres
• Prokaryotic cells are usually 1-5 μm in diameter, while
eukaryotic plant cells can be 10-100 μm across Ribosomes 70S 80S
• Their ribosomes are structurally smaller (70 S) in comparison to
those found in eukaryotic cells (80 S)
• Their cell walls are made of peptidoglycan rather than cellulose or Multiple membrane-bound organelles,
Organelles No membrane-bound organelles e.g. a nucleus, mitochondria,
chitin chloroplasts
•Prokaryotes are always unicellular, while eukaryotic animal and plant cells
can function together in multicellular organisms
Prokaryotic cells have no internal membrane-bound Made of cellulose in plants, or chitin in
Cell wall Made of peptidoglycan
structures, and are smaller than eukaryotic cells fungi
 Viruses
•Viruses are non-cellular particles that infect living cells
• Note that viruses are not cells, and they are not
considered to be living organisms, so are referred to as
'particles'
•They are much smaller than prokaryotic cells, with a diameter
of 20-300 nm
•Structurally they have
• A nucleic acid core made of either DNA or RNA
• A protein coat called a capsid
•Some viruses have an outer layer called an envelope; this
forms from the membrane phospholipids of the host cell in
which they were produced
•Viruses can only reproduce by infecting living cells and using
Basic virus structure includes a protein
their protein-building machinery to produce new viral particles
capsid and a nucleic acid core
• Viruses use attachment proteins on their surface to
bind to and infect their host cells