Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
atoms, typically with a hydrogen-to-oxygen ratio of 2:1, as in water. They are one of
the four major classes of biomolecules
Definition:
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, polyhydroxy ketones, or other
compounds that hydrolyze to polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones. The
general formula of simple carbohydrates is CnH2nOn, which can also be written as
Cn⋅(H2O)n which is the origin of the name carbohydrates, i.e., hydrates of carbon.
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates can be classified into three main categories: monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
1. Monosaccharides:
○ Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and cannot
be hydrolyzed into smaller carbohydrate units.
○ They typically have 3-7 carbon atoms.
○ Common examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
○ They are classified based on the number of carbon atoms:
■ Trioses (3 carbons): Glyceraldehyde
■ Tetroses (4 carbons): Erythrose
■ Pentoses (5 carbons): Ribose, Arabinose
■ Hexoses (6 carbons): Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
2. Disaccharides:
○ Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide units linked together by
a glycosidic bond.
○ They can be hydrolyzed into two monosaccharide molecules.
○ Common examples include sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose
(glucose + galactose), and maltose (two glucose molecules).
3. Polysaccharides:
○ Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of many
monosaccharide units linked together.
○ They can be either branched or unbranched chains.
○ They serve various functions such as energy storage and providing
structural support.
○ Common examples include:
■ Starch: A storage polysaccharide in plants, composed of
amylose (unbranched) and amylopectin (branched).
■ Glycogen: A storage polysaccharide in animals, highly
branched and similar to amylopectin.
■ Cellulose: A structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls,
composed of linear chains of glucose units.
■ Chitin: A structural polysaccharide in the exoskeleton of
arthropods and cell walls of fungi.
Functions of Carbohydrates
1. Energy Storage and Supply:
○ Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy for living organisms.
○ Glucose is a key energy source, while glycogen (in animals) and starch
(in plants) serve as storage forms.
2. Structural Role:
○ Cellulose provides structural support to plant cell walls.
○ Chitin, a derivative of glucose, forms the exoskeleton of arthropods and
cell walls of fungi.
3. Cell Recognition and Signaling:
○ Carbohydrates are involved in cell-cell recognition and signaling
processes.
○ Glycoproteins and glycolipids on cell surfaces play roles in immune
response and cell communication.
Important Reactions of Carbohydrates
1. Glycosidic Bond Formation:
○ This is a condensation reaction where a water molecule is removed as
two monosaccharides join to form a disaccharide or polysaccharide.
○ The bond can be hydrolyzed back to monosaccharides by enzymes or
acids.
2. Oxidation and Reduction:
○ Monosaccharides can be oxidized to form aldonic acids or reduced to
form sugar alcohols (alditols).
○ Example: Glucose oxidized to gluconic acid, reduced to sorbitol.
3. Isomerization:
○ Monosaccharides can exist as different isomers, including
enantiomers, diastereomers, and anomers.
○ Example: Glucose can form α-D-glucose and β-D-glucose.
4. Formation of Derivatives:
○ Carbohydrates can form various derivatives, such as amino sugars
(e.g., glucosamine), deoxy sugars (e.g., deoxyribose), and sugar acids.
Physical Properties
The physical properties of the three main classes of carbohydrates:
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides
1. Crystalline Solids: Monosaccharides are typically colorless, crystalline
solids.
2. Solubility: They are highly soluble in water due to multiple hydroxyl groups
(–OH) that form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
3. Optical Activity: Monosaccharides are optically active, meaning they can
rotate plane-polarized light. They exist as D- or L-forms, depending on the
orientation of the hydroxyl group on the chiral carbon farthest from the
carbonyl group.
4. Taste: Many monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose, have a sweet
taste.
Disaccharides
1. Crystalline Solids: Disaccharides are also crystalline solids, similar to
monosaccharides.
2. Solubility: They are soluble in water, though solubility can vary among
different disaccharides.
3. Optical Activity: Disaccharides are optically active and can rotate
plane-polarized light.
4. Taste: Disaccharides, like sucrose (table sugar), have a sweet taste.
Polysaccharides
1. Amorphous Solids: Polysaccharides are usually amorphous or
semi-crystalline solids.
2. Solubility: They are generally insoluble in water or form colloidal
suspensions. For example, starch forms a colloidal suspension, while
cellulose is insoluble in water.
3. Taste: Polysaccharides are typically tasteless, unlike monosaccharides and
disaccharides.
Chemical Properties
The chemical properties of carbohydrates are diverse and are essential for their
biological functions. Let's explore the chemical properties of the three main classes
of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides
1. Reducing Ability:
○ Monosaccharides can act as reducing agents due to the presence of
free aldehyde or ketone groups.
○ They can reduce metal ions like copper(II) or silver(I) in Benedict's or
Fehling's tests, resulting in the formation of a red precipitate.
2. Isomerization:
○ Monosaccharides can interconvert between different isomers,
including:
■ Anomers: Isomers that differ at the anomeric carbon (α and β
forms).
■ Epimers: Isomers that differ at a single chiral center.
■ Aldose-Ketose Isomerization: Conversion between aldoses
and ketoses (e.g., glucose to fructose).
3. Glycosidic Bond Formation:
○ Monosaccharides can form glycosidic bonds through a condensation
reaction, resulting in the formation of disaccharides and
polysaccharides.
4. Oxidation and Reduction:
○ Oxidation of monosaccharides can produce various acids:
■ Aldonic Acids: Formed by the oxidation of the aldehyde group
(e.g., glucose to gluconic acid).
■ Uronic Acids: Formed by the oxidation of the primary alcohol
group (e.g., glucose to glucuronic acid).
○ Reduction of monosaccharides produces sugar alcohols (alditols) (e.g.,
glucose to sorbitol).
Disaccharides
1. Reducing and Non-Reducing Properties:
○ Disaccharides can be either reducing or non-reducing:
■ Reducing Disaccharides: Have a free anomeric carbon and
can act as reducing agents (e.g., maltose).
■ Non-Reducing Disaccharides: Do not have a free anomeric
carbon (e.g., sucrose).
2. Hydrolysis:
○ Disaccharides can be hydrolyzed into their constituent
monosaccharides by acids or enzymes (e.g., sucrase hydrolyzes
sucrose into glucose and fructose).
3. Glycosidic Bond Formation:
○ Formed through condensation reactions between two
monosaccharides, releasing water.
Polysaccharides
1. Non-Reducing Nature:
○ Polysaccharides are generally non-reducing as their monosaccharide
units are linked through glycosidic bonds, leaving no free aldehyde or
ketone groups.
2. Hydrolysis:
○ Polysaccharides can be hydrolyzed into simpler sugars
(monosaccharides or disaccharides) by enzymes or acids (e.g.,
amylase hydrolyzes starch into maltose and then to glucose).
3. Branching and Structural Diversity:
○ Polysaccharides can be linear or branched, impacting their solubility
and digestibility. For example:
■ Starch: Contains both linear (amylose) and branched
(amylopectin) components.
■ Glycogen: Highly branched, serving as an energy storage
molecule in animals.
■ Cellulose: Linear and forms strong fibrils due to extensive
hydrogen bonding, providing structural support in plants.
4. Iodine Test:
○ Starch gives a blue-black color with iodine due to the formation of an
inclusion complex with amylose.
Starch
Starch is defined as a large reserve of carbohydrate stored in various parts of a
plant, composed mainly of amylopectin and amylose polymers. It forms a matrix of
granules with glucose units, and its properties are influenced by the plant's botanical
origin.
Starch is a complex carbohydrate that serves as a vital energy storage molecule in
plants. Its biological functions are:
1. Energy Storage: Starch is a compact and efficient way for plants to store
energy. It's synthesized from glucose during photosynthesis and stored in
roots, tubers, seeds, and fruits.
2. Food Source: Starch is a primary source of energy for humans and
animals. We consume starch-rich foods like grains, legumes, and tubers,
which are then broken down into glucose for energy production.
3. Structural Support: Starch granules provide structural support and
maintain cell shape in plant cells.
4. Regulation of Sugar Levels: Starch synthesis and breakdown help
regulate sugar levels in plants, ensuring a stable energy supply.
5. Germination and Seedling Growth: Starch stored in seeds provides
energy for germination and seedling growth.
6. Osmoregulation: Starch helps regulate water balance in plant cells by
influencing osmotic pressure.
7. Signaling and Gene Regulation: Starch metabolism influences gene
expression, hormone signaling, and stress responses in plants.
In summary, starch plays a critical role in plant energy storage, structural support,
and regulation of sugar levels, while also serving as a vital energy source for
humans and animals.
Glycogen
Glycogen is the stored form of glucose that's made up of many connected glucose
molecules. Glucose (sugar) is your body's main source of energy. It comes from
carbohydrates (a macronutrient) in certain foods and fluids you consume.
Here are the biological functions of glycogen with a bit more detail:
1. Energy Storage
Glycogen stores energy in the form of glucose units, providing a quick energy source
for the body. This energy is readily available for use by the muscles and other
tissues.
2. Regulation of Blood Glucose
Glycogen helps maintain blood glucose levels by releasing glucose when levels
drop. This process, called glycogenolysis, ensures that the body's cells receive a
steady supply of glucose.
3. Muscle Function
Glycogen provides energy for muscle contractions and relaxation, supporting
physical activity. During exercise, glycogen is broken down into glucose, which is
then used by the muscles for energy.
4. Liver Function
The liver stores and releases glycogen to regulate blood glucose levels and support
metabolic processes. The liver also uses glycogen to detoxify harmful substances
and support immune function.
5. Brain Function
Glycogen serves as an energy reserve for the brain, supporting cognitive function.
The brain relies heavily on glucose for energy, and glycogen provides a readily
available source of glucose.
6. Development and Growth
Glycogen plays a role in fetal development and growth, supporting the energy needs
of growing tissues. Glycogen is also important for the development and function of
the placenta.
7. Immune System Function
Glycogen metabolism supports immune cell function and activation, helping to fight
off infections. Glycogen is also important for the production of cytokines, which are
signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response.
Cellulose
Cellulose is a molecule, consisting of hundreds – and sometimes even thousands –
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Cellulose is the main substance in the walls
of plant cells, helping plants to remain stiff and upright. Humans cannot digest
cellulose, but it is important in the diet as fibre.
Here are the biological functions of cellulose:
1. Structural Support
Cellulose provides structural support and rigidity to plant cell walls, allowing plants to
grow upright and maintain their shape.
2. Cell Wall Formation
Cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls, providing a framework for cell
growth and division.
3. Plant Defense
Cellulose helps protect plants against pathogens and pests by providing a physical
barrier.
4. Water Transport
Cellulose helps transport water and nutrients throughout the plant by providing a
conduit for xylem vessels.
5. Food Source
Cellulose is a food source for certain animals, such as ruminants (e.g., cows, sheep),
that have microbes in their digestive systems that can break down cellulose.
6. Soil Formation
Cellulose from plant residues contributes to soil formation and structure.
7. Carbon Sequestration
Cellulose plays a role in carbon sequestration, as it stores carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
8. Plant Growth Regulation
Cellulose synthesis and degradation are involved in regulating plant growth and
development.
