Lesson 3

EARTHMOVING MATERIALS AND OPERATIONS

Pre-test: (Answer the following questions:)

1. ___________ is composed of individual particles larger than ¼ in. (6 mm) in diameter

but smaller than 3 in. (76 mm).
2. Rock particles larger than 3 in. (76 mm) in diameter is called ___________.
3. ____ is a material smaller than gravel but larger than the Np. 200 sieve opening (0.7
mm).
4. ________ particles pass the No. 200 sieve but are larger than 0.002 mm.
5. ________ is composed of particles less than 0.002 mm in diameter.
6. Soils that have more than 50% by weight passing the No. 200 sieve are called
_________.
7. _____ soils contain partially decomposed vegetable matter.
8. Enumerate two principal soil classification systems used for design and construction.
9. (two principal soil classification systems used for design and construction)
10. The _____________ of a soil is the water content (expressed in percentage of dry
weight) at which the soil will just start to flow when subjected to a standard shaking test.
11. The __________ of a soil is the moisture content in percent at which the soil just begins
to crumble when rolled into a thread 1/8 in. (0.3 cm) in diameter.
12. _______ is the numerical difference between the liquid and plastic limits and represents
the range in moisture content over which the soil remains plastic.
13. _______________ are soils that have at least 50% by weight passing the No. 200
sieve.
14. A factor used for the conversion of bank volume to compacted volume is referred to as ____.
15. _________ is the process of moving soil or rock from one location to another and processing
it so that it meets construction requirements of location, elevation, density, moisture content,
and so on.

Lecture:

A. Introduction to Earthmoving

Earthmoving is the process of moving soil or rock from one location to another and
processing it so that it meets construction requirements of location, elevation, density,
moisture content, and so on.

Activities involved in this process include excavating, loading, hauling, placing (dumping
and spreading), compacting, grading, and finishing.

Efficient management of the earthmoving process requires accurate estimating of work

quantities and job conditions, proper selection of equipment, and competent job
management.

Equipment Selection

The choice of equipment to be used on a construction project has a major influence on

the efficiency and profitability of the construction operation.

One of the factors to consider in selecting equipment for a project (the most important
criterion) is the ability of the equipment to perform the required work.

The principal criterion for selection should be maximizing the profit or return on the
investment produced by the equipment. Profit is maximized when the lowest cost per
unit of production is achieved.
 Other factors that should be considered when selecting equipment for a project include
possible future use of the equipment, its availability, the availability of parts and
services, and the effect of equipment down-time on other construction equipment and
operations.

After the equipment has been selected for a project, a plan must be developed to
efficiently utilize the equipment. Competent job management to assure compliance with
the operating plan and to make adjustments for unexpected conditions is the final phase
of the process.

Production of Earthmoving Equipment

The basic relationship for estimating the production of all earthmoving equipment is:

Production=Volume per cycle x Cycles per hour

The term “volume per cycle” should represent the average volume of material
moved per equipment cycle.

The cost per unit of production may be calculated as follows:

Equipment cost per hour

Cost per Unit of Production=
Equipment production per hour

B. Earthmoving Materials

Soil and Rock are the materials that make up the crust of the earth and are therefore the
materials of interest to the constructor.

General Soil Characteristics

The characteristics of soil and rock that affect the construction use, including their
volume change characteristics, methods of classification and field identification will be
considered.

Trafficability is the ability of a soil to support the weight of vehicles under repeated traffic.
In construction, trafficability controls the amount and type of traffic that can use
unimproved access roads, as well as the operation of earthmoving equipment within the
construction area. Trafficability is primarily a function of soil type and moisture conditions.
Soil drainage characteristics are important to trafficability and affect the ease with which
soil may be dried.

Loadability is a measure of the difficulty in excavating and loading soil. Loose granular
soils are highly loadable, whereas compacted cohesive soils and rock have low
loadability.

The moisture content of a soil is expressed as a percentage that represents the weight of
water in the soil divided by the dry weight of the soil.

Moist weight−Dry weight

Moisture content ( % ) = x 100
Dry weight

Example: Determine the moisture content of a soil sample weighing 120 lb (54.4 kg) in
the natural state and 100 lb (45.3 kg) after drying. What is the weight of the water in the
sample?

Solution:
 120−100 54.4−45.3
Moisture Content= x 100=20 %∨ x 100=20 %
100 45.3

Weight of water would be 20lb or 9.1 kg

C. Soil Identification and Classification

Five fundamental material types of soil: gravel, sand, silt, clay and organic material.

Gravel is composed of individual particles larger than ¼ in. (6 mm) in diameter but
smaller than 3 in. (76 mm)

Rock particles larger than 3 in. (76 mm) in diameter is called cobbles or boulders.

Sand is material smaller than gravel but larger than the Np. 200 sieve opening (0.7 mm).

Silt particles pass the No. 200 sieve but are larger than 0.002 mm.

Clay is composed of particles less than 0.002 mm in diameter.

Organic soils contain partially decomposed vegetable matter. Peat is a highly organic soil
having a fibrous texture. It is normally readily identified by its dark color, odor, and
spongy feel. It is generally considered unsuitable for any construction use.

Soil Classification Systems

There are two principal soil classification systems used for design and construction.
These are the Unified system and the AASHTO (American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials) formerly known as AASHO (American Association of State
Highway Officials).

The Liquid Limit (LL) of a soil is the water content (expressed in percentage of dry
weight) at which the soil will just start to flow when subjected to a standard shaking test.

The Plastic Limit (PL) of a soil is the moisture content in percent at which the soil just
begins to crumble when rolled into a thread 1/8 in. (0.3 cm) in diameter.

The Plastic Index (PI) is the numerical difference between the liquid and plastic limits and
represents the range in moisture content over which the soil remains plastic.

The Unified system assigns a two-letter symbol to identify each soil type. Coarse-grained
soils are soils that have at least 50% by weight passing the No. 200 sieve. Soils that
have more than 50% by weight passing the No. 200 sieve are fine-grained soils.

Under the AASHTO system, soils are classified as type A-1 through A-7 corresponding to
their relative value as subgrade material.

Field Identification of Soil (Unified System)

Adequate time and laboratory facilities are needed when identifying soil in connection
with construction operations. (Review your Material Testing) Dry Strength Test, Shaking
Test, Construction Characteristics of soils

D. Soil Volume-Change Characteristics

Soil Conditions
There are three principal conditions or states in which earthmoving material may exist:
bank, loose, and compacted.
Bank. Material in its natural state before disturbance. Referred to as “in-place” or “in-situ”.
A unit volume is identified as a bank cubic yard (BCY) or a bank cubic meter (BCM).
Loose. Material that has been excavated or loaded. A unit volume is identified as a loose
cubic yard (LCY) or loose cubic meter (LCM).
Compacted. Material after compaction. A unit volume is identified as a compacted cubic
yard (CCY) or compacted cubic meter (CCM).

Swell

A soil increases in volume when it is excavated because the soil grains are loosened
during excavation and air fills the void spaces created.

Weight
Bank volume
Swell ( % ) = x 100
Weight
Loose volume

Example: Find the swell of a soil that weighs 2800 lb/cu.yd (1661 kg/m 3) in its natural
state and 2000 lb/cu.yd (1186 kg/m3) after excavation.

Solution:

That is, 1 bank cubic yard (meter) of material will expand to 1.4 loose cubic yards
(meters) after excavation.

Typical soil volume change during earthmoving

Shrinkage

When a soil is compacted, some of the air is forced out of the soil’s void spaces. As a
result, the soil will occupy less volume than it did under either the bank or loose
conditions.

Weight / Bank Volume

Shrinkage(% )= x 100
Weight /Compacted Volume

Example: Find the shrinkage of a soil that weighs 2800 lb/cu yd (1661 kg/m 3) in its
natural state and 3500 lb/cu yd (2077 kg/m3) after compaction.
 Solution:
2800
Shrinkage=1− x 100=20 %
3500

1661
Shrinkage=1− x 100=20 %
2077

Load and Shrinkage Factors

Weight /Loose unit volume

Load Factor=
Weight / Bank unit volume

1
Load Factor=
1+ swell

Shrinkage factor is a factor used for the conversion of bank volume to compacted
volume.

Weight /Bank unit volume

Shrinkage Factor=
Weight /Compacted unit volume

Shrinkage Factor=1 – shrinkage

Example: A soil weighs 1960 lb/LCY (1163 kg/LCM), 2800 lb/BCY (1661 kg/BCM), and
3500 lb/CCY (2077 kg/CCM). (a) Find the load factor and shrinkage factor for the soil. (b)
How many bank cubic yards (BCY) or meters (BCM) and compacted cubic yards (CCY)
or meters (CCM) are contained in 1 million loose cubic yards (593,300 LCM of this soil?

Solution:

E. Spoil Banks

When planning and estimating earthwork, it is frequently necessary to determine the size
of the pile of material that will be created by the material removed from the excavation. If
the pile of material is long in relation to its width, it is referred to as a spoil bank. Spoil
banks are characterized by a triangular cross section. If the material is dumped from a
fixed position, spoil pile is created which has a conical shape. To determine the
dimensions of spoil banks or piles, it is first necessary to convert the volume of
excavation from in-place condition to loose conditions.

A soil’s angle of repose is the angle that the sides of a spoil bank or pile naturally form
with the horizontal when the excavated soil is dumped onto the pile. The angle of repose
(which represents the equilibrium position of the soil) varies with the soil’s physical
characteristics and its moisture content.

Triangular Spoil Bank

Volume = Section area x Length

( )
1/ 2
4V B x tan R
B= H = A=
L x tan R 2

Where B = base width (ft or m)

H = pile height (ft or m)
L = pile length (ft or m)
R = angle of repose (deg)
V = pile volume (cu ft or m3)

Conical Spoil Pile

Volume = 1/3 x Base area x Height

( )
1/ 3
7.64 V D
B= H= x tan R D is the diameter of the pile base (ft or m)
tan R 2

Example: Find the base width and height of a triangular spoil bank containing 100 BCY
(76.5 BCM) if the pile length is 30 ft (9.14 m), the soil’s angle of repose is 37° and its
swell is 25%.

Solution:

Loose volume = 27 x 100 x 1.25 = 3375 cu ft (= 76.5 x 1.25 = 95.6 m 3)

( ) ( )
1/ 2 1/ 2
4 x 3375 4 x 95.6
Base width B= =24.4 ft B= =7.45 m
30 x tan 37 30 x tan 37

24.4 7.45
Height H= x tan 37=9.2 ft H= x tan 37=2.80 m
2 2

Example: Find the base diameter and height of a conical spoil pile that will contain 100
BCY (76.5 BCM) of excavation if the soil’s angle of repose is 32° and its swell is 12%.

Solution:

Loose volume = 27 x 100 x 1.12 = 3024 cu ft (= 76.5 x 1.12 = 85.7 m 3)

 ( ) ( )
1/3 1/3
7.64 x 3024 7.64 x 85.7
Base diameter D= =33.3 ft D= =10.16 m
tan 32 tan 32

33.3 10.16
Height H= x tan 32=10.4 ft H= x tan32=3.17 m
2 2

F. Estimating Earthwork Volume

It is necessary to estimate the volume of material to be excavated or placed as fill when

planning or estimating an earthmoving project. Procedures to be followed can be divided
into three principal categories:
 Pit Excavation – small, relatively deep excavation such as those required for
basements and foundations
 Trench Excavation – for utility lines
 Excavating or grading relatively large areas

The usual method is to calculate the cross-sectional area of cut and fill at regular
intervals (such as stations 100 ft or 33 m) along the center line. The volume of cut or fill
is then calculated, accumulated, and plotted as a mass diagram.

Pit Excavations

Volume = Horizontal area x Average depth

Example: Estimate the volume of excavation required (bank measure) for the basement
shown in figure. Values shown at each corner are depths of excavation. All values are in
ft (m).
30.0 ft
6.0 (9.15m) 8.2
(1.8m)
(2.5m)

25.0
(7.63m
)
5.8 7.6
(1.8m (2.3m)

Solution:

750 x 6.9
Volume= =191.7 BCY =69.8 x 2.1=146.6 BCM
27

Trench Excavations

The volume of excavation required for a trench can be calculated as the product of the
trench cross-sectional area and the linear distance along the trench line.
 Volume = Cross-sectional area x Length

Example: Find the volume (bank measure) of excavation required for a trench 3 ft (0.92
m) wide, 6 ft (1.83 cm) deep, and 500 ft (152 m). Assume that the trench sides will be
approximately vertical.

Solution:

Large Areas

To estimate the earthwork volume involved in large or complex areas, one method is to
divide the area into a grid indicating the depth of excavation or fill at each grid
intersection.

Average depth=
∑ of products of depth x Weight
∑ of weights

Example: Find the volume of excavation required for the area shown in figure. Each
grid intersection represents the depth of cut at that location. Depths in parentheses are
in meters.

6 (1.83) 5.8(1.77) 5.2 (1.59) 4.6 (1.40) 3.4 (1.04)

5.0(1.52) 4.6 (1.40) 4.2 (1.28) 3.0 (0.92)

5.5 (1.68)

300 ft
3.6 (1.10) 2.8 (0.85) 91.4m
4.8 (1.46) 4.9 (1.49) 4.0 (1.22)

4.8 (1.46) 3.5 (1.07) 3.0 (0.92) 2.0 (0.61)

4.0(1.22)

400 ft
121.9m

Solution:

Interior Points = 5.0 + 4.6 + 4.2 + 4.9 + 4.0 + 3.6 = 26.3 ft

 = 1.52 + 1.40 + 1.28 + 1.49 + 1.22 + 1.10 = 8.01 m

15.4+ 2(43.0)+ 4(26.3)

Average depth: Average depth= =3.97 ft
52
4.70+2(13.12)+4 (8.01)
¿ =1.21 m
52

Area = 300 x 400 = 120,000 sq. ft = 91.4 x 121.9 = 11,142 m 2

120,000 x 3.97
Volume: Volume= =17,644 BCY
27
Volume=11,142 x 1.21=13,482 BCM

G. Construction Use of the Mass Diagram

A mass diagram is a continuous curve representing the accumulated volume of earthwork
plotted against the linear profile of a roadway. Mass diagrams are prepared by designers to
assist in selecting an alignment which minimizes the earthwork required to construct the facility
while meeting established limits of roadway grade and curvature.

Characteristics of a Mass Diagram

 The vertical coordinates of the mass diagram corresponding to any location on the
roadway profile represent the cumulative earthwork volume from the origin to that point.
 Within a cut, the curve rises from left to right.
 Within a fil, the curve falls from left to right.
 A peak on the curve represents a point where the earthwork changes from cut to fill.
 A valley (low point) on the curve represents a point where the earthwork changes from fill
to cut.
 When a horizontal line intersects the curve at two or more points, the accumulated
volume at these points are equal. Thus, such a line represents a balance line on the
diagram.

Using the Mass Diagram

Some of the information which a mass diagram can provide a construction manager:
 The length and direction of haul within a balanced section
 The average length of haul for a balanced section
 The location and amount of borrow (material hauled in from a borrow pit) and waste
(material hauled away to a waste area) for the project.
Post Test:
Solve the following problems:
1. Calculate the volume of excavation in bank measure required for the basement shown
in figure. Excavation depths are in feet (meter).

8.2 (2.5) 6.6 (2.01)

28.0
6.9 (2.10) (8.54)
45
6.0 (1.83)
(13.7) 24.0(7.32)

7.4(2.26) 6.8 (2.07)

26.0(7.93)

2. A 1000-ft (305 m) long pipeline requires an excavation 4 ft (1.2 m) wide to an average

depth of 5 ft (1.5 m). If the soil is dry common earth, what size spoil bank will be created
by the excavation?
3. In making a field identification test of a soil, you find that less than 50% by weight of the
coarse fraction is less than ¼ in (6mm) in size. The fine fraction of the soil exhibits low
dry strength and gives a medium speed reaction to the shaking test. How would you
classify this soil under the Unified system?
4. A rectangular ditch having a cross0sectional area of 24 sq ft (2.2 m2) is being excavated
in clay. The soil’s angle of repose is 35° and its swell is 30%. Find the height and width
of the triangular spoil bank that will result from the trench excavation.
5. How many truck loads of truck hauling an average volume of 6 LCY (4.6 LCM) would be
required to haul 1 million CCY (764600 CCM) of the soil of problem 7 to a damp site?
6. Using the table below, how many working minutes per hour would you expect to achieve
on a project whose job conditions are both rated poor?
 Table: Job efficiency factors for earthmoving operations

Job Conditions Management Conditions

Excellen Good Fair Poor
t
Excellent 0.84 0.81 0.76 0.70
Good 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.65
Fair 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.60
Poor 0.63 0.61 0.57 0.52

7. Use the profile and mass diagram below to find the following values: a.) the total volume
of cut, fill, waste and borrow; b.) the average length of haul for section 3.

8. A soil weighs 2500 lb/cu yd (1483 kg/m3) loose, 3100 lb/cu yd (1839 kg/m3) in its natural
state, and 3650 lb/cu yd (2106 kg/m3) compacted. Find this soil’s load factor and
shrinkage factor.
9. A sample of gravel from a stockpile weighs 15 lb (6.80 kg). After oven drying, the
sample weighs 14.2 lb (6.44 kg). Calculate the moisture content of the sample.
10. Write a computer program to determine the height and base width (feet or meters) of the
triangular spoil bank that will result from a rectangular trench excavation. Input should
include the ditch width and depth (feet or meters) as well as the soil’s angle of repose
(degrees) and swell (%). Solve problem 4 using your program.