Unit 1: The Earth and Ocean Basin

Chapter 1: Introduction, Distribution of sea and land

Introduction to Ocean
Three Major Components of the earth include the hydrosphere, the lithosphere, and
the atmosphere. Oceans constitute the hydrosphere; the lithosphere is the layer of rocks; the
atmosphere is the layer of air. The biosphere encompasses parts of these three layers. It
extends several meters into the soil (lithosphere) several hundred meters (over 6 miles) into
the atmosphere, and more than 11,000 meters into the ocean. The world’s oceans occupy
roughly 71 percent of the earth’s surface. The average depth of ocean is four km. Oceans
are predominant in the Southern Hemisphere, often referred as the marine hemisphere.
Landmass, on the other hand, dominates in the northern Hemisphere, which is known as the
land hemisphere. The land hemisphere includes the continental masses of Eurasia, North
America and Africa above the equator. The marine hemisphere comprises South America,
Africa below the equator, Australia, New Zealand, and Antarctica.

The Earth and Ocean basin

Earth

Mass 5.9760 x 1027 grams

Volume 1.083 x 1012 cubic kilometers

Area 510.100 x 106 square kilometers

Equatorial radius 6378.163 kilometers

Polar radius 6356.177 kilometers

Oceans

Volume 1.350 x 109 cubic kilometers

Area 362.033 x 106square kilometers

Mean depth 3729 kilometers

The Earth’s Interior

The earth’s interior is divided into three distinct layers: the core, the mantle, and the
crust.

The Core

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 Core is the innermost portion of the earth. The core of the earth begins 2,900
kilometers below earth surface and extends up to 3,480 kilometers to the center of the earth.
Seismic studies have shown the existence of two cores: the outer liquid core and the inner
solid core. The inner core is comprised of an alloy of iron and nickel. The iron alloy
constitutes about 80 to 85 percent of the inner core; nickel and other unknown elements
comprise the remainder percent.

The Mantle
Mantle is the intermediate layer between the earth’s core and crust. It accounts for 84
percent of the earth’s volume and 67 percent of its weight. The mantle is complex in
structure. It is about 2,900 kilometers thick and is subdivided into 10 or more layers. The
mantle is composed of minerals rich in silica, magnesium and iron. The amount of
magnesium increases toward the surface, and the amount of iron increases toward the core.
The upper mantle is hotter than the lower mantle, because it has an extensive distribution of
radioactive minerals such as uranium, thorium and potassium.

The Crust
Crust is the uppermost and thinnest segment of the earth. Thickness varies from 5 to
50 kilometers. It is enriched with basaltic content in the oceanic crust and granitic in the
continental crust. The crust of the earth rests on the Moho and is 6 to 50 kilometers thick.
The crust is thicker under continents and diminishes progressively under ocean basins. It
may be 50 kilometers under mountainous regions of continents and may be lesser than 5
kilometers under ocean. The crust is divided into two principal layers: the lower layer, sima,
which carries heavy concentrations of silica and magnesium, whereas the upper layer, sial,
has heavy concentration of silica and aluminium.

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Chapter 2: Ocean and Types

Theory of formation of the Oceans

Theories concerning the formation of the ocean varies on the characteristic
topographic features of the ocean bottom. Different theory was put forth by various
scientists they are given below

1. Continental drift theory:

This theory was developed by Alfred Wegener. For decade’s arguments for and
against it did not come to an end, but precisely because of this, many branches of
geosciences have been highly evolved by it. Many of Wegener’s arguments were found
convincing, others were not, especially those concerning the mechanism of the drift. From
the viewpoint of physics it seems unrealistic to assume that continents should be able to drift
in the earth’s crust like ice flows through water.

The theory of permanent oceans:

The theory of permanent oceans dates the formation of the oceans back to the time
of the solidification of the earth’s crust. The theory of bridge continents is a compromise
between permanence and drift hypotheses. It tries to meet the demand of paleontology for
land connections that might explain the different evolution of flora and fauna (e.g., the one
that began between Africa and South America at the time of the Triassic).

Seafloor spreading
Vine and Hess in (1960) developed the theory of “Sea Floor Spreading”. It contains
two concepts: The spreading of the oceans floor and the drifting of the primary crustal plates.
The latter represents a form of the continental drift, although in contrast to Wegener’s
theory it is not the continents that drift but the primary crustal plates over which the entire
surface of the earth lies.

The World’s Oceans

The five major oceans in the world are the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, the Arctic,
and the Antarctic. The Pacific, South Atlantic and Antarctic occupy approximately 90 percent
of the Southern Hemisphere. The Indian, North Atlantic, and Arctic cover the water mass in
the Northern Hemisphere

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Ocean Area (in Volume (in Depth Temper Salinity Remarks
millions) millions) (in mts) ature
of sq. km of cu. km
Pacific 166,241 696,184 4,188 3.36 34.62 Coldest, deepest, and
largest ocean, occupying
more than half of the
volume of ocean basins
Atlanti 94,314 337,210 3,736 3.72 34.76 Received large amount of
c sediment from many rivers
such as the Amazon, the
Congo, the Mississippi.
Indian 77,118 284,608 3,872 3.73 34.90 Received large amount of
sediment from the Indus,
the Ganges, and the
Brahmaputra
Total 362,033 1,349,929 3,729 3.52 34.72 Oceans occupy 70 percent
Ocean of the earth’s surface

Pacific Oceans
The Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovered and named the Pacific
Ocean; “pacific” means peaceful. The pacific is the largest, coldest, and deepest of all
oceans. It occupies about one-third of the total surface area of the earth and contains 696
million cubic kilometers volume of water. Most of the Pacific flow is very deep where average
depth exceeds 5000 meters. The Pacific Ocean forms a circular-shaped basin. Along its
periphery are numerous volcanoes, faults, and trenches that form the ring of fire. The
western border of the Pacific is irregular and encompasses several marginal seas: the sea of
Okhotsk, the Sea of Japan, the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, the South China Sea, the
Sea of the East Indian Archipelago, the Coral Sea, and the Tasman Sea. The seas are
relatively much smaller and shallower bodies of salt water. The Bering Sea and the waters of
Antarctic Ocean mark the north and south boundaries of the Pacific. Hundreds of scattered
volcanic islands, including Hawaii are found in pacific ocean.

The Atlantic Ocean

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 The Atlantic ocean was named after the Atlas Mountains of North Africa. These
mountains marked the limit of the then known world, the Mediterranean Sea. “Atlantic”
probably designated their belief that the ocean lay beyond the Atlas Range. (The Atlantic
Ocean is divided from the Indian Ocean by 20°E, which crosses Cape Agulhas and from the
Pacific Ocean by 67°w, which runs through Cape Horn to the South Shetland Islands. The
Atlantic Ocean is oblong from north to south and is irregularly shaped. It is approximately
one-half the size of the Pacific and narrows considerably between the landmasses of
western Africa and eastern Brazil. These protruding continental bulges on both of its sides
separate the ocean into the North and South Atlantic.

The North Atlantic is surrounded by several marginal seas and bays including the
Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, the Black Sea, the Bay of Biscay, Baffin
Bay, Hudson Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. The South Atlantic is
bounded by west Africa, eastern South America, and the north Antarctic Ocean. The
Mississippi, the Amazon.

The Indian Ocean

Historically the Indian Ocean was a well-known commercial route that linked the
trade centres of Ujjan, India, Baghdad, and Alexandria. One contributing factor to the
proliferation of sea trade among these cities was the monsoon currents that helped the
sailors to undertake long voyages in the Indian Ocean.

The Indian Ocean is roughly triangular in shape and is enclosed by the Indian
subcontinent, the east coast of Africa, and the northern and western coasts of Australia.
India’s three largest rivers, in terms of volume of water and length, the Ganges, the Indus,
and the Brahmaputra, discharge the world’s largest amount of terrestrial sediment into the
Indian Ocean. The periphery of the Indian Ocean includes the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf,
the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal. Madagascar and Sri Lanka are the largest-sized
islands in the Indian Ocean.

Monsoon: Winds of the Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean that flow from the ocean to
the land (i.e., from southwest) during summer and from land to the ocean (i.e. north east) in
winter time.

The Arctic Ocean

The Arctic Ocean, the smallest and shallowest of all oceans, exists literally “On top of
the world”. Its basin is almost circular shape and is bordered by Russia, Scandinavia,

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Greenland, Canada, and Alaska. The North Pole is located about 500 miles from its center.
The surface area of Arctic ocean is 5450 meters.
Floating masses of ice, the polar ice pack, cover most of the ocean during most of
the year. The topography and structure of the Arctic Ocean are dominated by three
submarine ridges, which result in a number of basins and deeps. The Lomonosov Ridge is a
prominent structure in the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean is separated from the Pacific by
the Bering Straits. The ocean connect with the Atlantic via small seas on either side of
Greenland; the Greenland and Norwegian seas and the Denmark Strait provide the
connection to the east , and the Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, Labrador Sea provide connections
to the west.

The Antarctic Ocean

The Antarctic Ocean, at times referred to as the “southern ocean”, dominates the
entire Southern Hemisphere with no landmass interruptions. The Antarctic Ocean extends to
40°S, touching the southern tips of Africa and Australia. It thus encompasses approximately
75 million square kilometers and accounts for over 20 percent of the total area of all oceans.

The Antarctic Ocean was intensively studied during the International Geophysical Year
in 1957. Since then the United States, Russia, Australia, New Zealand, and other countries
have maintained research stations for continuing study of the Antarctic Ocean. This ocean is
in the path of the west winds, which trigger the powerful west wind drift, a west –east current
of the upper layers of water.

List of Oceanic basins

The following are the list of oceanic basins :
1. Aleutian Basin
2. Agulhus Basin
3. Amerasian Basin , Arctic Ocean
4. Angola Basin
5. Arabian Basin
6. Argentine Basin
7. Bauer Basin
8. Blake Basin , Atlantic Ocean
9. Brazil Basin
10. Canada Basin , Arctic Ocean
11. Canary Basin
12. Cape Basin

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13. Central Pacific Basin
14. Central Polar Basin
15. Chile Basin
16. Cocos Basin
17. Eurasian Basin , Arctic Ocean
18. Fram Basin , Arctic Ocean
19. Guatemala Basin
20. Guiana Basin
21. Iceland Basin
22. Labrador Basin
23. Makarov Basin , Arctic Ocean
24. Madagascar Basin
25. Melanesian Basin
26. Mexico Basin
27. Mid-Indian Basin
28. Nansen Basin , Arctic Ocean
29. Natal Basin
30. Newfoundland Basin
31. North Polar Basin
32. Northwest Pacific Basin
33. Norwegian Basin
34. Penrhyn Basin
35. Perth Basin
36. Peru Basin
37. Roggeveen Basin
38. Sierra Leone Basin
39. Somali Basin
40. South East Pacific Basin
41. South West Pacific Basin
42. South Fiji Basin
43. South Indian Basin
44. South West Pacific Basin
45. Tsushima Basin (Ulleung Basin)
46. West Australian Basin

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Chapter 3: History and Composition of Ocean

Distribution of land and water in the earth

• Land and water are unevenly distributed on the earth
• Continents cover 29.2% of earth surface
• The ocean is divided into three basins called Atlantic, Pacific and Indian.
• Ocean basin covers 70.8% of earth surface
• The southern hemisphere is dominated by oceans (80.4%)
• Northern hemisphere contains most of the land and is still dominated by ocean (60.7%)
(Map) Northern and southern hemisphere

Chemical History of the Ocean

As conditions on the earth changes during the course of geologic time, there must
have been corresponding changes in the chemical composition of the ocean. These
chemical adjustments would have stemmed from the regulatory processes, much indirect
evidence has been obtained by studying ancient sedimentary rock strata on the continents.
These continental rocks have weathered under the attack of water containing dissolved
atmospheric gases. As a result, most of the major cations have found their way to the ocean.
Calcium reached saturation quite early, judging from ancient calcium carbonate and calcium
sulfate deposits existing on land today. Potassium accumulated in appreciable quantities as
early as 1.2 billion years ago because sediments of that age contain glauconite, a
potassium-rich claylike mineral. An abundance of magnesium caused the formation of strata
of dolomite, a calcium magnesium carbonate mineral. The earliest water-laid sediments
appear to be about three billion years old.

The first form of life must have been anaerobic, but eventually an organism capable
of photosynthesis evolved. Photosynthesising organisms produced an excess of oxygen that
gradually escaped in to the atmosphere. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
and dissolved in the sea decreased by being incorporated into organic matter. The hydrogen
ion concentration (acidity) of seawater was established and held constant by the buffering
action of the dissolved silica-clay mineral system and the dissolved carbon dioxide-solid
carbonate system. As oxygen accumulated the ocean and terrestrial portions of the earth
changed from the primordial reducing condition to an oxidizing one. Only in locations
removed from contact with air or oxygenated water do reducing conditions persist today.
One such location is in the sediments on the ocean floor. Not only are the bulk of bottom

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sediments isolated from contact with oxygenated seawater, but organic matter incorporated
in these sediments decomposes and consumes whatever oxygen may have become
trapped in interstitial water when the sediment settled to the bottom. The oxidizing state at
the interface of sediment and water has led to the formation of ferromanganese precipitates.
These and organic detritus must have begun adsorbing trace metals soon after an excess of
oxygen accumulated in the ocean and atmosphere.

Considerable geological evidence leads us to conclude that the volume of seawater in

the ocean has been increasing throughout the earth’s history. The chemical composition of
the world ocean, however became very nearly what it is at present shortly after the advent of
photosynthesizing organisms that is, about 1.5 billion carbonate-secreting organisms and
with temperature, for instance, would have caused a decreased solubility of gases and a
concomitant decrease in biological activity. Under such conditions, nutrient concentrations
would have increased and carbonates would have precipitated. Nevertheless, except for the
possible appearance of some new substance capable of ion exchange or chemisorptions,
the effects on regulatory processes in the world ocean today are limited to changes in the
rates of inorganic and biochemical reactions.

Quantity of Materials Dissolved in the World Ocean

If we assume that the amount of dissolved material in the ocean remains unchanged
even today, we must also assume that the amount of dissolved material entering the sea
each year is equivalent to the amount lost in sediment. Actually, the assumption cannot be
validated, because scientists have measured the composition of the oceans for only a few
decades. If no ions were removed from the sea, the ions added by rivers in 100 years would
increase the concentrations of substances dissolved in the world ocean by only 0.0005 per
cent. Rivers transport approximately 2.5 x 10 15g of dissolved material (5x 10 22g) already
present in the world ocean (this is 20,000,000 times the amount added every year). In any
case, the rate of change is so small that the assumption of a steady state is reasonable.

Every kilogram of seawater in the open ocean contains about 35g of ions. In
oceanography, this concentration is expressed as parts per thousand and can be written
35%. The measure of the concentration of total ions in seawater is called the salinity. A
salinity of 35 parts per thousand is an average value for water in the open ocean.

In near shore coastal regions, bays, and especially in river estuaries, salinity is highly
variable. Near river mouths the salinity of surface water may vary from nearly zero to 34
parts per thousand, but low values generally prevail. These variations are also seasonal and

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depend on river conditions. During summer months when river carry less water, near shore
salinities may be close to 34 parts per thousand. During the winter rainy season or spring
thaw, the seawater in the near shore region frequently becomes diluted by flood water.

Exactly the opposite conditions prevail in hot, dry regions of the world where excess
evaporation causes salinities to be higher than average. Salinity values as high as 40 parts
per thousand may be found in places like the Mediterranean and Red seas.

The surface layer of the ocean is separated from the deeper layers of the ocean by a
permanent thermocline 100 to 700m deep that persists between the 50° to 60° north and
south latitudes. It is shallow and steep at the equator but deeper and more gentle in mid-
latitudes. It rises to the surface at 50° to 60° latitude and marks the largest continental rises
which extend seaward more than 500km.

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Chapter 4: Relief of sea floor

A sequence of major bathymetric (sea floor) regions can be identified in the sea and
it extends seaward from the coast. These include the continental shelf, continental
slope, continental rise, abyssal plains, abyssal hills, ocean ridges and ocean trenches.
Additionally, numerous minor features are recognized within these regions such as
submarine canyons, submarine fans, knolls and seamounts.

Continental Shelf
The nearly flat plains, or terraces, at the top of the sedimentary wedge beneath the
drowned edges of the continents are continental shelves. They average about 60
kilometers in width. Local and regional variations ranging from more than 1,000 kilometers
in the Arctic. Ocean to a few kilometers along the Pacific coasts of North and South Africa
are common. The continental shelf bottom, slopes gently seaward at an angle of about 0.5
degrees. This is very slight and impossible to detect with the naked eye. Continental shelves
end on the ocean side as the shelf break where the sea bottom steepens appreciably.
Continental shelf breaks occur, on a water depth of about 130 meters, but can be found
deeper than 200 meters.

Continental slope
Seaward side of the continental shelf is the steeper continental slope, which is
inclined at an average angle of 4 degrees. Its base lies at water depths of 2 to 3 kilometers.
As with the continental shelf, an enormous pile of mud and sand eroded from the continental
slope lies underneath the continental slope. Huge submarine canyons are cut into the
sedimentary deposits of many continental slopes. These canyons have steep sides, V-
shaped profiles, and topographic relief of up to 2 kilometers, making them one of the most
deeply incised landforms anywhere on the earth. Submarine canyons serve as passageways
for the transfer of sediment from the continental margins to the deep-ocean basins by a
variety of transport processes.

Continental rise
The continental rise is a layer of sediment from the base of the slope that forms a dip
between the foot of the continental slope and the deep ocean floor. At the base of many
continental slopes, the ocean bottom flattens out to a mere gradient of one degree. This
broad underwater plain of sediment is called the continental rise. Some of the ocean basin is

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the vast depression in the earth’s surface bordered on all sides by continents and filled with
a continuous body of saltwater, the ocean. Present-day oceans have overflowed the basin
and flooded the edge of the continents to a depth of about 200m. The ocean basin and
associated submerged continental edges are not flat. They display numerous features
varying from submerged mountain chains to deep trenches that extend several kilometers
below the adjacent sea floor.

Locally, deep submarine canyons have been eroded into the shelf, slope and rise by
turbidity currents, density currents of sediment laden water that flow rapidly down-slope
under the force of gravity. Deposition of sediments at the mouth of the canyons may form
enormous fan-shaped accumulations called submarine fans. Submarine fans form part of the
continental rise.

Abyssal plain:
Outward from the continental rise is the abyssal plain, a relatively flat featureless
area where sediments have buried most of the sea floor irregularities. Isolated hills may
protrude through the sedimentary cover. They are called knolls, if less than 100m high
or seamounts if higher than 1000m. The number of knolls and seamounts increases towards
the exposed oceanic ridge. They become the dominant feature in the abyssal hills because
sedimentary is too thin to completely bury the flank of the oceanic ridge.

Oceanic ridges
Oceanic ridges are volcanic in origin. They form mountain chains that extend the
length of the ocean basins. Although the ridges extend from continent to continent, the outer
edges usually are buried under the sediments of the abyssal hills and abyssal plains. The
highest peaks generally are near the axis of the ridge. Transform faults are located between
the offsets in the oceanic ridges. Along these faults rocks periodically break and slide past
each other. Fracture zones are the inactive extensions of the transform faults beyond the
lateral offsets of the ridge, where segments of the sea floor are moving in the same direction.
The transform faults together with the fracture zones appear as gashes or scars extending
across the sea floor, except where buried by sediment, and are aligned almost perpendicular
to the oceanic ridge.

Oceanic trenches
Oceanic trenches are very deep, long, narrow, relatively steep-sided depressions in
the ocean basin. They usually occur adjacent to the continents, but may form anywhere
within the ocean basin.

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Tabular representation of relief of sea floor
Feature Width Relief Water Depth Bottom
Gradient
Continental <300 km < 20 m <150 m <1:1,000(~0.5°)*
Shelf
Continental <150km Locally > 2km Drops from 100 ~1:40(3-6°)
slope +-2000+m
Continental rise <300km <40km 1.5-5km 1: 1,000-
1:700(0.5°-1°)
Submarine 1-15km 20-2,000m 20-2,000m <1:40(3-6°)
canyon
Deep-sea 30-100km >2km 5,000-12,000m ---
trench
Abyssal hills 100-100,000m 1-1,000 m Variable ---
(100km)
Seamounts 2-100km >1,000km Variable ---
Abyssal plains 1-1,000km 0 >3km 1:1,000-
1:10,000(<0.5°)
Mid Ocean 500-1,500km <1km >3km ----
ridge
Mid Ocean 500-1,000km <2km 2-4km ----
ridge crest

 A bottom gradient of 1:1,000 means that the slope rises 1m vertically across a
horizontal distance of 1,000m.

Terminologies
Aphotic zone: That portion of the ocean where light is insufficient for photosynthesis.

Bar: Offshore ridge or mound that is submerged at least at high tide.

Barrier beach : Bar parallel to the shore whose crest rises above high water.

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Barrier reef : Reef that is separated from a landmass by a lagoon, usually connected to the
sea through passes (openings) in the reef.

Basalt fine: Graned igneous rock, black or greenish black rich in iron, magnesium, and
calcium.

Basin : Large depression of the sea floor.

Bank: Large elevation of the sea floor; a submerged plateau.

Bathymetry: Mapping of the ocean bottom. Beach seaward limit of the shore(limits are
marked approximately by the highest and lowest water levels).

Beach seaward: limit of the shore (limits are marked approximately by the highest and
lowest water levels).

Benthic: that portion of the marine environment inhabited by marine organsisms that live
permanently in or on the bottom.

Biogeneous: Sediment containing at least 30% by volume of skeletal remains of organisms.

Conduction: Transfer of energy through matter by internal particle or molecular motions.

Continental climate characterized by cold winters and hot summers where the prevailing
winds come from large areas.

Continental climate: climate characterized by cold winters and hot summers where the
prevailing winds come from large areas.

Continental rise: Gentle slope with a generally smooth surface, rising toward the foot of the
continental slope.

Coastal ocean: shallow portion of the ocean (generally over-lying the continent shelf).

Coastal plain: estuary estuary in coastal plain

Deep Water: Waves water waves whose depth is greater than one-half the average
wavelength.

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Deep zone: Waters below the pycnocline.
Density mass: Per unit volume of a substance, usually expressed in grams per cubic
centimeter. Density is numerically equivalent to specific gravity.

Fracture zone: elongate zone of unusually irregular topography of the ocean floor
characterized by seamounts, steep-sided or asymmetrical ridges, troughs, or long, steep
slopes.

Fringing reef : Reef attached directly to the shore of an island or continental landmass. Its
outer margin is submerged and often consists of algal limestone, coral rock, and living
coral.Front marked change in water properties.

Lagoon shallow: shallow, pond or lake, generally separated from the open ocean by a
barrier beach.

Outer Lithosphere: Solid portion of the earth which includes the crust and part of the upper-
mantile.

Littoral drift : Sand moved parallel to the shore by wave and current action.

Neritic ocean : Environment shallower than 200 meters.

Ocean basin: Ocean floor that is more than about 2000 meters below sea level.

Oceanic curst : Mass of basaltic material, typically seven kilometers thick, that lies under
the ocean basins.

Oceanography: Scientific study of the ocean.

Ooze: Fine grained, deep-ocean sediment containing at least 30% (by volume) undissolved
sand- or silt-sized, calcerous or siliceous skeletal remains of small marine organisms, the
remainder usually being clay-sized material.

Pelagic deposits deep-ocean sediments that have accumulated by setting out of the ocean
particle-by-particle.

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Photic zone or euphotic zone: Near surface layer of water that receives ample sunlight for
photosynthesis which exceed respiration.
Sea-floor: Spreading process by which lithosphere is generated at mid ocean ridges.
Adjacent lithospheric plates are moved apart as new material forms.

Seamount : Elevation rising 900 meters or more from the ocean bottom.

Sediment: Particulate organic and inorganic matter that accumulates in a loose,

unconsolidated form. It may be chemically precipitated from solution, secreted by organisms,
or transported from land by air, ice, wind, or water and deposited.

Shallow sill : Portion of the ocean floor that partially restricts water flow; may be either at
the mouth of an inlet, fjord, or similar structure, or at the edge of an ocean basin-for
example, the Bering Sill separates the Pacific and Arctic portions of the Atlantic Ocean.

Tectonic estuary: Estuary occupying a basin formed by mountain buildings.

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 Unit 2: Ocean Waves

Waves are the most conspicuous feature of the ocean. Waves sheer size and vigour
have always impresses wave watchers. The scientific study of the waves began in the early
19th centaury. Franz Gerstner was the first who proposed to explain the phenomenon of
waves. According to Franz Gerstner water particles in a wave move in circular orbits. In
20th century oceanographers such as Harold U. Sverdrup and Walter munk of Scripps
Institution of oceanography undertook a detailed study to predict wave and surf movements
for naval operations.

The knowledge of wave is necessary for fishing, off shore petroleum explorations,
marine mining, marine engineering, and development of coastal areas.

Learning objectives
The present unit on ocean waves helps us to understand
1. What is wave
2. Types of wave
3. Theories of wave formation
4. Generation of different types of waves
5. Breaking and spilling waves
6. Tsunamis and its effects
7. Internal waves

Forces acting on seawater

According to George Karlenskit waves occur due to forces acting on the water
surface. The energy that brings the wave is either dissipated at sea or strikes the beach. The
waves result from distant geological effects and may travel thousands of miles before
striking land. For instance the majority of the waves seen on ocean beaches result from
distant winds and may range from small ripples to huge tsunamis.

Waves
Definition
An ocean wave is an alternating rise and fall of a portion of the water surface or of a
density boundary within the water column. Waves can be produced by the wind, movement

17
of objects into or within the water and vibrations (earthquake) of the basin containing the
water body. Production of a wave represents the transfer of energy into the water from the
wave inducing source. Two basic types of waves are progressive waves and standing waves
or seiches. A progressive wave moves forward across the water from the area in which it
was formed. Seiches remain where they are produced and appear as a rocking back-and-
forth of the water surface or boundary layer.

Waves-terms and classification

a. Catastrophic waves: Sudden violent and temporary waves caused by earthquakes,
volcanic activity etc. are called catastrophic waves. Catastrophic waves are produced with
the sporadic occurrence of volcanoes, earthquakes or landslides in the ocean. These waves
are generated less frequently, but they have more damaging effect. Three common types of
catastrophic waves are tsunamis, landslide surges and storm surges.

b. Tsunamis: These are seismic waves formed when a severe shock such as earthquake
affects the ocean. They have wave length of 200Km and can travel as fast as 700 km/h.

c . Landslide surges: Rise or pilling up of water against shore produced by land slide.

d. Storm surges: Storm surge is associated with weather and is very dangerous. The air
pressure over a section of the ocean of the ocean affects the sea level. Sea level under a
strong high pressure system is pushed downward to a level several centimeter below normal
sea level. Conversely under an extreme low pressure, such as hurricane or tropical storm, a
mound of water develops and is pushed along by the storm front. As the storm system
approaches land the mound of sea water becomes a mass of wind driven, elevated water,
usually associated with large storm waves. Storm surges are more dangerous when they
coincide with high tides they are responsible for the majority of flooding and destruction
associated with hurricanes, 90% of people killed by hurricanes are killed by storm surges.

e. Shallow water waves: Waves in the water shallower than L/2.

f. Shear wave : waves that causes particles in a medium to vibrate back and forth at right
angles to the direction of waves propagation.

g. Surface wave: Waves on the ocean surface formed at the boundary between two fluids of
very different density. Surface wave have the property of reflection refraction and
interference.

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Wind produced waves
Three types of wind generated waves are sea, swell and surf. Most waves are
formed by wind usually by storm systems. Unlike the storm systems over the land, ocean
storm systems can be quite large, some exceeding 805Km is diameter. These systems
breakup as they approach land but over the ocean there is little to affect them. The wind
transfers its energy to the water through wave building directly under the storm system is an
area of mixed wave types termed as sea. Factors that affect the amount of energy
transferred to the wave depend on wind speed, the duration of time that the wind blows in
one direction and the "Fetch" the distance over which the wind blows in one direction. Fully
developed sea is defined as the maximum size to which waves can grow under given
conditions of wind speed, duration and fetch. At this point the waves of a fully developed sea
will gain as much energy from the wind as they lost to gravity as breaking white caps.
Sea: The wind transfers its energy to the water through wave building directly under the
storm system is an area of mixed wave types termed as sea.
Swells: As waves move away from the events that ruffle them, they assume a uniform
pattern and begin to move in trains of equivalent period and height. These trains are called
swells. Swells can travel thousands of miles.
Surf: As swells approach shore their pattern is modified by shallow water and consequently
they are shortened and as the crest increases, they move more swiftly. This modified form of
swell is called surf. Surf is different from sea and swell i.e. It does not have the circular
motion of wave particles.

a. Standing waves
 Deep-water waves, shallow-water waves, and internal waves are all progressive waves;
they have a speed and move in direction. Standing waves do not progress; they are
reflected back on themselves and appears as an alternation between a trough and a
crest at a fixed position. They occur in ocean basins, partly enclosed bays, and
estuaries. A standing wave can be demonstrated by slowly lifting one end of a container
partially filled with water and then rapidly but gently returning it to a level position. If this
is done, the surface alternately rises at one end and falls at the other end of the
container. The surface oscillates about a point at the center of the container is the node,
and the alternations of low and high water at each end are antinodes. A standing wave is
a progressive wave reflected back on itself; the reflection cancels out the forward
motions of the initial and reflected waves.

19
 Standing waves in bays or inlets with an open end behave somewhat differently than
standing waves in closed basins. A node is usually located at the entrance to the open-
ended bay, so only one-quarter of the wavelength is inside the bay. There is little or no
rise and fall of the water surface at the entrance, but a large rise and fall occurs at the
closed end of the bay. Multiple nodes may also be present in open-ended basins.

Wave Parameters
All waves posses various features that can be measured. These include wave length,
wave height, wave amplitude, wave period and wave frequency. From these variables, wave
stability and speed may be calculated.

Wave crest is the highest point on a wave and wave trough is the lowest point on a
wave. Wave length (L or l) is the length of one complete wave form, as measured from wave
crest to adjacent wave crest( trough to trough). Wave height (H) is the vertical distance from
wave crest to wave trough. Wave Amplitude (A) is the vertical distance of the crest or trough
from the flat, undisturbed water level. It is equal to one-half the wave height (A=1/2 H).

Wave period(T) is the amount of time required for one wave length to pass a fixed
point. Wave frequency (F) is the number of waves passing a fixed point in a unit time and it
is equal to one divided by the period (F= 1/T). Celerity (C) is the velocity with which a wave
form travels. Celerity can be measured directly or calculated by dividing the wave length by
wave period (C= l /T). Wave stability or steepness is the ratio of wave height to wave length
(stability= H/λ). A wave becomes unstable and collapses or breaks when H/λ >1/7.

Difference between surface and long waves

Surface waves are wind driver waves, they are also called capillary waves. These
are tiny waves that result from forces of wind friction and surface tension. In the wind
generated waves the surface tension provides the restoring force necessary to cause them
to propagate. These waves have shorter wave lengths of about 1.73cm.

Longer waves have longer wave lengths and these waves travels faster than surface
waves. These are found in water deeper than ½ their wavelengths and are also called deep
water waves.

Wave theories
Linear Theory of Ocean surface waves: Waves are undulations of the sea surface with a
height of around a meter, where height is the vertical distance between the bottom of a

20
trough and the top of a nearby crest. The wavelength, which we might take to be the
distance between prominent crests, is around 50m-100m. Watching the waves for a few
minutes, one can notice that wave-height and wave-length are not constant. The heights
vary randomly in time and space, and the statistical properties of the waves, such as the
average mean height for a few hundred waves, change from day to day. These prominent
offshore waves are generated by wind. Sometimes the local wind generates the waves,
other times distant storms generate waves which ultimately reach the coast. If we watch
closely for a long time, one can notice that sea level changes from hour to hour. Over a
period of a day, sea level increases and decreases relative to a point on the shore by about
a meter. The slow rise and fall of sea level is due to the tides, another type of wave on the
sea surface. Tides have wavelengths of thousands of kilometers, and they are generated by
the slow, very small changes in gravity due to the motion of the sun and the moon relative to
earth.

Linear Theory of Ocean Surface waves

The ocean surface wave can be described quantitatively as follows. Surface waves
are inherently nonlinear: The solution of the equations of motion depends on the surface
boundary conditions.

By assuming that the amplitude of waves on the water surface is infinitely small so
the surface is almost exactly a plane. To simplify the mathematics, one can also assume that
the flow is 2-dimensional with waves travelling in the x-direction. We also assume that the
Coriolis force and viscosity can be neglected. With these assumptions, the sea-surface
elevation ς of a wave travelling in the x direction is:
With
Σ = a sin (kx - ?t)
Where ? is wave frequency in radians per second, f is the wave frequency in Hertz(Hz), k is
wave number, T is wave period, L is wave-length, and where we assume, as stated above,
that k a = o (0)

The wave period T is the time it takes two successive wave crests or troughs to pass
a fixed point. The wave-length L is the distance between two successive wave crests or
troughs at a fixed time.

Dispersion Relation
Wave frequency ω is related to wave number K by the dispersion relation
ω 2 = g k tanh (kd)

21
Where d is the water depth and g is the acceleration of gravity
Two approximations are especially useful.
1. Deep-water approximation is valid if the water depth d is much greater than the wave-
length L. In this case, dd>>L, kd>>1,and tanh (kd)=1
2. Shallow-water approximation is valid if the water depth is much less than a wavelength. In
this case,
d<<1,and tanh (kd) =kd
For these two limits of water depth compared with wavelength the dispersion relation
reduces to:
?2 = g k Deep-water dispersion relation
d> L/4
?2 = g k 2 Shallow-water dispersion relation
d < L/11
The stated limits for d/L give a dispersion relation accurate within 10%. Because many wave
properties can be measured with accuracies of 5-10%, the approximations are useful for
calculating wave properties. Later we will learn to calculate wave properties as the waves
propagate from deep to shallow water.

Phase velocity
The phase velocity c is the speed at which a particular phase of the wave
propagates, for example, the speed of propagation of the wave crest. In one wave period T
the crest advances one wave-length L and the phase speed is c=L/T= ?/k.
Thus,, the definition of phase speed is:
C= ω
K
The direction of propagation is perpendicular to the wave crest and toward the positive x
direction. The deep-and shallow-water approximations for the dispersion relation give
C= g g
_ = _ Deep –water phase velocity

K ω
The approximations are accurate to about 5% for limits stated in deep-water dispersion
relation and shallow-water dispersion relation. In deep water, the phase speed depends on
wave-length or wave frequency. Longer waves travel faster. Thus, deep-water waves are
said to be dispersive. In shallow water, the phase speed is independent of the wave; it
depends only on the depth of the water. Shallow-water waves are non-dispersive.

22
 The concept of group velocity Cg is fundamental for understanding the propagation of
linear and nonlinear waves. First, it is the velocity at which a group of waves travels across
the ocean. More importantly, it is also the propagation velocity of wave energy whitham
gives a clear derivation of the concept and the fundamental equation .
The definition of group velocity in two dimensions is
Cg = θω
__
θk
Using the approximations for the dispersion relation:
g c
Cg = _ = _
2ω 2
Deep water group velocity

Cg= gd =c
Shallow-water group velocity

For ocean-surface waves, the direction of propagation is perpendicular to the wave

crests in the positive x direction. In the more general case of other types of waves, such
as Kelvin and Rossby waves the group velocity is not necessarily in the direction
perpendicular to wave crests.

Notice that a group of deep-water waves moves at half the phase speed of the waves
making up the group. How can this happen? If we could watch closely a group of waves
crossing the sea, we would see waves crests appear at the back of the wave train, move
through the train, and disappear at the leading edge of the group.

Each wave crest moves at twice the speed of the group. Do real ocean waves move
in groups governed by the dispersion relation? Yes. Walter Munk and colleagues (1963) in a
series of experiments in the 1960s showed that ocean waves propagating over great
distances are dispersive, and that the dispersion could be used to track storms. They
recorded waves for many days using an array of three pressure gauges just offshore of San
Clemente Island, 60 miles due west of San Digeo, California. Wave spectra were calculated
for each day’s data. From the spectra, the amplitudes and frequencies of the low-frequency
waves and the propagation direction of the waves were calculated. Finally, they plotted
contours of wave energy on a frequency-time diagram.

23
 Contours of wave energy on a frequency-time plot calculated from spectra of waves
measured by pressure gauges offshore of southern California. The ridges of high wave
energy show the arrival of dispersed wave trains from distant storms. The slope of the ridge
is inversely proportional to distance to the storm. Δ is distance in degrees, θ is direction of
arrival of waves at California. (Munk et al. (1963).

To understand the figure, consider a distant storm that produces waves of many
frequencies. The lowest-frequency waves (smallest W) travel the fastest, and they arrive
before other, higher –frequency waves. The further away the storm the longer the delay
between arrivals of waves of different frequencies. The ridges of high wave energy seen in
the figure degrees Δ along a great circle; and the phase information from the array gives the
angle to the storm. The two angles give the storm’s location relative to San Clemente. Thus
waves arriving from 15 to 18 September produce a ridge indicating the storm was 115⁰ away
at an angle of 205⁰ which is south of new Zealand near Antarctica.

The locations of the storms producing the waves recorded from June through
October 1959 were compared with the location of storms plotted on weather maps and in
most cases the two agreed well.

Wave Energy
Wave energy E in Joules per square meter is related to the variance of sea-surface
displacement by:
E=P ω g < ?2
Where pw is water density, g is gravity, and the brackets denote a time or space average.

24
Significant Wave-Height
What do we mean by wave-height If we look at a wind-driven sea, one can waves of
various heights. Some are much larger than most, others are much smaller. A practical
definition that is often used is the height of the highest of the highest 1/3 of the waves, H .
1/3

The height is computed as follows: measure wave-height for a few minutes, pick out say 120
wave crests and record their heights. Pick the 40 largest waves and calculate the average
height of the 40 values. This is H 1/3 for the wave record.

Wave height estimated by observers corresponds to the average of the highest 20 to

40 per cent of waves. Originally, the term significant wave-height was attached to the
average of these observations, the highest 30 per cent of the waves, but has evolved to
become the average of the highest one-third of the waves, (designated H s to H 1/3). More
recently, significant wave-height is calculated from measured wave displacement. If the sea
contains a narrow range of wave frequencies, H 1/3 is related to the standard deviation of
sea-surface displacement
H 1/3= 4 < ?2 ½

Where <?2 ½
is the standard deviation of surface displacement. This relationship is much
more useful, and it is now the accepted way to calculate wave-height from wave
measurements.

Non-linear waves
One can derive the properties of an ocean surface wave assuming waves were
infinitely small Ka=O (0). If the waves are small ka << 1 but not infinitely small, the wave
properties can be expanded in a power series of Ka (Stokes, 1847). He calculated the
properties of a wave of finite amplitude and found:
The phase of the components for the Fourier series expansion of ? in above equation
½
ς = a cos (k x – ω t) +
in are such that non-linear waves have sharpened crests and flattened troughs. The
maximum amplitude of the Stokes wave is a max= 0.07L (ka=044). Such steep waves in deep
water are called stokes waves(See also lamb, 1945, §250).

Knowledge of non-linear waves came slowly until Hasselmann (1961, 1963a,1963b,

1966), using the tools of high –energy particle physics, worked out to 6th order the interaction
of three or more waves on the sea surface. He, Phillips (1960), and longuet-Higgins and
Phillips (1962) showed that n free waves on the sea surface can interact to produce another
free wave only if the frequencies and wave numbers of the interacting waves sum to zero:
w1 ± w2 ± w3 ±….. wn =0 -- 2

25
k1 ± k2 ± k3 ±…. Kn=0 -- 3
wi 2 = g k i
Where we allow waves to travel in any direction, as above equation 2 & 3 and k i is the vector
wave number giving wave-length and direction are general requirements for any interacting
waves. The fewest number of waves that meet the conditions of are three waves which
interact to produce a fourth. The interaction is weak; waves must interact for hundreds of
wave-lengths and periods to produce a fourth wave with amplitude comparable to the
interacting waves. The stokes wave does not meet the criteria of and the wave components
are not free waves; the higher harmonics are bound to the primary wave.

Wave Momentum
The concept of wave momentum has caused considerable confusion. In general,
waves do not have momentum, a mass flux, but they do have a momentum flux. This is true
for waves on the sea surface. Ursell (1950) showed that ocean swell on a rotating Earth has
no mass transport. His proof seems to contradict the usual textbook discussions of steep,
non-linear waves such as Strokes waves. Water particles in a Strokes wave move along
earths that are nearly circular, but the paths fail to close, and the particles move slowly in the
direction of wave propagation. This is a mass transport, and the phenomena is called Stokes
drift. But the forward transport near the surface is balanced by an equal transport in the
opposite direction at depth and there is no net mass flux.

Solitary waves
Solitary waves are another class of non-linear waves, and they have very interesting
properties. They propagate without change of shape, and two solutions can cross without
interaction. The first solution was discovered by John Scott Russell (1808-1882), who
followed a solitary wave generated by a boat in Edinburgh’s Union Canal in 1834. The
properties of a solitary waves result from an exact balance between dispersion which tends
to spread the solitary wave into a train of waves, and non-linear effects which tend ot shorten
and steepen the wave. The type of solitary wave in shallow water seen by Russell, has the
form:
Σ= a Sech h 3a
( ---- ) ½ (x-ct)

4d3
Which propagates at a speed:
C= Co (1+ a )
-
2d

26
 You might think that all shallow-water waves are solutions because they are non-
dispersive, and hence they ought to propagate without change in shape. Unfortunately, this
is not true if the wave have finite amplitudes. The velocity of the wave depends on depth. If
the wave consists of a single hump, then the water at the crest travels faster than water in
the trough, and the wave steepens as it moves forward. Eventually, the wave becomes very
steep and breaks. At this point it is called a bore. In some river mouths, the incoming tide is
so high and the estuary so long and shallow that the tidal wave entering the estuary
eventually steepens and breaks producing a bore that runs up the river.

Beaufort scale
Beaufort Wind Scale and Sea State Chart
Sea Beaufort Terminology Wind Speed Average Wave Description
State Number (miles/ hour) Height (feet)
0 0 Calm 0-1 0 Sea like a mirror
1 1 Light air 1-3 0.005 Ripples with appearance
of scales; no crests
2 2 Light breeze 4-7 0.18 Small wavelets; crests
have glossy appearance
but do not break.
3 3 Gentle breeze 8-12 0.19-1 Large wavelets, crests
begin to break; foam of
glossy appearance; a few
white horses.
4 Moderate 13-18 2-3 Small waves becoming
breeze longer form; many white
horses formed; some
spray
4 5 Fresh breeze 19-24 4-5 Moderate waves taking
longer form; many white
horses formed; some
spray
6 Strong breeze 25-31 6-10 Large waves begin to
form; many white crests
more spray
7 Moderate gale 32-38 11-16 Sea heaps up; white foam

27
 from breaking waves
begins to be blown in
streaks
5 8 Fresh gale 39-46 17-28 Moderately high waves of
greater length; edges of
crests begin to break into
spindrift; foam blown in
well marked streaks spray
affects visibility.
9 Strong gale 47-54 29-40 High waves; dense
(storm) streaks of foam along
wind direction; sea begins
to roll; visibility affected
10 Whole gale 55-63 41-59 Very high waves with long
(heavy storm) overhanging crests; sea
takes white appearance;
rolling heavy; visibility
affected.
11 Violent storm 64-72 60-73 Exceptionally high waves;
small and medium sized
ships lost from view;
crests blown into froth.
12 Hurricane 73-82 74-80 Air filled with foam and
spray; sea completely
white with driving spray;
visibility very seriously
affected.

Breaking waves
Breaking waves are otherwise called breakers. These are found in all beaches.
Some waves are destroyed by opposite winds, others interact and some cancel each other,
and most of the waves end up as breaker, when they encounter shallow water. Most waves
move across the surface of the deep ocean unaffected by the bottom. As waves approach
the coast, they are increasingly affected by the bottom, and they change from deep water to
shallow water waves. Wave length and speed decrease, while the wave period remains
constant. At the same time the wave height decreases slightly and the finite energy is

28
converted into potential energy and its height increases rapidly as water depth decrease to
one tenth the wave length and the wave crusts found close together. The crust angle reach
the critical value of 120⁰. The proximity of the causes once circular orbit to become elliptical
further adding to the waves in stability. In deep water a molecules in the crust stop its orbit
can count on support from the water immediately in front of it to complete its cycle. As the
breaker shoals, there is not enough water immediately in front of the crust to come all the
way up to meet it. The crust appears to get ahead of its support and it breaks. The wave
break when the velocity of the water molecule in the crust is greater than that of the wave
beneath such that the crust gets ahead of the wave.

Types of breakers:
Waves often break more than once before reaching shore. Breaker are classified in
to four kinds
1. Spilling breakers
2. Plunging breakers
3. Collapsing breakers
4. Surging breakers
Spilling breakers: These are over steepened waves where the unstable top spills over the
front of waves as they move towards a beach. In spilling breakers waveforms advance
but wave heights are diminished. These waves break gradually over a considerable
distance.
Plunging breakers: The wave crust typically curls over, forming a large air packet, when a
wave breaks, there is a large splash of water and foam which is usually thrown into the air.
These plunging breakers tend to form from long gently sloping but irregular bottom.
Collapsing breaker: Break in the middle or near the bottom of the wave rather than at the
top.
Surging breaker: In surging breaker the waves slides up and down the beach with little or
no bubble production. These are common in areas with steeply sloping bottom.

Tsunamis
Tsunamis are triggered by earthquake, underwater volcanoes, land slides, and
melting of icebergs from glacier. Sudden movement of the earth’s crust may also produce
seismic sea waves, or tsunamis. These waves are often incorrectly called tidal waves. Since
a seismic sea wave has nothing to do with tides. Most tsunamis are in the pacific ocean and
are not so common in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. The Hawaiian islands experience a
tsunami every two years.

29
 Since they are shallow-water waves, tsunamis may be refracted, diffracted, or
reflected in mid ocean.If a large area of several hundred square kilometers, of the earth’s
crust below the sea surface is suddenly displaced, it causes a sudden rise or fall in the sea
surface level above it. In the case of a rise, gravity causes the suddenly elevated water to
return to the equilibrium surface level: if a depression is produced, gravity forces cause the
surrounding water to flow into it. Both cases result in the production of waves with extremely
long wave lengths (100 to 200 km) and long periods as (10-20 minutes). Since the average
depth of the oceans is about 4000m ( or 4 km or 13,000 ft,) this depth is less than one-
twentieth the wavelength of these waves, and tsunamis are shallow-water waves. These
seismic waves radiate from the point of the seismic disturbance at gD and move across the
oceans at a speed determined by the ocean’s depth (C=gD) and about 200 m/sec (400mbp).

When a tsunami leaves its point of origin, it may have a height of 1 to 2 m, but this
height is distributed over its many-kilometer wavelength. It is not easily seen or felt when
superimposed on the other distortions of the sea’s surface, and a vessel in the open ocean
is in little or no danger if a tsunami passes. The danger occurs only if the vessel has the
misfortune to be directly above the area the original seismic disturbance.

The energy of a tsunami is distributed from the ocean surface to the ocean floor and
over the length of the wave. When the path of the wave is blocked by a coast or island, the
wave behaves like any other shallow-water wave, and the energy is compressed into a
smaller water volume as the depth rapidly decreases. This rapid and sudden increase in
energy density causes the wave height to build rapidly, and the loss of energy is also rapid
when the wave breaks. A tremendous surge of moving water races up over the land,
destroying buildings, docks, and trees.

A tsunami often affects an area with a radius of more than 150 km in exceptional
circumstance and it can have a wave length as high as 1000 km .when a tsunami hits the
coast. It comes in waves after waves and in most cases the third to eighth waves are the
most dangerous as they are the largest.

The leading edge of the tsunami wave group may be either a crest or a trough. If the
initial crustal disturbance was an upward motion, a crest is formed first; if the crustal motion
was downward, a trough is formed. If a tough arrives before the first crest, sea level drops
rapidly, exposing sea plants and animals.

30
 Tsunami prediction is an important and difficult task. The detection of underwater
seismic activity somewhere in the world does not mean that a tsunami has been generated.
Because the waves are so long and low. They cannot be detected until they come into shore
somewhere. Even though a tsunami is detected on some coast it is not possible to predict
what other coastal area might be hit. Due to refraction by sea floor topography, these
seismic waves will go some direction and not other. As they move at a speed of about
700km/hour across deep water it may not be possible to warn or evacuate coastal
population even if one did know where the waves are headed.

Seiches
Standing waves that occur in natural basins are called seiches, and the oscillation of
the surface is called seiching. In natural basins, the length dimension usually greatly
exceeds the depth. Therefore, a standing wave of one node in such a basin behaves as a
reflecting shallow-water wave, with the wave length determined by the length of the basin. In
water with distinct layers having sharp density boundaries, standing waves may occur along
the fluid boundaries as well as at the air-sea boundary. The oscillation of the internal
standing waves is slower than the oscillation of the sea surface.

Standing waves may be triggered by tectonic movements that suddenly hit the basin,
causing the water to oscillate at a period defined by the dimensions of the basin. If storm
winds create a change in surface level to produce storm surges, the surface may oscillate as
a standing wave in the act of returning to its normal level when the wind ceases. The pulsing
of a weather disturbance over a lake may also cause periodic water-level change, reaching a
meter or more in height. If the period of the disturbing force is a multiple of the natural period
of oscillation of the basin, the height of the standing wave is greatly increased.

Internal waves
Below the ocean surface, waves form along the density boundaries between water
layers of different density just as they do between air and water. These waves are
called internal waves.

Internal waves form at the interfaces between layers of different water density. The
disturbance needed to begin an internal wave need not be large, small generating forces
plus the viscosity of the water results in large-amplitude, slow-moving waves with long
wavelengths called internal waves. Internal waves appear to move like shallow water waves,
with the thickness of the layers playing a role similar to the water depth in surface shallow-
water waves. Internal wave travel more slowly than surface waves of similar amplitude.

31
 Internal waves may be caused when the surface layer flows over a more static lower
layer in the same way the wind produces surface waves. The possible triggers of internal
waves include seismic disturbances, long-term wind changes, and tidal forces.

When the surface layer is relatively shallow, a wave moving along an internal
boundary may be high enough to have its crest below the surface. This action creates
moving bands of smooth water called slicks, each representing a crest position. Slicks are
most likely to occur in coastal water, estuaries, or fjords, where the shallow surface layer is
diluted by fresh water runoff. These natural slicks reveal the presence of underlying internal
waves.

Since internal waves occur below the surface and are usually not visible, instruments
that measure the periodic rise and fall of surfaces of constant temperature and salinity
record the passing of internal waves. Because they cannot be observed easily and are
not common surface waves. The speed of the waves depends on the differences in density
between the two fluids. Surface wave can be up to 20m high, while internal waves can reach
a height of 300m or more dependent on the thickness of the upper water layer. Internal
waves are of importance in the context of vertical mixing process; internal waves may
transport plankton and fish larvae to other areas.

32
 Unit 3: Ocean Tides

Tides –Introduction
Tides are produced by the attractions of the moon and sun on the waters of the
ocean and are noticeable as a regular rise and fall of water. They occur in the ocean as
progressive or standing long waves. Among all the oceanic long waves, tides are of
maximum importance for people living near the sea shore and for those travelling the sea.
Many activities like navigation shipping, reclamation of land from the sea, military operations,
disposal of pollutants in coastal waters and fishing depend upon tides in the ocean. For safe
navigation and shipping, it is necessary to know the tide levels and tidal currents at any
moment for a particular harbor. Information about the water levels and about the currents is
required for the construction of structures along the banks of tidal inlets, like drainage sluices
for the removal of water from low-lying lands, dykes for the protection of the land against
inundation and, jetties, wharves, piers, etc. For the design of these structures it is necessary
to know the nature or extreme high tides and lowest water levels.

The rise and fall of the tide is a continuous phenomenon and varies from day to day
and from place to place. Tides also differ in the character of the rise and fall. Tidal currents
significantly increase the volume of the receiving waters at the outfall site; turbulence due to
tide mixes the pollutants through the water column and the tidal current dramatically
increases the rate at which pollutants diffuse horizontally, and in certain cases, tidal
residuals can carry a pollutant away from the outfall site.

Coastal fisheries are always influenced by tides. Some fish react to the tide in their
biological cycle. Tides also influence the movement of intertidal organisms. Several fishing
methods rely on tidal currents.

Definition and terms

Tides are bulges of water produced by the gravitational attraction of the Sun and
Moon on the ocean and by the centrifugal force resulting from rotation of the Earth –Sun and
Earth-Moon systems. Gravity is the force of attraction between two bodies. It is proportional
to the mass of the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. The greater the mass and smaller the distance, the stronger the gravitational
attraction.
GαM1M2/d2

33
Where G is gravity M1 and M2 represent the mass of body 1 and body 2 and d is distance
between the center of the two masses.

Tidal phenomenon
A tide is the alternative rise (high) and fall (low) of sea level due to the gravitational
forces exerted on the earth by the moon and the sun. More commonly. There will be two
highs and two lows in a day in most areas. These are known as semi-diurnal tides. But in
some areas there will be one high and one low in a day. These are known as diurnal-tides.

At a given place, the tide generally has two cycles per lunar day(24 h 50min). A time
lag exists between the moment when the moon crosses the meridian(in the north or in the
south) and the high water. This time lag, which has a fixed value for each place, is called
HWF&Ch (high water full and change). The solar tide has two cycles per day(24 h). High
water due to this solar tide is at the same time each day.

The gravitational attraction of the sun and the gravitational attraction of the moon
always affect two sides of the earth at the same time. On one side, the waters of the ocean
are drawn away from the earth; on the other, the earth is drawn away from the water. The
gravitational attraction of the moon and the sun are added together. Thus, the combined
gravitational attraction of the sun and the moon produces the highest tide called the spring
tide. This can occur both at full moon and at new moon. However, this does not happen
when the sun and the moon are exactly in the same direction(new moon), or in the opposite
direction(full moon). It occurs generally later(mostly one or two days). The time lag is called
the age of the tide. The tide are least when the gravitational attraction of the sun is counter
acting that of the moon, or when the sun and the moon are at right angles in relation to the
earth. Thus, the weakest tide, called neap tide occurs one week later i.e., 7 days after the
occurrence of spring tide(first and third quarter of the moon). Due to the moon’s influence
only, the tide each day would be exactly 50 min and 28s later than the preceding day.
Because of the sun’s contribution, this phase lag is not constant. It is less just before and
after spring tide (about 35 min) and more around neap tide, one week later(about 80 min).

The moon and the sun are rarely on the equator. They may have a (northerly or
southerly) declination, which may be about 23.5° for the sun and 28.5° for the moon. The
effect of this is that the tide generating force, H-H 0 does not describe two equal sinusoids,
while the earth makes a complete revolution and the maxima will be different. This difference
is called the daily inequality and the tidal curve may have a shape like that shown in.

34
 When the declination of a celestial body is considerable, the resulting tide will then
not be so strong as the tide which is generated by the same celestial body when it is on the
equator. For the sun the latter is the case in the equinoxes (21 st march and 22nd September).
In those periods extra high tides may occur. These are called as equinoctial spring tides.

Tides and Tidal ranges

As the earth revolves on its axis coastal areas periodically pass through the tidal
bulges and experience high and low tides. As the crest of a bulge passes, high tide occurs.
Troughs between bulges result in low tides. Tidal range is the difference in height between
high and low tides. A continuous record of the daily change in sea level because of tides is
a tidal curve.

Tidal curves show that tides change daily in range and time of occurrence. The
variation results from the complex interaction of the earth sun and moon. The interaction of
these there bodies is so complex that a given coast may experience the same tidal
conditions only once each 1600 years.

Solar tides: Is the tides produced by the Sun which occur approximately at the same time
each day because the earth rotates on its axis once each 24 hours. Coastal areas
experience a solar high or low tide each 12 hours.

Lunar tides are more complex because the Moon moves forward in its orbit as the earth
rotates on its axis. Thus, a point on the earth directly below the Moon requires 24 hours and
50 minutes before it is again below the Moon. Lunar tides occur 50 minutes later each day.
Coastal areas experience a lunar tide each 12 hours and 25 minutes interval.

Types of tide
About twice each month, lunar and solar tidal bulges are in-phase and experience
constructive interference. Tidal bulges overlap and produce a very high, high-tide and a very
low, low-tide. Bimonthly maximum tidal ranges are called spring tides. Spring tides result
from the “straight” line arrangement of the Earth, Moon and Sun and occur during full and
new moons. Similarly, twice each month lunar and solar tidal bulges are out-of-phase and
experience destructive interference when high tides of lunar tidal bulges overlap troughs
between solar tidal bulges. Minimal tidal ranges result. These tides are called neap tides.
They occur during the first and third quarter moon, when the Moon is at 90° from the Sun
relative to the earth.

35
Term to describe the phases of moon:
Full moon means that the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun and
the entire side of the Moon facing the Earth is illuminated in the night sky. New moon occurs
when the Moon lies directly between the Earth and the Sun. Because the Moon is on the
daylight side of the Earth, there is no moon in the night sky during a new moon.

If the monthly trip of the Moon “around” the Earth is divided into quarters beginning
with the new moon, the first and last quarter Moon occur when the Earth, Sun and Moon
align to form a 90° angle. From the Earth, half of the Moon is illuminated, at the first and last
quarter. It is called a quarter moon because it is seen at the first quarter and last quarter of
the lunar orbit.

Waxing of the Moon describes the period between new moon and full moon. Each
night more of the Moon is illuminated. Waning of the Moon refers to the period between the
full moon and new moon. Each night less of the Moon is illuminated.

Tide producing forces

All objects in space exert a gravitational attraction on the oceans, but only the Sun
(because of its great mass) and the Moon (because of its proximity / exert sufficient
attraction to produce a noticeable bulge of water. Despite its great mass (332,960 x the
mass of the Earth), the distance between the Earth and Sun (149,700,000km) reduces the
solar tidal attraction to only 46% of the attraction by the Moon. The Moon is much smaller
than the Sun [even smaller than the Earth], but it is closer to the earth and thus exerts a
gravitational attraction disproportionately strong for its size.

Centrifugal force is the force directed away from the center of rotation. As the Earth
revolves on its axis, centrifugal force attempts to throw objects from the Earth’s surface into
space. If earth’s gravity was sufficiently weak or its speed of rotation sufficiently great,
objects would be hurled into space.

As the earth travels in its orbit about the Sun, centrifugal force act on the side of the
earth away from the Sun and attempts to fling the Ocean into space. Gravitational attraction
between the earth and ocean is greater than centrifugal force and the ocean remains on the
earth, but a tidal bulge is produced.

In contrast to common belief, the moon does not revolve about the earth, but rather
the earth and moon rotate about a point 4700km toward the moon from the center of the

36
earth. As the earth and Moon revolve around this point, centrifugal force produces a tidal
bulge on the side of the earth facing away from the moon. Thus, the Sun and Moon each
produce two tidal bulges in the ocean. One pair of bulges is produced by gravitational
attraction and the other pair by centrifugal force.

To understand the tide-producing forces, let us first consider the influence of the
moon alone. The earth and the moon form a single system mutually revolving around a
common centre of mass. The period of this revolution is 27.3 days. Even though the orbits
are slightly elliptical, for simplification they can be treated as circular. So, all points upon the
earth follow circular paths, which have same radius and each point will also have the same
angular velocity of 2/27.3 days. Since all the points travel with the same angular velocity and
the radio of their circular paths are the same, all points on the earth experience an equal
centrifugal force. The total of all centrifugal forces resulting from the motion of the earth-
moon system around its common centre of gravity completely balances the forces of
gravitational attraction between the two bodies and hence the system as a whole is in
complete equilibrium. The centrifugal forces are directed parallel to a line joining the centers
of the earth and the moon.

However, the magnitude of the gravitational force exerted by the moon on the earth
is not the same at all points on earth, because all these points are not at the same distance
from the moon. The gravitational force of the moon is largest at the point E, which is closed
to the moon, the weakest at the point A on the earth’s surface, which is farthest from the
moon. The gravitational force is dominant on the half of the earth facing away from the
moon. In addition, the direction of the moon’s gravitational force at all points will be directed
towards the centre of the moon, and therefore will not be strictly parallel to the line joining
the centers of the earth and the moon except for those points which on the line joining the
centers of the earth and the moon. The combined effect of the centrifugal force and
gravitational force is the tide-producing force. Only at the centre of the earth ‘X’ these two
forces cancel each other. At all other points on the earth, there will be tide-producing forces.

Similarly, the sun is also the source of a tide-producing force. Because of the greater
distance of the earth from the moon,, the tide-producing force due to sun is smaller than that
of the moon. At the tide-producing forces are given by the difference between the
gravitational forces and the centrifugal forces, and as these forces depend on the distance of
the earth from the sun and the moon, the tide-producing forces will vary according to the
changing distances of the sun and the moon from the earth.

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Controls on tidal range
In addition to the alignment of the Sun and the Moon, tidal range is also controlled by
variation in gravitational attraction, declination of the Earth relative to the orbits of the Sun
and Moon, and distribution of land. The orbit of the earth about the Sun, and the Moon and
Earth about each other, are elliptical not circular. At times the Earth and Sun, and Earth and
Moon are closer together, because gravity decreases as objects move apart and increases
as they move together, the tidal bulges respond to changes in the orbits. When in perigee,
the Sun and Earth or Moon and Earth are closer together in their orbit the tidal bulges are
higher. In contrast, when in apogee, the Earth and Sun or Moon and Earth are farthest apart
in their orbit the tidal bulges are smaller. It is estimated that lunar tides at perigee have about
a 20% greater range than at apogee.

Declination is the inclination of the earth’s axis relative to the orbital plane of the
Earth around the Sun or of the Moon. It is a measure of the relative angular position north or
south of the equator that the Sun or Moon appears in the sky. Each month the lunar
declination varies from 28.5°N to 28.5°S. The more similar the declination of the Sun and
Moon, the greater the overlap of the tidal bulges and the greater the tidal range.

Distribution of land greatly influences the expression of tides. If earth was an ocean-
covered planet, tides would sweep westward unimpeded. All points along the same line of
longitude would experience tides at the same time. Except around Antarctica and in the
Arctic Sea, continents interrupt tidal flow by dividing the ocean into a series of
interconnected basins. Basin shape and depth determine the period of the basin and how
the body of water responds to tides. Period of a basin is the time required for a standing
wave in the basin to complete one oscillation. If the period of the basin is in phase with the
tidal period, the tides will reinforce the standing wave in the basin. For a large basin, such as
the North Atlantic, the standing wave migrates around the basin as a rotary seiche and is
called an amphidromic system. In this system, the ocean surface displays the same motion
as would the water surface in a round bowl as the bowl is swirled in a circular motion.

The center of the amphidromic system is called the amphidromic point. It is a node
and experiences no tide. Tidal range increases outward and lines connecting points of equal
tidal range from concentric circles, called co-range circles, about the amphidromic point.
Lines connecting points that experience the tide at the same time are called co-tidal
lines and these radiate out from the amphidromic point.

38
 In a basin with a period of about 12 hours (e.g. Atlantic Basin) semidiurnal (or semi-
daily) tides will develop. Each day two tides of about equal range will affect the coast.
Diurnal (or daily) tides are produced in basins with a period of about 24 hours. These basins
experience only one tide a day. Basins with periods other than 12 or 24 hours will display
mixed tides and have two tides of unequal range. The difference between the height of
successive high tides or successive low tides within a day is the daily inequality of a mixed
tide. For mixed tides, the two crests are referred to as high high-water and low high-water;
the troughs are high low-water and low low-water. Mixed tides are developed in many areas,
for example the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean.

Distribution of land may alter the tidal range. Where land funnels the tide into a
narrowing valley or long arm of the sea, tidal range is greatly increased at the distal end. In
contrast, tidal range will be considerably decreased where an opening restricts the inflow of
the tide.

Tidal bore
In some tidal rivers, which are shallow, steep and funnel shaped, the tide advances
as a single roaring wall of water, called tidal bore. Here, the duration of rise of the tidal wave
decreases very much and the rise occurs suddenly in the form of a breaking wave, which
travels upstream with its steep, wall-like front. As the tide enters the river, it is slowed down
by the constriction. Additional water entering the river continuously catches up with the initial
water, with the result that a Churning wall of water moves up the river. The formation of a
tidal bore depends upon the strength of the incoming tidal wave, slop and depth of the
channel and river flow.

Tidal bores may move at speeds of up to 25km/h and have heights up to 8m. The
most famous bore in North America is the bore of the Petticodiac river at the head of the Bay
of Fundy. In this river, which empties into the Bay of Fundy at Moncton, New Brunswick,
Canada, the tide comes in as a “bore” i.e., as an almost vertical wall of water, which may be
as high as 1.5-2m. In India, on the east coast in the Hooghly river near Calcutta, the flow of
the tide is occasionally marked by abrupt wave called the “tidal bore”. Hooghly is the major
river in India which experiences tidal bores. In the Hooghly, when bore forms, the colour of
the water where the breaks indicates very concentrated syrup of sand water mix. On the
west coast of India, in the upper parts of the Gulf of Cambay, tidal bores form near the
entrances of Sabarmati river and Mahi river. One of the bores travels up the Sabarmati river,
while another one travels up the Mahi river. Each of these bores sweeps through the
respective channel as a line of disturbed and breaking water. The bore in Mahi river may be

39
about 2.5m in height and attains a speed of 18km/h at the highest spring tides. The bore in
Sabarmati river is similar but less pronounced.

Tide Measurement
Tide gauges
Tides are waves of long wavelength and known period, so the major properties of
interest for measurement are wave height, or tidal range, and wave induced current. The
latter is measured with current meters; any type is suitable. Two types of tide gauges are
use to measure the tidal range (1). The stilling-well gauge consists of a cylinder with an
connection to the sea at the bottom. This connection acts as a low pass filter: it is so
restricted that the backward and forward motion of the water associated with wind waves
and other waves of short period cannot pass through; only the slow change of water level
associated with the tide can enter the well. This change of water level is picked up by a float
and recorded. Stilling-well gauges allow the direct reading of the water level at anytime but
require a somewhat laborious installation and are impracticable away from the shore (2). In
offshore and remote locations it is often easier to use a pressure gauge. Such an instrument
is placed on the sea floor and measures the pressure of the water column above it, which is
proportional to the height of water above it. The data are recorded internally and not
accessible until the gauge is recovered. Tide gauge are increasingly used to monitor
possible long term changes in sea level linked with climate variability and climate change.
The expected rate of sea level change is only a few millimeters per year at most, so very
high accuracy is required to verify such changes. Most tide gauges are not suitable for such
a task, for a number of reasons. For example, a long term trend in observed sea level can
also be produced by a rise or fall of the land on which the tide gauges built. (This is known
as benchmark drift). The wire in a stilling-well gauge that connects the float with the
recording unit stretches and shrinks as the air temperature rises and falls. Such effects are
insignificant when the gauge is used to verify the depth of water for shipping purposes but
not when it comes to assessing trends of millimeters per year. A new generation of tide
gauges is being installed worldwide which gives water level recordings to absolute
accuracies of a few millimeters with long term bench mark stability. In these instruments the
float and wire arrangement of stilling-well gauge is replaced by a laser distance
measurement, and the data are transmitted ia satellite to a world sea level centre which
monitors the performance of every gauge continuously.

Tidal theories
The first theory which attempted to explain the tides in the ocean was the equilibrium
theory developed by Newton (1687). In order to get an idea regarding the effect of the tide

40
producing forces on the ocean’s water mass, Newton assumed an ideal ocean of equal
depth and covering the entire earth. Newton showed that the attractive forces of the moon
on the side of the earth nearest to the moon would be greater than the average forces on the
opposite side of the earth and therefore the water would pulled be less than the average
forces and therefore the water would move away from the moon. In an ocean completely
covering the earth and of equal depth; the horizontal component of the tide generating
forces pulls the water towards the points nearest and farthest away from the moon, thus
causing elevation of the water at these points, with a corresponding depression in the water
level halfway between these two points on the earth’s great circle. The sun also would tend
to give similar effects related to itself. According to Newton, this process can continue only
till the resultant horizontal pressure differences in the ocean tend to return the water to its
former position, so that the free surface of the water would be in equilibrium.

Equilibrium theory can explain certain characteristics of ocean tides, especially the
occurrence of semidiurnal tides. If we assume that the moon is stationary and is directly
above the equator, then the maximum Since the earth required a day for one complete
revolution, an observer on the equator would notice two high tides in a day. The time that
would elapse between two high tides , i.e., the tidal period would be half –a-day. An observer
at any latitude north or south of the equator would also notice a similar period for the tides.
Thus this theory can explain the occurrence of semi-diurnal tides. This theory can also
explain the formation of spring and neap tides. When the sun and the moon are in line with
respect to the earth(full moon and new moon) their tide generating forces are added,
producing highest high tides known as spring tides. When the sun and the moon are
perpendicular to one another with respect to the earth, their effects tend to cancel one
another, producing the lowest low tides known as neap tides.

But the equilibrium theory fails to explain the time of occurrence of high water at a
place. In accordance with this theory, the high water of the lunar tide can occur when the
moon passes through the meridian of that location. However, actual observations have
shown that the high water occurs at a place with some delay after the moon’s passing
through the meridian. The tidal ranges also are not according to the equilibrium tidal theory.
Observations made at several places along the coasts of the world oceans have shown wide
variations with regard to tidal ranges. At some places the tidal range may be negligible, while
at some other places it may reach more than 10 m.

The main criticism about this theory is the assumption of having a constant
equilibrium between the tide generating forces and the pressure. According to the

41
equilibrium theory, the tidal elevations form on the earth at the points nearest and farthest
away from the moon. To remain in this position with respect to the moon as the earth rotates
below the moon, the elevations which would be separated by a distance of about 20,000
km(half the earth’s circumference), would have to move across the earth, at a speed of more
than 1600km/h. For the tidal wave to travel at the enormous speed of 1600km/h, the ideal
ocean’s depth would have to in be enormous speed of 1600km/h, the ideal ocean’s depth
would have to be 22km.Since the tides are considered as shallow water waves, their velocity
is proportional to the square root of the water depths. Taking the average depth of the ocean
as 3.9km, the speed of the tidal elevations can be about 700km/h only. Therefore, the
equilibrium position at any instant required by this theory cannot be established. The most
important aspect with regard to ocean tides is not a static one as assumed in the equilibrium
theory, but a hydrodynamic one.

Dynamic Theory of Tides

Nearly a century after Newton put forward his equilibrium theory. Laplace(1775)
formulated the dynamic theory of tides. According to this theory, the tide producing forces
produce tide waves in the ocean whose period corresponds to that of the generating forces.
The dynamical theory attempted to understand tides by considering the effect of the depth
and width of the ocean basins, earth’s rotation and friction on the behaviour of fluids which
are subjected to rhythmic forces.

To understand the dynamic theory, let us consider the simplest case, where the sun
and moon are both at zero declination and in synergy, such that solar and lunar tides
coincide. Now we have to consider only one equilibrium tide. As indicated in the equilibrium
theory, an ocean depth of 22km would be necessary for the equilibrium tide at the equator to
keep up with the moon’s passage around the earth. Since the oceans are less than 22km
deep everywhere, the actual tide will “lag” behind the equilibrium tide. At lower latitudes on
either side of the equator, the “lag” is about 6 h 12 min and 18 h 36 min after the moon’s
passage overhead. This type of tides are known as “indirect tides”. At latitudes more than
26°, the “tidal lag” is less than 6 h 12 min. This lag decreases with increase in latitude and at
65° latitude there is “no lag” at all. Hence, from 65° latitude onwards up to poles, the actual
tide will keep up with the theoretical lunar equilibrium tide. Therefore, theoretically high tides
would occur(after 12 h and 25 min) at the moon’s passage. Such type of tides are known as
“direct tides”. Thus, according to this theory all tides in the equatorial regions (less than
about 26°) would be “indirect tides”, and all tides in the polar regions( more than about 65°)
of an ocean would be “direct tides”.

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 The Coriolis force (deflection due to earth’s rotation) is zero at the equator and
increases with latitude towards the poles. It varies with the speed of the tidal current. Thus,
the earth’s rotation has a major role in the formation of tidal currents and on the general
nature of ocean tides. Friction also influences the tides, since the force of friction reduces the
speed of the tidal currents.

In the simplest case so far, we have considered the moon to be directly above the
equator. But actually the moon has a declination which changes up to a maximum of 28.5°
north and south. Due to this reason the tidal forces will not be symmetrical with reference to
the equator. Therefore, the problem of wave motion in latitudinal channels would become
more complicated. In spite of the complexities of the dynamic theory, it has one important
advantage, in that it enables to predict the course of the tides for any given location along a
coast.

Modern Tidal Theory

Our knowledge on tides has not yet reached the final stage, so as to explain the tides
satisfactorily and quantitatively without referring to observed values, attempts are being
made. The following three fundamental ideas have provided the basis from which the
investigation is proceeding successfully (Macmillan, 1966).
1. The theory of standing oscillations
2. The theory of resonance between the natural oscillation periods of water masses in bays,
gulfs, seas and oceans and cyclic rhythms of the astronomical disturbing forces which can
be predicted accurately.
3. The application of gyroscopic principles to determine the effect of the earth’s rotation upon
these water masses, which are set in motion horizontally by hydraulic factors, due to the
differences in level of the sea surface induced by the attractive forces.

Terminologies
Tidal range: Difference in height between mean high water and mean low water, measured
in feet or meters.

Tidal bore very rapid rise of the tide in which the advancing water forms an abrupt front;
occurs in certain shallow estuaries having large tidal range.

Tidal bulge(tidal crest) long-period wave associated with the tide-producing forces of the
moon and sun identified with the rising and falling of the tide. The trough located between
the two tidal bulges present at any give time on the earth is known as the tidal trough.

43
Tidal constituent an element in a mathematical expression for the tide-generating forced,
tides, or tidal currents. Each constituent represents a periodic change or variation in the
relative positions of the Earth, moon, and sun.

Tidal current alternating horizontal movement of water associated with the rise and fall of
the tide.

Tidal day interval between two successive upper transits of the moon over a location. A
mean tidal day, some times called a lunar day, is 24 hours, 50 minutes.

Tidal flats marshy or muddy areas which are covered and uncovered by the rise and fall of
the tide; also called tidal marshes. Usually covered by plants.

Tidal period elapsed time between successive high or low waters.

Tidal range difference in height between consecutive high and low waters.

Tide: periodic rise and fall of the ocean and atmosphere, caused by the gravitational
attraction of moon and sun acting on the Earth.

Tide curve: presentation of the rise and fall of tide; time (in hours or days) is plotted against
height of the tide.

Tide producing forces slight local difference between the gravitational attraction of two
astronomical bodies and the centrifugal force that holds them apart. Gravitational attraction
predominates at the surface point nearest to the other body while centrifugal “repulsion”
predominates at the surface point farthest from the other body.

Tide pool depression-usually water filled-in the intertidal zone, alternately submerged and
exposed by the rise and fall of tide or wave action.

Tide tables: tables that predict the times and heights of tidal phenomena at specified
locations.

Tide wave long-period gravity wave that has its origin in the tide-producing force; manifests
itself in the rising and falling of the tide.

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Tide winds wind system, in most of the tropics, which blow from the subtropical highs toward
the equatorial lows. Trade winds are from the northeast in the northern Hemisphere, from
the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.

Thermocline marked vertical temperature change in a body of water; also a layer in which
such a temperature change occurs.

Thermohaline circulation circulation induced by differences on water density which is

controlled primarily by temperature and salinity
.
Spring tide tide of increased range that occurs about every 2 weeks when the moon is new
or full.

Neap tide lowest range of the tide, occurring near the times of the first and last quarters of
the moon.

Tidal range: Difference in height between consecutive high and low waters.

Tide period: Rise and fall of the ocean, caused by the gravitational attraction of moon and
sun acting on the earth.

Tide curve: Presentation of the rise and fall of tide time with reference to it height of the tide.
Tide producing force slight local difference between the gravitational attraction of two
astronomical bodies and the centrifugal force that holds them apart. Gravitational attraction
predominates at the surface point nearest to the other body while centrifugal “repulsion”
predominates at the surface point farthest from the other body.

Tide pool: Depression-usually water filled-in the intertidal zone, alternately submerged and
exposed by the rise and fall of tide or wave action.

Tide tables: Tables that predict the times and heights of tidal phenomena at specified
locations.

Tide wave: The long-period gravity wave that has its origin in the tide- producing force. Tide
wave itself in the rising and falling of the tide.

45
Tide winds: Wind system, in most of the tropics, which blow form the subtropical highs
toward the equatorial lows. Trade winds are from the northeast in the northern Hemisphere,
from the southeast in the southern hemisphere.

Thermocline: marked vertical temperature change in a body of water; also a layer in which
such a temperature change occurs.

Thermohaline circulation: it is induced by differences on water density which is controlled

primarily by temperature and salinity.

Spring tide of increased range that occurs about every 2 weeks when the moon is new or
full.

Neap tide lowest range of the tide, occurring near the times of the first and last quarters of
the moon.

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 Unit 4: Ocean Currents

Chapter1: Ocean Currents-Definition and Features

Definition and Features

1. Ocean Currents are the large scale water movement which occurs everywhere in the
ocean. Ocean currents relay on atmospheric circulation for their propulation.
2. Current table: tables that give daily predictions of times, speed, and direction of tidal
currents.
3. Ebb current: Tidal current directed away from shore or down a tidal stream.
4. Density current flow caused by density differences or gravity of one current under, or
over another current. It retains its unmixed identity from the surrounding water because of
density differences.
5. Ekman spiral: representation of currents resulting from a steady wind blowing across an
ocean having unlimited depth and extent uniform viscosity. The surface layer move 45° to
the right of the wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere. Water at successive depths drifts
in directions more to the right until, at some depth, the water moves in a direction opposite to
the wind water. Speed decreases with depth throughout the spiral. The net water transport is
90° to the right of the wind in the northern hemisphere.
6. El Nino warm surface waters offshore from Peru. It occurs around Christmas time.
7.Geostrophic current : current resulting from the balance between gravitational force and
the Coriolis effect.

Measurement of currents
Measurement of currents: Currents are measured by two methods they are
A. Direct method: Currents can be measured directly by observing the motion of water
relative to the solid earth or by observing the motion of the solid earth relative to the water.

Example: A floating device tied to a weight at the ocean bottom by a wire of appropriate
length depending on the depth of the current to be measured. The water speed can be
measured by the speed with which a propeller is turned, and the current direction might be
detected by comparing the direction of a weather wave-type pointer to a compass needle.

An example for lager device would be a float of just the right buoyancy to float at the desired
depth. It should be deposited one day and then retrieved several weeks or months later and

47
it should be attached with signal generating device to identify. The ocean current would then
be known by how far and in what direction the float had gone.

B. Indirect method: Geostrophic technique in which the current can be measured by

measuring the slope of density contours due to current flow (cf) by knowing the slope of the
density gradients and knowing the latitude.

In the second method the principle of electricity and magnetism is involved. When
charged particles move through a magnetic field they get deflected, opposite charges in
opposite direction. Ocean currents carry many charged particles-the salt ions that are
moving through the earth’s magnetic field. When two metal plates are put in to this current
the positive ions will go toward one plate and the negative ions towards the other. By
measuring the electrical voltage thus generated between these two plates, and the
orientation of the plates for maximum voltage, we can predict the speed and direction of
current. All instruments discussed so far produce information about oceanic property
irrespective of the dynamic state of the ocean.

An elementary way of observing oceanic movement is the use of drifters. Drifters are
platforms designed to carry instruments. But all measurements obtained from drifters are of
little use unless they can be related to positions in space. A geo-location (GPS) device which
transmits the drifter location to a satellite link is therefore an essential instrument on any
drifter, and this turns the drifter into an instrument for the measurement of ocean currents.
Ocean currents can be measured in two ways. An instrument can record the speed and
direction of the current, or it can record the east-west and north-south components of the
current. Both methods require directional information. All currents meters therefore
incorporate a magnetic compass to determine the orientation of the instrument with respect
to magnetic north. Four classes of current meters can be distinguished based on the method
used for measuring current magnitude.

Mechanical current: Meters use a propeller-type device. A Savonius rotor or a paddle-

wheel rotor to measure the current speed, and a vane to determine current direction.
Propeller sensors often measures speed correctly only if they point into the current and have
to be oriented to face the current all the time. Such instruments are therefore fitted with a
large vane, which turns the entire instrument and with it the propeller into the current.
Propellers can be designed to have response with the angle of incidence of the flow. Two
such propellers arranged at 90⁰ will resolve current vectors and do not require an orienting
vane.

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 The advantage of the Savonius rotor is that its rotation rate is independent of the
direction of exposure to the current. A Savonius rotor current meter therefore does not have
to face the current in any particular way, and its vane can rotate independently and be quite
small, just large enough to follow the current direction reliably.

With the exception of the current meter that uses two propellers with cosine response
set at 90⁰ to each other, mechanical current meters measure current speed by counting
propeller or rotor revolutions per unit time and current direction by determining the vane
orientation at fixed intervals. In other words, these current meters combine a time integral or
mean speed over a set time interval (the number of revolutions between recordings) with an
instantaneous reading of current direction (the vane orientation at the time of recording).
This gives only a reliable recording of the ocean current if the current changes slowly in time.
Such mechanical current meters are therefore not suitable for current measurement in the
oceanic surface layer where most of the oceanic movement is due to waves.

The Savonius rotor is particularly problematic in this regard. Suppose that the current
meter is in a situation where the only water movement is from waves. The current that
alternates back and forth, but the mean current is zero. A Savonius rotor will pick up the
wave current irrespective of its direction, and the rotation count will give the impression of a
strong mean current. The paddle-wheel rotor is designed to rectify this; the paddle wheel
rotates back and forth with the wave current, so that its count represents the true mean
current.

Mechanical current meters are robust, reliable and comparatively low in cost. They
are therefore widely used where conditions are suitable, for example at depths out of reach
of surface waves.

Electromagnetic current: Meters exploit the fact that an electrical conductor moving
through a magnetic field induces an electrical current. Sea water is a very good conductor,
and if it is moved between two electrodes the induced electrical current is proportional to the
ocean current velocity between the electrodes. An electromagnetic current meter has a coil
to produce a magnetic field and two sets of electrodes, set at right angle to each other, and
determines the rate at which the water passes between both sets. By combining the two
components the instrument determines speed and direction of the ocean current.

49
Acoustic current: Meters are based on the principle that sound is a compression wave that
travels with the medium. Assume an arrangement with a sound transmitter, and let receiver
B located downstream. If a burst of sound is generated at the transmitter it will arrive at
receiver B earlier than at receiver A, having been carried by the ocean current.

A typical acoustic current meter will have two orthogonal sound paths of
approximately 100mm length with a receiver/transmitter at each end. A high frequency
sound pulse is transmitted simultaneously from each transducer and the difference in arrival
time for the sound travelling in opposite directions gives the water velocity along the path.

Electromagnetic and acoustic current meters have no moving parts and can therefore
take measurements at a very high sampling rate (up to tens of readings per second ). This
makes them useful not only for the measurement of ocean currents but also for wave current
and turbulence measurements.

Forces acting on seawater surface

As in the case with most of the processes on earth the ultimate source of energy
providing the power for the atmospheric circulation is the sun. Unlike liquids, gases are
easily compressed, so where the atmospheric pressure is greater, the air is also
correspondingly denser. Atmospheric pressure is decreased by half for every 6 km of
elevation and it gets thinner at the same rate. For example at an elevation of 6 km, air
pressure is only one-half as dense. At 12 km, the pressure and density are both reduced by
another factor of half, being quarter of their sea level values.

Our atmosphere blocks the infrared radiation given off by the earth. But at higher
altitudes the air is thinner, so it is easier for radiated heat to pass on out into space.
Consequently the atmosphere generally gets cooler with altitude up to a height of about 12
km above sea level where it is roughly – 600 C.

In equatorial regions, air rises for two reasons, the obvious one is that warmer air is
less dense and therefore lighter. The other, more subtle reason is that the water molecules
are actually lighter than the nitrogen or oxygen molecules. Since there is a good deal of
evaporation from the oceans and rain forests in equatorial regions, the air there contains
relatively more water molecules and less of heavier molecules than elsewhere, although only
by a fraction of a percent. In Polar Regions, the high altitude air masses are very cold and
therefore dense, so they sink.

50
 If the earth were not spinning the movement of air masses and the circulation of the
atmosphere would be of a simple pattern. Around the equator the air warmed from below,
rises. Once aloft, the air flows towards the poles where it is cooled from below and sinks to
flow back towards the equator. The surface winds would always blow towards the equator,
being prevailing northerlies (coming from the north) in the Northern Hemisphere, and
prevailing southerlies in the Southern Hemisphere. It should be noted that winds are named
for the direction from which they blow.

The real earth however, spins and therefore there is a deflection of moving air
masses due to Coriolis. The effect of earth’s rotation on objects moving above it is called the
Coriolis effect. It was first described by Gaspad Gustavede Coriolis (1792 – 1843), a French
engineer. The coriolis force is maximum at the poles and diminishes towards the equator,
where it goes though zero and changes direction.

The atmosphere moves somewhat independent of the Earths’s surface, as there is

little or low friction between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere. A parcel of air that
appears to be stationary above a point on the equator is actually turning with the Earth and
moving eastward at a speed of about 1700 km/hr (1050 miles/hr). if the south wind blows
this parcel of air due north, it moves across circles of latitude with progressively smaller
circumferences. At these higher latitudes, points on the Earth’s surface move eastward more
slowly. At 60 0 c N, the eastward speed of a point on the Earth’s surface due to rotation is
only half of the speed (850km/hr) at the equator. Because of this, a parcel of air that was
originally moving only northward relative to the earth at the equator, carries with its
equatorial eastward speed. Therefore the air parcel is displaced to the ease, relative to the
earth’s surface, as it moves from low to high latitude. In the northern hemisphere this
deflection is to right of the direction of the air motion. If the same situation occurs in the
southern hemisphere with a parcel of air moving southward from the equator, due to a north
wind, the deflection is still to the east relative to the earth’s surface. However this deflection
is now to the left of the direction of the air motion.

In the northern hemisphere, the air rising at the equator turns pole ward gets deflected
towards the right and soon heads eastwards, when it reaches higher altitude and latitude, at
about 30 0 ,the air looses much of its heat by radiation to space and the cold heavy air
descends. Another factor that contributes to the descent is that the pole ward moving air is
moving eastward at about 30 0 latitude and therefore piles up and this contributes to the
descent. The descending air is warm by comparison, making this region near 30 0 latitude,

51
 0
warm, clear, and dry. Many of the warm desert areas are near 30 north and south of the
equator.

The descending air divides, some continuing towards the poles, and the rest returns
to the equatorial regions. The surface air returning towards the equator is acted on by the
coriolis effect that turns it westward producing the easterly trade winds which were used by
the sailing ships on their way towards the new world. In the region form the equator to 30
north and south latitudes, the surface winds are easterly and the winds aloft are westerly.
These westerly winds aloft move from west to east, commonly at a speed exceeding 160
km/hr (100 milles / hr)

Between 60 0 N and the north pole, the winds blow from the north and east while
between 60 S and the south pole they blow from south and east. In both cases they are
called polar easterlies. In the intermediate latitude the third circulation cell is established with
the air sinking near 30 0 N along with that from the tropical cell, and rising near
60 0 N along with that form the north polar cell. The surface winds in this intermediate cell
are deflected and produce winds that blow from the south and west between 30 N
and 60 0 N and from north and west between 30 0 S and 60 0 S. In both hemispheres these
winds are called westerlies. The air returning aloft to 30 0 latitude in this intermediate cell is
also a westerly wind because it has enough westerly momentum to overcome the coriolis
effect. Thus in the region between 30 0 – 60 0 latitude the winds are westerlies at all
elevation.

The place where the westerly winds of the temperate area meets the cold polar air is
called the polar front. Its location changes, especially with season, but it generally varies
between 40 0-60 0. latitude. At the equator and 60 0. N and S, moist, low-density air rises;
these are areas atmospheric pressure zones of clouds and rain. Zone of high density
descending air at 30 0. And 90 0. North and south are areas of high atmospheric pressure
zones of low precipitation and clear skies. Air flows over the Earth surface from regions of
high atmospheric pressure to low atmospheric pressure. The area of rising air at the equator
is known as the doldrums, and high pressure areas at 300. N and S are known as horse
latitudes In these areas sailing ships could find themselves becalmed for days.

The momentum imparted to the sea by these major wind drive regular patterns of
broad, slow, relatively shallow ocean surface currents. Some currents transport more than
one hundred times the volume of water carried by all of the Earth’s rivers combined.
Currents of such magnitude greatly affect the distribution of marine organisms and the rate

52
of heat transport from tropical to Polar Regions. As the surface water is moved horizontally
by the wind, momentum is transferred downward. The speed of the deeper water diminishes
steadily as momentum is lost to overcome the viscosity of water. Eventually at depths
generally less than 200 m, the speed of wind driven currents become negligible. Surface
currents set up by the winds move at about 2% of the speed of the wind that caused them.
For instance, a wind blowing at 10m/sec would cause a surface current of about 20 cm/sec.
Wind driven surface water sets the water immediately below it in motion. But due to low
friction, this next deeper layer is deflected to the right (Northern Hemisphere) or left
(Southern Hemisphere) of the surface layer direction. The same is true for the next layer
down and the next.

The result is a spiral in which each deeper layer moves slowly, and with a greater
angle of deflection than the layer above. This current spiral is called the Ekman spiral, after
the Swedish Physicist V. Walfrid Ekman, who in 1902 demonstrated mathematically that
under ideal conditions a systematic decrease in current speed and a change in its direction
occurred at increasing depths. (Fig.9).

Under natural conditions however the Ekman spiral does not operate in its predicted
theoretical fashion. Oceans are not in uniform state, and a single wind impact is not so
prolonged. The net motion of the entire mass of moving water flows at right angles to the
wind direction is called Ekman transport. The Ekman layer marks a depth of 100m; their
currents and frictional force defining the Ekman spiral are quite active. Below this depth
these forces are virtually non existent.

West Wind Drift Current

The west wind drift current flows across the Indian ocean to the water southwest of
Australia. Here it splits, one branch continues east along the southern coast, while the other
flows northward along the western coast. This branch brings relatively cool water to the
western Australian coast and contributes to the formation of fog and low stratus clouds over
the region.

Ekman Spiral
Surface winds and ocean currents are intimately related. But how winds drive oceans
currents is not so obvious. The process begins when winds blow across the water and drag
on the surface. This sets a thin layer in motion which, in turn, drags on the one beneath,
setting it too in motion. This process continues downward, transferring momentum. Such
transfers of momentum between layers are inefficient, and energy is lost in the process. As a

53
result, Current speed decreases with increasing depth below the surface. In an infinite ocean
on a non-rotating earth, the waters would always move in the same direction as the wind that
set it in motion.

Since the earth rotates, movements of surface waters are deflected to the right of the
wind in the northern hemisphere is was noted by Fridtijof Nansen while studying the drift of
Arctic ice. He found that the ice moved 20° to 40° to the right of the wind. To explain such
effects, we assume a simple, uniform oceans with no boundaries. In such oceans, each
layer sets in motion the layer beneath, so that the deeper layer moves more slowly than the
one above. These movements can be represented by arrows (vectors) whose orientation
shows current direction and whose length indicated current speed. The change in current
direction and speed with increasing depth form a spiral when viewed from above. This is
called the Ekman spiral. A spiral for the Southern Hemisphere exhibits the opposite sense of
deflection, but current speeds still decrease with increasing depth.

Water column stability controls the depths to which wind effects penetrate below the
sea surface. A strong pycnocline inhibits transfer of momentum from the surface to waters
below the pycnocline. The limit for wind effects is usually taken to be the depth at which the
subsurface current is exactly opposite to the surface current. Under strong winds, wind-drift
currents may be as deep as 100 meters below the surface. Surface currents move at about
2% of the speed of the wind that caused them. For instance, a wind blowing at 10 meters per
second causes a surface current of about 20 centimeters per second.

Upwelling and Down welling

Near the coast, winds blowing parallel to the shoreline cause a layers of surface
waters a few tens of meters thick to move either away from or towards the coast. When
surface water moves away from the coast, they expose subsurface water, which then move
upward towards the surface. This is called upwelling.

The equator is major upwelling area, which is caused by the winds and by the
change in the sign of the Coriolis effect at the equator. Consider the trade winds near the
equator. North of the equator, Ekman transport is to the right of the winds (to the northwest)
in the northeast trades, and surface waters move away from the equator. South of the
equator, the Ekman transport associated with the southeast trades is to the left of the winds
(toward the southwest) and again away from the equator. Thus the equator is a divergence
zone, where subsurface waters are brought up into the photic zone.

54
 Where surface waters move toward the coast, they cause the surface layer to
thicken, a process called down welling. In this case, the resulting sea surface slopes create
currents parallel to the coast.

Upwelling is especially conspicuous on the eastern side of ocean basins, where the
surface layer is relatively thin. Much upwelling occurs near coasts, usually in areas few tens
of kilometers across, often near capes or other irregularities in the coastline. The cells of
upwelled water often have plumes of cold waters extending offshore a current gyre – a
nearly circular current system. The east-west-elongated gyres are centred in the subtropical
regions north and south of the equator, In addition to an equatorial current, each current
gyre includes a major east-west current at higher latitudes, flowing in the opposite direction
to the equatorial currents. These east-west currents are relatively slow.

Boundary currents flow parallel to the continental margins, usually north-south.

Boundary currents on the western sides of oceans basins are especially strong. Eastern
boundary currents are much weaker.

In the sub-polar and polar regions of all ocean basins there are smaller current gyres.
These high-latitude gyres circulate in the opposite direction from the subtropical gyres.
Because of the positions of the continents, sub-polar gyres are well developed in the
Northern Hemisphere. These currents flow in a counter clockwise direction.

Gradient current
Gradient current:
Is the current which is defined by assuming that the horizontal pressure gradient in
the sea is balanced by the sum of the coriolis and bottom frictional forces. At some distance
from the bottom the effect of friction becomes negligible and above this the gradient and
geostrophic currents are equivalent which is also known as slope current. These are
currents originating in oceans and seas as a result of differences in water column pressure.
These differences in pressure are caused by the driving force of winds on the water, the
unequal distribution of the waters density in a basin or the atmospheric pressure above it
and the influx of continental waters or waters from other sources, and so forth. Under the
action of the coriolis force, gradient currents are deflected from the direction of the pressure
gradient to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

55
Chapter 2: Thermohaline Circulation, El-Nino and Current types

Thermohaline circulation
Thermohaline circulation is generated by density differences between water masses
and can result in horizontal and vertical flow. Water density increases as water becomes
cooler or more saline. If density increases sufficiently, the water sinks to a level such that all
water below it is denser and above it is less dense. The water mass then flows outward in all
unobstructed directions sinking below less dense and rising above more dense water
masses it encounters.

Several forms of thermohaline circulation occur in the ocean. In sub-polar to polar

regions, cold, dense water descends and slowly flows towards the equator across the basin.
These water masses may also be more saline than regular sea water because of the
concentration of salts in the remaining water as sea ice forms. As the currents slowly flow,
they mix with adjacent water masses and eventually lose their identity.

Excess evaporation in a restricted sea can produce dense, saline water that sinks to
the appropriate density level as it flows out into the ocean. Circulation through the Strait of
Gibraltar, the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea, is an example of this form of thermohaline
circulation.

Thermohaline circulation also occurs in estuaries. As a river flows into the estuary, or
narrow bay, the less dense fresh water forms a wedge that displaces the denser sea water.
The wedge thins seaward as the fresh water spreads outward and slowly mixes with the sea
water. Friction between the outflowing fresh water and the underlaying salt water establishes
a form of circulation called estuarian circulation.

Internal Progressive Waves

In contrast to surface waves, internal waves occur on boundaries (psynoclines)
between water masses of different density within the ocean. Surface and internal waves are
similar, but internal waves tend to be smoother, slower, more stable and can attain greater
wave heights than surface waves. This is because the density difference between the water
layers is less than that between air and water. Internal waves display many of the properties
shown by surface waves, such as reflection, refraction and interference.

56
Seiches
Standing waves that occur in natural basins are called seiches. Seiches appear as a
rocking back-and-forth of the water surface or an internal boundary within the water column.
The line about which the seiche rocks is called a node and it experiences no vertical motion.
In contrast, the antinode is where the vertical motion is the maximum. A simple seiche has
only one node in the center of the basin and two antinodes. The period of the seiche is the
time required for the water surface to rock back and forth once and is dependent upon the
length and depth of the basin.

Seiches display interference, refraction and reflection, but unlike other progressive
waves, they do not move water in circular to elliptical orbits. In a seiche, water flows forward
for a given distance, stops and then flows in the reverse direction. Maximum velocity is
achieved when the surface is horizontal. No flow occurs when the surface is at a maximum
tilt (antinode).

A rotary seiche is special type of seiche in which the position of the antinode rotates
about the basin as the surface rocks back and forth. The node and antinodes are reduced to
points.

Types of Ocean currents

Most important ocean currents are the western boundary currents and eastern
boundary currents.

Western boundary currents:

 Gulf Stream
 Kuroshio
 Labrador Current
 Oyashio
 Agulhas Current
 Brazil Current
 East Australia Current

Eastern Boundary currents

 California Current
 Canary Current
 Peru Current
 Benguela Current

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Indian Ocean currents
The Asiatic Monsoon influences the North Indian Ocean, while the currents of the
south Indian Ocean are influenced by the atmosphere’s anticyclonic circulation. The Indian
ocean currents are

1. North Equatorial Current

During the Northwest monsoon (February and March), the wind blows from the
continent and aids in the development of the North Equatorial Current. The current flows
from east to west; and upon reaching the east coast of Africa, a good portion turns
southwards, crosses the equator, and becomes the Mozambique Current. A strong counter
current exists south of North Equatorial Current at this same time of year. In August and
September, during the southwest monsoon, the North Equatorial Current reverses the flows
west to east as the Monsoon Current. At the same time, the counter current seems to
disappear.

2. Mozambique Current: The Mozambique Current flows south along the east coast of
Africa from the vicinity of the equator to about 35⁰S, where it becomes known as the
Alguhass Stream.

Ahulas Stream: The Ahulas Stream flows westward along the southern coast of Madagascar
and joins the Mozambique Current along the east African coast. From there is flows south to
southern tip of Africa (the Cape of Good Hope), where a good portion joins up with the West
Wind Drift Current.

3. West Wind Drift Current: The West Wind Drift Current flows across the Indian Ocean to
the waters southwest of Australia. Here it splits; one branch continues east along the
southern coast, while the other flows northward along the western coast. This branch brings
relatively cool water to the western Australian coast and contributes to the formation of fog
and low stratus clouds over the region. In general, the following statements may be made
concerning the effects ocean currents have on weather:
1. West Coast of continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes (except close to the equator)
are bordered by cool waters. Their average temperatures are relatively low with small diurnal
and annual ranges. There is fog, but generally the areas (southern California, Morocco, etc.)
are arid.
2. West coasts of continents in middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm waters
which cause a distinct marine climate. They are characterized by cool summers and

58
relatively mild winters with a small annual range of temperatures (upper west coasts of the
United States and Europe).
3. Warm currents parallel to east coasts in tropical and subtropical latitudes. This results in
warm and rainy climates. These areas lie in the western margins of the subtropical anti-
cyclones and are relatively unstable (Florida, the Philippines, Southeast Asia).
4. East coasts in the lower middle latitudes (leeward side) have adjacent warm waters that
produce a modified continental-type climate. The winters are fairly cold, and the summers
are warm or hot.
5. East coasts in the higher middle latitudes have adjacent cool ocean currents, with
subsequent cool summers.

El Nino
Wind driven reversal of the pacific equatorial currents resulting in the movement of
warm water toward the coasts of the Americas, so called because it generally develops just
after Christmas.

On the sheltered or lee side of the tropical landmasses, under the trade winds of the
Pacific, the upwelling of deep oceanic water is nearly constant process. From time to time,
this process falters; the trade winds strengthen, and warm tropical surface water
accumulates on the west side of the pacific. This even is followed by the winds losing their
driving force; the upwelling lessens, and the mass of warm western Pacific water moves
eastward across the ocean to accumulate along the coast of the Americas. This sequence of
events is known as El Nino.

A severe El Nino event affects weather systems over large areas of the earth. In
1982-83 the polar jet stream was displaced far southward over the Pacific Ocean, bringing
unusually dry conditions to Hawaii and a strong low pressure system to the Gulf of Alaska
that resulted in high winds and high precipitation along the west coast of the United States.
Heavy rains occurred in Ecuador, Peru, and Polynesia, while droughts came to Australia, the
Sahel of Africa, southern India, and Indonesia. At the same time lower surface temperatures
in the North Atlantic made the hurricane season the quietest in over fifty years.

The exact cause of El Nino is still in doubt, but certain processes have been
identified with its appearance. One process, in which atmospheric pressure increase on one
side of the Pacific, decreases on the other, and then reverses, is known as the Southern
Ocean Oscillation. The pressure centers associated with this Oscillation lie over Easter
Island in the eastern Pacific and Indonesia in the western Pacific. Under normal conditions,

59
there is a high-pressure system over Easter Island and a low-pressure system over
Indonesia, the trade winds are strong and constant and upwelling occurs along the coast of
Peru. When the atmospheric pressure system reverses, the southeast trade winds break
down.

A severe El Nino uses the changes in the Southern Ocean Oscillation and the surge
in strength of the trade winds, which appears to precede their decline and the development
of the westerlies.

The alternation between these two events has been quite regular for the last hundred
years, except for the periods between 1880 and 1900 when La Nina conditions prevailed,
and the 1975-88 periods of El Ninos. Look carefully at figure 7.23 and notice that the 0 ⁰ C
line represents the long-term average sea-surface temperature over the last forty years. If
this line were redrawn between 0 ⁰ C on the left and 0.5 ⁰ C on the right, allowing a half-
degree rise in ocean surface temperature, the regular alternation between El Nino and La
Nina events would appear as a more regular pattern. Recent analyses of surface water
temperatures off the southern California coast during this period (1950-1990) indicate an
average water temperature increase of 0.8 ⁰ C. There are at least two possible mechanisms
that could lead to such a warming of ocean surface water: (i) the oceans response to global
warming or (2) a reduction in upwelling in the Pacific Ocean associated with changes in
North Atlantic circulation.

Tidal Currents
The tides horizontal and vertical flow of water is easily noticeable near the coast. The
periodical horizontal movements of the sea, in response to the tide generating forces, are
called tidal currents. These currents respond to the changes in the tide-generating forces
brought about by the changing relative positions of the moon, the sun and the earth, in a
manner similar to that tides. High tides and low tides can set up currents known as flood
currents and ebb currents, particularly in narrow straits and channels. In these areas tidal
currents may reach velocities of up to 15km/h. Similar to tides, tidal currents in restricted
areas changes their direction due to earth’s rotation. Some time the flood and ebb currents
may even be opposite to each other. The important factors which affect the tidal currents are
the shape of the bay, river flow, depth and shape of the channel and friction. Tidal currents in
estuaries and restricted channels can be very important. They can move large amount of
sediment, which may block horbours located in the estuaries.
Unit 5: Physical Properties of Sea water

60
Chapter 1: Introduction and salinity

Physical properties of sea water

Many of the processes that occur in the oceans depend on the physical properties of
sea water. The conduction of heat, absorption of light, transmission of sound, formation of
waves, tides, ice, currents and water masses are some of the important physical features of
ocean water. Sea water contains pure water as well as salts, dissolved gases, organic
substances and undissolved suspended particles. The presence of salts and other
substances in sea water greatly influence the various characteristics of sea water. Hence, an
understanding of the physical properties of sea water is necessary to study the various
processes that occur in the ocean. The forces that cause circulation of water in the ocean
arise from changes in the physical properties of that water.

Physical properties like temperature and salinity directly affect the density, buoyancy
and stability of seawater and consequently the motion of water in the ocean basins. The
physical properties of seawater also strongly influences the behaviour of heat and light in the
ocean.

The unit of physical oceanography deals with the following chapters

1. Salinity and chlorinity
2. Temperature of seawater
3. thermal properties of seawater
4. Colligative and other properties of seawater
5. Residence time of constituents in seawater
6. Properties of sea ice
7. Transmission of sound
8. Absorption of radiation
9. Eddy conductivity
9. Diffusivity and viscosity
10. General distribution of temperature, salinity and density
11. Salinity and temperature of surface layer and sub surface layer (SST)
12. Distribution of temperature and salinity, TS diagram
13. Water mass of Indian ocean salinity and chlorinity

Salinity and Chlorinity

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Salinity
Salt content of water is the total quantity dissolved salts in 1.0Kg. of seawater. Most
of the major constituents of sea water are not affected by biological and chemical reactions
they are called "conservative elements". Sea water maintains "Constancy of composition of
sea water". Salinity of water varies with evaporation and fresh water precipitation.

Table 1- Range of salt contents in different water bodies

Marine Environments Ranges of salts

Open ocean 32-38% average 35%

Shallow coastal water 27-30

Estuaries 0-30

Semi enclosed sea

Baltic Sea <25

Hyper saline bodies (Red sea, Tropical >40

coastal Lagoon)

Chlorinity
Chlorinity is a measure of the chloride content, by mass, of seawater (grams per
kilogram of seawater, or per cubic meter). Initially, chlorinity was defined as the weight of
chlorine in grams per kilogram of seawater after the bromides and iodides had been
replaced by chlorides. To make the definition independent of atomic weights, chlorinity is
now defined as 0.3285233 times the weight of silver equivalent to all the halides present.

Temperature and Thermal properties of sea water

The mean temperature of seawater is low, roughly 75% of the ocean's volume has a
temperature from 0° – 5°C (Pinet,1996). The same percentage falls in a salinity range
between 34–35 ppt (3.4–3.5%) (Pinet,1996). There is still quite a bit of variation, however.
Surface temperatures can range from below freezing near the poles to 35°C in tropical
seas .The vertical structure of the temperature can be divided into three basic layers, a
surface mixed layer, where gradients are low, a thermocline where gradients are high, and a
poorly stratified abyssal layer which are poorly stratified.

Temperature in the ocean's layers are highly latitude dependent. The thermocline is
pronounced in the tropics and the, but nonexistent in polar waters (Marshak 2001). The
Thermocline usually lies near the surface, where evaporation raises salinity in the tropics, or

62
melt water dilutes it in polar regions. These variations of salinity and temperature with
respect to depth change the density of the seawater, creating the pycnocline.

Surface water temperature of the ocean as a whole ranges from -2⁰C to 35⁰c.
Temperature is highest along the equator because of the warming of the earth in the tropics
and the sea generally becomes cooler along the poles. At the sea surface the temperature
changes with latitude.

Potential temperature θ is calculated by correlating the adiabatic compression at a

given depth and is more important than in situation temperature. The temperature of deep
sample when brought to surface reduces to range at about 0.1 to 0.2⁰C and this
called potential temperature and it will be slightly cooler than the temperature at depth called
the in situation temperature.

The distribution of temperature in the ocean controls the distribution of marine

organisms and density of seawater. Because of the greater heat capacity of water the
surface temperature of the sea varies far less than land temperature. Consequently the sea
provides a better stable environment for marine life and a moderating influence on the
coastal climate.

Thermal properties of seawater

Ocean can absorb great amount of solar heat during the day without undergoing
drastic change in temperature. Oceans can supply enormous quantity of thermal energy to
the atmosphere in the form of vapour and rain is formed due to condensation of water
vapour on cooling.

Seawater never freeze due to high latent energy of fusion. The Ocean acts as a
reservoir of heat energy that becomes neither hot in the summer nor cold in winter. A
thermal gradient exists between the ocean and atmosphere. The ocean exchange heat
energy with the atmosphere rapidly and as a result heat in the ocean and the air temperature
are thermostatically controlled.

Colligative and Other properties of sea water

Colligative properties
Colligative properties are those properties of solutions that depend on the number of
dissolved particles in solution, but not on the densities of the solutes. For example, the
freezing point of salt water is lower than that of pure water, due to the presence of the salt

63
dissolved in the water. To a good approximation, it does not matter whether the salt
dissolved in water is sodium chloride or potassium nitrate; if the molar amounts of solute are
the same and the number of ions are the same, the freezing points will be the same. For
example, AlCI3 and K3PO4 would exhibit essentially the same colligative properties, since
each compound dissolved to produce four ions per formula unit. The four commonly studied
colligative properties are a)freezing point depression, b) boiling point elevation, c) vapor
pressure lowering, and d)osmotic pressure. Since these properties yield information on the
number of solute particles in solution, one can use them to obtain the molecular weight of
the solute.

Colligative Properties of Seawater:

The dissolved salts in seawater accounts for some of the properties of seawater that
distinguishes it from freshwater:
Salts lower the freezing point of seawater from 0⁰C -2⁰C.
Salt increases the boiling point of seawater and seawater evaporates more slowly.
The heat capacity of seawater decreases with increasing salt content.
Osmotic pressure increases with increasing salt content.
The greater the salinity, the greater the electrical conductivity of water.

Residence time of constituents in sea water

A useful concept for characterizing substances in seawater is residence time. It is the
time required to replace the amount of a given substance in the ocean completely. This
concept can work in two ways, using either the rate of addition of elements or the rate of
removal of elements incorporated in sediments deposited on the ocean bottom. Using the
second option, we can define residence time as follows

Residence time = Amount of element present / Removal rate (in years)

Sodium’s calculated residence time in the ocean of 68 million years is one of the longest
residence times for an element.
An element’s residence time in the sea is related to its chemical behaviour. Elements like
sodium are little affected by sedimentary or biological processes. They have residence times
of millions of years. Elements used by organisms or readily incorporated in sediments, such
as aluminium or iron, have much shorter residence times, ranging from a few hundred to a
few thousand years.
We can also calculate residence times for water. There is a net removal, due to evaporation
(which does not fall back on the ocean surface as rain) of a layer of water about 10

64
centimeters thick from the ocean surface each year. This water falls on the land and returns
to the ocean through river discharge. Recall that the ocean has an average depth of about
4000 meters. From these figures we find the residence time of 40,000 years for water.

Chapter 2: Sea ice

65
Properties of sea ice
The physical properties of sea ice depend upon the a) salinity of sea water from
which it forms, b) temperature, c) air-content or porosity, d) pressure, e) speed of ice
formation and f) age and history of the ice. As soon as the temperature of the sea surface
reaches the freezing point, pure ice begins to form. At this stage, sea water is trapped
among the ice crystals. On further cooling, the various salts present in the sea water
crystallize gradually depending upon the temperature. For example, sodium sulphate
(Na2SO4 10 H2O) crystallizes at -36.0oC and calcium chloride (CaCl2) crystallizes at -55.0oC
(Ringer, 1928).

Salinity of sea ice

The salinity of sea ice depends on the salinity of the original sea water, the speed of
ice formation and the age of the ice. The salinity of sea ice is less than the salinity of the
original sea water from which ice is formed, because some portion of the brine between the
ice crystals seeps out. The salinity values usually vary between two for vary old ice, 3-5 for
ice after the first winter, 10 for new ice that is just formed and 20 for ice that is formed from
sea water which is flooding.

Density of sea ice

The density of sea ice depends mainly on its air-content or porosity, the amount of
enclosed brine and the freezing temperature. According to Schwerdtfeger (1963), the density
of sea ice is related to the air-content, and brine enclosed. Density of ice can be given by
equation

r t = (1 – a ) ( 1+ 4.56 S / T) 0.917
Where, r t is the density of the sea ice in g/cm 3, a is the air content in volume per cent, S is
the salinity in parts per thousand and T is the temperature in oC. Pure fresh water ice has a
density of 0.91676 at 0oC, while pure water in the liquid state has a density of 0.999867 at
0oC. The density of sea ice varies both above and below that of pure ice, i.e., above and
below 0.91676 depending upon brine content in the ice and air-content.

Specific heat of ice

The specific heat of sea ice varies over a wide range and depends upon the brine or
salt content and on the temperature of the ice. However, the specific heat of pure ice varies
very little and depends upon its temperature. The specific heat of sea ice is higher than the

66
specific heat of pure ice, especially just below the freezing point, since more amount of heat
is required for melting or freezing of additional brine content. According to Malmgren (1927),
the specific heat of pure fresh water ice (when the salinity is zero) varies between 0.48
cal/oC-g at a temperature of -2oC and 0.46 cal/oC-g at a temperature of -22oC and when
salinity is two, the specific heat of sea ice varies between 2.47 cal/ oC-g, at a temperature of -
2oC and 0.52 cal/oC-g at a temperature of -22oC.

Latent heat of fusion and latent heat of freezing

The latent heat of fusion of pure ice i.e., the heat required to melt pure ice at 0 oC and
at atmospheric pressure is 79.67 cal/g. Since the melting of sea ice does not occur at a fixed
temperature due to the presence of salts, the usual definition of latent heat of fusion is not
applicable to sea ice. Malmgren defined the latent heat of fusion of sea ice as the amount of
heat required to melt 1g of sea ice of given salinity that was initially at the indicated
temperature.

Sea ice formation

The formation of sea ice depends mainly on sea water temperature, surface salinity,
vertical distribution of salinity and water depth. Sea ice forms at higher latitudes due to
extremely low water temperature. As soon as the temperature of the sea surface reaches
the freezing point, the formation of ice begins. The freezing point of water with a salinity of
35 is -1.91oC. as water freezes at the surface of the ocean, the dissolved solids are left out
of the crystalline structure of the ice. Hence, the salinity of the surrounding water increases.
This higher salinity causes the lowering of the freezing point of the remaining water. Thus,
surface salinity influences the freezing point. The vertical distribution of salinity as well as the
depth of the water determine the thickness of the water layer the is involved in the vertical
convection during the cooling processes.

Different types of ice are formed depending on the wind, current and sea state
condition. When the winds are very weak and sea state is calm, clear crystalline “new ice” or
“young ice” forms, while with the strong winds and rough seas, “grease ice” or “slush ice”
forms, which looks turbid due to the enclosure of air bubbles within the ice crystals. If the
winds continue to be weak during the freezing process, a primary thin ice called “nilas” forms
from the new ice. When the grease ice begins to grow into disk’s, primary “pack ice”
develops. The “pan cake” ice represents the transition from grease ice to pack ice.
Sometimes, “hummocked ice” and “pressure ridges” form over depths of 8 – 10 m or even in
20m depth in the sea.
Ice in the Oceans

67
 There are two types of ice that cover the oceans. One is the sea ice which is formed
by the freezing of sea water and the other is the fresh water ice such as the iceberg which is
formed on the continent or on the ice itself and then carried into the ocean. The presence of
ice in the ocean is important in many respects. Sea ice formation in high latitudes during
winter season causes freezing up of harbours in these latitudes. Thus, sea ice creates
navigational problems for ships and limits the usage of many ports in these areas. The
floating icebergs in the oceans are dangerous to shipping particularly during fog conditions.
Icebergs reach even low latitude areas due to favourable wind and current conditions and
hence are the major problem for shipping activity in the oceans.

The transportation of sedimentary debris by ice is very important in high latitude

ocean areas. Icebergs carry with them large amounts of material from the land. This material
modifies the general topography of the sea floor and contributes significantly to the deep sea
deposits. Sea ice also plays an important role in the transportation of sedimentary material.
Sea ice tends to carry unsorted material including shells and other remains of organisms,
from shallow water into deeper water and hence will give rise to accumulations of remains of
organisms and organic material. The change of reflectivity that occurs when the sea freezes
over, makes sea ice an important factor in the heat budget of the ocean. Sea ice damps
surface waves in the ocean. Sea ice also changes the temperature and salinity in the upper
layers of the ocean by the processes of melting and freezing.

Chapter 3: Sound Velocity and Radiation

68
Sound transmission in sea water
Sound is a form of mechanical energy which can be described as a periodic variation
in pressure, particle velocity or displacement in an elastic medium. In general, sound
propagates very well in liquids. Water transmits sound more efficiently than the atmosphere.
Sound travels at a faster rate and with less absorption of energy through water than through
the air.

Application of sound transmission in sea water

The propagation of sound in the ocean is of special importance since it has many
applications. Sound is useful to find depths in the ocean. The echo sounder measures the
depth of the water under a ship’s hull by estimating the time required for a sound pulse to
travel to the sea floor and back to the ship. Sound can be used to locate objects, sense their
shape and determine their distance away from the sound’s source. The properties of the sea
floor can be detected by studying the echo charts obtained by means of an echo sounder,
since some sea floor materials. Sometimes, a special type of underwater phenomenon is
detected on the depth chart of the echo sounder. Several marine organisms including fish
move up towards the surface during night time and sink down to deeper waters during day
time. These organisms form a layer known as the “deep scattering layer”. A portion of the
sound beam is scattered and reflected by the deep scattering layer creating the image of a
false bottom on the echo sounder chart. Thus, sound transmission is useful to find the depth
of availability of fish in the sea. Underwater sound propagation has important military
applications also, particularly in submarine detection and echo ranging. In the sea, sounds
are produced very frequently by three groups of animals, namely; fish, crustaceans and
mammals including whales. Hydrophones are used to listen to the sounds of these animals.
Analysis of these sounds will help in identifying their sources.

Velocity of sound waves

The most important acoustical parameter in the ocean is the velocity of sound. Sound
is a form of wave motion. The velocity of sound waves, V in a liquid is determined by
the Laplace equation. However, in practice it is more convenient to use the following
expression --1

Where g is the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) to specific heat at constant
volume (Cv), i.e., Cp/Cv,

69
K is the compressibility of the transmitting medium, i.e., liquid and r is the density of the
liquid.
Since sound pulse is a wave of compression, and therefore, heats the liquid as it passes
through, the ratio Cp/Cv i.e., g is introduced in the expression.
The three variables (g , r and K) in the above expression depend on temperature, salinity
and pressure. Hence, the velocity of sound waves in the ocean depends on temperature,
salinity and pressure i.e., depth. A simplified form of the dependence of sound velocity on
temperature, salinity, and pressure is given in the following equation (Medwin, 1975):

V = 1449.2 + 4.6 T – 0.055 T2 + 0.00029T3 + (1.34 – 0.010T) (S – 35) + 0.016Z (3)

Where V is the velocity of sound in m/s, T is the temperature in oC, S is the salinity in parts
per thousand, Z is the depth below the surface in metres. As the temperature of sea water
increases, its density decreases and so from expression (1), the velocity of sound should
increase with an increase in sea water temperature. Normally, an increase in salinity leads to
an increase in density and therefore from expression (1), the velocity of sound should
decrease with increase in salinity. But, an increase in salinity also decreases the
compressibility of sea water, i.e., K in expression (1) and this overtakes the effect of increase
in density due to increase in salinity. Generally, the velocity of sound waves increases with
increase in depth of the ocean.

Variation of sound velocity in the ocean

Sound velocity in the ocean ranges from about 1,400 to 1,570 m/sec. it increases
with increasing temperature, salinity and pressure or depth in the ocean. The increase in
sound velocity is about 4.5m/sec for 1 oC increase in temperature; about 1.3 m/sec for one-
thousandth part increase in salinity and about 1.7 m/sec for 100m increase in depth. In the
oceans, horizontal variations of sound velocity are smaller compared to vertical variations of
sound velocity, because horizontal variations of temperature and salinity are smaller than the
vertical variations.

The vertical variation of sound velocity in the deep waters of the ocean can be
divided into three layer. In the upper layer of the ocean, which extends from surface to 100-
150m depth, temperature and salinity variations are negligible as a result of mixing of waters
due to wind and waves. The sound velocity increases as depth increases in this layer due to
the pressure effect. In the middle layer or the thermocline layer, which extends from 100-
150m depth to 1500m depth in the ocean, temperature decreases very rapidly. Sound
velocity decreases very rapidly in this layer due to temperature effect. In the bottom layer
i.e., below the thermocline layer and extending to the bottom of the ocean, temperature and

70
salinity variations are again very negligible. In this layer, sound velocity increases with depth
due to the effect of pressure.

In the shallow waters of coastal regions and on the continental shelves, the sound
velocity profile tends to be irregular and unpredictable. It is greatly influenced by surface
heating and cooling, changes in salinity and water currents in these regions. The shallow
water sound velocity profile is complicated by the effect of salinity variations caused by
nearby sources of fresh water and contains several layers of different sound velocity
gradients which have little temporal or spatial stability. the transmission of sound in the
ocean is dependent on several environmental factors, the most important of which are the
sound velocity distribution in the ocean, the depth and configuration of the bottom and the
sediment characteristics of the bottom. In addition to temperature, salinity and pressure, the
characteristics of the bottom also influence the propagation of sound in shallow water
through absorption, reflection, etc. It is produced in the upper parts of the ocean. The
positive gradient is due to the isothermal layer with the velocity of sound increasing with
depth because of increasing pressure.

Absorption of radiation, eddy conductivity, diffusivity and viscosity

Viscosity of sea water
The viscosity of seawater has an important influence on the motions of the world
ocean and upon the nature of the forms of life that float or swim in the sea. Viscosity arises
from the internal friction of a fluid and may be defined as internal resistance to flow. It
represents the ease with which molecules in the fluid move past one another or,
alternatively, It also represents the ease with which mechanical energy can be exchanged
between adjacent molecules. It is fluid viscosity that causes a motorboat to stop when the
engine has been stopped. The viscosity of a fluid depends upon the chemical nature of its
molecules. Viscosity is greatly affected by the temperature of the fluid; the viscosity of a fluid
doubles if the temperature is decreased by 20 0c. Salinity has only a minor effect on
viscosity. In fact, the viscosity of seawater is about the same as that of fresh water at the
same temperature.

Diffusion or diffusivity
It refers to transfer of material (eg.Salt) and temperature by eddies diffusion causes
spreading or scattering of matter under the influence of a concentration gradient with
movement from the stronger to weaker solution.
General Distribution of temperature, Salinity and density
Salinity of Sea water

71
 It is well known that sea water is salty. The reason for the oceans to be salty or saline
is that all salts and other mineral elements have been washed away from the land to sea by
rain over billions of years. All the rivers on the earth contribute to the oceans large quantities
of dissolved solids every year. The total amount of salts in the oceans is estimated to be
about 5 x 1019 kg.

Table 2. Different salts in seawater

Constituent g/kg of sea water Percentage of dissolved
material
Chloride 19.353 55.0
Sodium 10.760 30.6
Sulphate 2.712 7.7
Magnesium 1.294 3.7
Calcium 0.413 1.6
Potassium 0.387 1.1
Bicarbonate 0.142 0.4
Bromide 0.067 0.189
Strontium 0.013 0.038
Boron 0.026 0.075
Fluoride 0.001 0.003

Factors Affecting Salinity

Factors that affect the salinity of the oceans can be broadly grouped into two
categories, (a) factors that increase salinity and (b) factors that decrease salinity. The factors
responsible for increase of salinity are: (i) evaporation (ii)Ice formation, (iii) advection of more
saline water (iv) mixing with more saline deep water and (v) solution of salt deposits. The
factors that are responsible decrease of salinity are: (i) Precipitation, (ii) melting of ice (iii)
advection of less saline water, (iv) mixing with less saline deep water and (v) inflow of fresh
water from land. Surface salinity changes are chiefly determined by three processes,
namely, (a) decrease of salinity by precipitation, (b) increase of salinity by evaporation and
(c) change of salinity by mixing processes. However, over large areas in the oceans,
changes in surface salinity depend mainly upon changes in the difference between
evaporation and precipitation.

Surface Salinity Distribution in the Oceans

72
 In the open ocean, surface salinity varies generally between 33ppt and 37ppt. The
distribution of surface salinity in the oceans is primarily zonal. Lower salinity values are
found in the coastal areas where large rivers enter the oceans. The salinity values are lower
in the polar regions of the oceans because of melting of ice. Higher values of salinity are
observed in the ocean regions where evaporation is high. A comparison of the average
surface salinities of the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, North Pacific and South Pacific oceans
reveals that the North Atlantic is most saline (35.5) and the North Pacific is least saline
(34.2). Similarly, a comparison of the average salinities of the three non-polar oceans,
namely, the pacific, the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans shows that the Pacific oceans is the
least saline (34.62), and the Atlantic oceans is the most saline (34.90), while the salinity of
the Indian Ocean (34.76) lies between the salinities of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

The average surface salinity of the oceans as a whole is more in the southern
hemisphere (35ppt) than in the northern hemisphere (34ppt). In the northern hemisphere,
the proportion of land to water is 2:3, while in the southern hemisphere it is 1.4:7. So there is
less sea water in the northern hemisphere to receive the fresh water of rainfall upon land
and sea. As a result, the surface salinity of the oceans in the southern hemisphere is high.
There are other certain areas in the oceans where the surface salinity is relatively high. The
most important among these is the Sargasso Sea in the central part of the North Atlantic
Where the salinity reaches a high value of 38. In the Indian oceans, there are two areas of
high surface salinity as high as 36ppt. In the South Pacific Ocean, there is an area off the
coast of Peru with high surface salinity of 36.5.

Latitudinal variation of surface salinity

Surface salinity value attains a primary maximum in the northern hemisphere
between 20 and 25°N, a minimum just north of the equator at 5°N and a secondary
maximum in the southern hemisphere between 20 and 25°S. From these sub-tropical
maxima, the salinity value decreases rapidly towards higher latitudes in both the
hemispheres. The highest surface salinity values in the oceans are found approximately in
the regions of Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricon, which are at a distance of about
2,400km north and south of the equator, respectively. Similar trend of latitudinal variation of
surface salinity is noticed for Atlantic and pacific Oceans.

Monthly and seasonal variations of surface salinity

Seasonal variations of surface salinity depend mainly upon the changes of
evaporation and precipitation from season to season over the oceans. The seasonal
variations of surface salinity in the open oceans are generally weak, not more than 0.5.

73
These variations are important in regions where the climate is characterized by strong
seasonal variations of precipitations. In the polar regions, the melting of ice in the summer
and its movement by wind and current cause considerable seasonal variations. The
seasonal variations of surface salinity are also more in coastal waters where there is lot of
fresh water inflow through rivers. In Arabian Sea coastal waters near Mangalore, the surface
salinity is found to vary from 29.6 in the south-west monsoon season (September) to 31.9 in
the winter season.

Diurnal variation of surface salinity

Diurnal variations of surface salinity are very small in the open ocean, since there are
no significant diurnal variations in respect to precipitation and evaporation in the open
oceans. Even in the Arabian Sea coastal waters off Karwar, the diurnal variation of surface
salinity is very small throughout the year. The maximum diurnal variation of surface salinity
in these waters is found to be about (0.21 ppt).

Chapter 4: Seawater Temperature

74
Distribution of temperature and salinity
Temperature is one of the most important physical properties of sea water. Salinity
and temperature together control the sea water density. Sea water temperature controls the
distribution of marine organisms and fish. Because of the influence heat has upon chemical
reactions (metabolism) sea water temperature has profound effects on the life processes of
fish. Sea water temperature has profound effects on the life processes of fish. Sea water
temperature influences the properties of surface air over the ocean. The vertical temperature
structure affects the propagation of sound in the sea and is therefore important for anti-
submarine warfare. Sea water temperature is indicative of other changes and conditions in
the sea such as upwelling intensities, current and water mass boundaries.

The sun provides 99.97% of the heat energy required for the various physical
processes taking place in the earth-atmosphere system. The other energy sources, such as
heat from the interior of the earth, radiations from other Celestial bodies, energy from the
gravitational attraction of the sun and moon are negligible compared with the radiant energy
received from the sun. The sun, which is a luminous gaseous sphere, has a surface
temperature of 6000°C and emits energy in electromagnetic waves. The maximum emission
occurs at relatively short wave lengths in the visible portion of the spectrum, between about
0.4 and 0.7µm (Trewartha and Horn, 1980). According to Sellers (196%), a breakdown of
the spectral composition of solar radiation indicates that 9% is in the ultraviolet (less than
0.4µm), 45% is in the visible (between 0.4µm and 0.74µm), and the remaining 46% is in the
infrared (more than 0.74µm). The amount of solar radiation incident at the top of the earth’s
atmosphere depends upon the time of the year, the time of the day and the latitude (Ayoade,
1983).However, all of the radiation incident on the top of the atmosphere does not reach the
surface of the earth. The atmosphere absorbs, reflects, scatters and re-radiates solar
energy. On a global basis of the above radiation, 6% is reflected and scattered by
atmospheric constituents to space, 24% is reflected and scattered to space by clouds,,3% is
absorbed by clouds, 14% is absorbed by atmospheric constituents, 22% reaches the surface
of the earth as diffuse sky radiation, and 31% reaches as direct beam solar radiation on the
surface of the earth. Thus, the radiation reaching the surface of the earth is composed of
direct beam solar radiation and the diffuse sky radiation.

The radiation that actually reaches the surface of the earth, i.e., the insolation is not
all absorbed. Certain amount of insolation is reflected by the earth’s surface. The percentage
of the insolation reflected by a surface is called the “albedo” of that surface. Fresh snow

75
albedo is nearly 80%, from which it is clear that fresh snow absorbs only a comparatively
small proportion of the isolation. The albedo of water is generally less than that of most
surfaces on land. Due to several reasons, sea water and land surfaces behave differently to
insolation. First, the albedo of sea water surface is generally smaller than that of land suface.
Second, sea water surface is transparent and hence sun’s rays can penetrate deeper than in
the case of land surface which is comparatively opaque. Third, heat transfer in sea water is
mainly by convection process, which is a quicker method for heat transfer than the slow
conduction process through which heat is transmitted within land. Fourth, the specific heat of
sea water is greater than that of land. Sea water required a greater quantity of heat per unit
mass to change its temperature than that of land. Lastly, as water is always available for
evaporation on the sea water surface, evaporation is continuous there, while on land
evaporation takes place only if the soil is moist. As evaporation is a cooling process, it must
be considered while comparing the thermal properties of land and sea water surfaces.

Factors Influencing Sea water Temperature

Sea water temperature varies with respect to space (horizontally and vertically) and
time. Major variations in temperature are very common in the upper layers of the ocean
because of the influence of external environmental factors. The factors which affects sea
water temperature and its variation can be broadly classified into two groups: (1) energy
transfer processes taking place below the sea surface and (2) advective transfer processes
taking place below the sea surface. The first group is concerned with the factors associated
with the transfer of solar radiation to the sea and with the factors associated with the removal
of heat from the sea. The chief energy transfer processes that produce heating of the sea
surface are the absorption of radiation from sun and sky, the convection of sensible heat
from the atmosphere, and the condensation of water vapour. The energy transfer processes
that produce cooling of the sea surface are the back radiation from the sea surface, the
convection of sensible heat to the atmosphere, and the evaporation. The second group is
concerned with the external and internal forces which cause movement of water without
transfer of heat to or form the atmosphere (LaFond, 1954a). These forces produce tide,
current and wind etc. which transport water from one place to another in the ocean. If the
advected water differs in temperature from the adjacent water in its new region in the ocean,
a temperature gradient horizontal or vertical, will be produced.

Sea Surface Temperature (SST)

76
Sea Surface Temperature (SST)
Knowledge of SST and its changes has been recognised as an important component
of climate prediction models. Solar inputs, ocean mixed layer processes and wind at ocean
surface have a direct bearing on SST variation. SST observations i different spatial and
temporal scales are essential for the understanding of a variety of processes relating to the
interaction between ocean and atmosphere. The have been very well correlated with
thermal regimes in the ocean waters. The impact of monsoonal flow on the Indian oceanic
waters causing extensive upwelling regions especially in the south west coasts has well
documented. Climate studies have shown that the potential areas of cyclogenesis and
formation of weather systems is closely linked to temperature patterns of the upper oceanic
layers. Information on SST is also crucial for understanding the ocean dynamics related to
mixed layer depth and circulation.

T-S Diagram
Water masses can be classified on the basis of their temperature-salinity
characteristics, but density cannot be used for classification, because two water masses of
different temperatures and salinities may have the same density. For the study of the water
masses it is convenient to make use of the temperature-salinity diagram, which was
introduced by Helland-Hansen (1916). Helland- Hansen points out that when in a given area
the temperatures and corresponding salinities of the subsurface water are plotted against
each other, the points generally fall on a well-defined curve, the T-S curve, showing the
temperature-salinity relationship of the subsurface water of that region.

The corresponding temperature and salinity values in a water column are found to
arrange themselves according to depth. The depths of the observed values can be entered
along the T-S curves, which then will also give information on variation of temperature and
salinity with depth.

Since the density of the water at atmospheric pressure, which is expressed by means
of depends only on temperature and salinity, curves of equal values of value corresponding
to any combination of temperature and salinity can be read off and, if a small scale is used,
as is commonly the case, approximate values can be obtained. The slope of the observed T-
S curve relative to the curves gives immediately an idea of the stability of the stratification.

77
 A T-S diagram is shown in figure. In that the temperature and salinity values between
277 and 461m at stations 1638 agree with those between 590 to 790m at station 1640,
indicating that at the two stations waters of similar characteristics was present, but at
different depths.

78
Chapter 5: Water Mass

Water mass of Indian Ocean

Method of formation water masses:
The water masses are formed in the oceans by two methods:
(a) by thermo haline alternation
(b) by mixing of two or more water bodies.

Classification of water mass:

The water masses in oceans can be divided in to following general groups
1. The surface or near surface water masses (upper 500m in the ocean depth)
2. Deep water masses (500-1200m depth) and
3. Bottom water masses (below 4000m depth)

Water mass of Indian Ocean

The characteristics of water masses of Indian ocean are different from those of the
other oceans because of its geographic position, climatic conditions, its separation from
other regions and the nature of its current pattern. The important factor which influences the
water masses are the air temperature and the differences in precipitation from one region to
another region.

There is a large difference in precipitation between the eastern and the western
regions in the north. The annual mean precipitation in the North Indian Ocean is about
10cm/yr in the west on the Arabian coast and about 300cm/yr in the east near Sumatra. This
is opposite to the situation usually seen on the eastern side and heavy precipitation on the
western side occurs in the South Indian ocean. The south-western Australia receives
precipitation less than 50cm/yr and Madagascar gets 200cm/yr. The influence of the Asian
rivers in bringing fresh water into the Indian Ocean is magnified by the monsoonal climate.
The summer monsoon fresh-waters which the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the
Godavari and the Krishna rivers brings into the Bay of Bengal; the Indus, the Narmada and
the Tapti rivers into the Arabian Sea and the Irrawady and the Salween rivers into the
Andaman Sea greatly influence the salinity of the waters in the North Indian ocean.

The Indian ocean is closed on the northern side by the landmass of Asia at
subtropical latitude. As a result, the ocean is separated from deep reaching vertical
convection areas in the northern hemisphere and a unique atmospheric circulation known as

79
monsoon circulation is developed, which influences the ocean southwards up to 10°S. The
surface current pattern in the North Indian Ocean which changes with the seasonal reversal
of monsoon winds influence its water masses. The waters from the Red Sea and Persian
Gulf greatly influence the water masses of the Indian Ocean.

In general, the water masses in the south Indian ocean between subtropical
convergence (40°S) and 10°S are similar to those in the South Atlantic because of the
similarly of the two regions with respect to latitudinal extent and climatic conditions,

Water masses of South Indian Ocean

1. Indian ocean control water mass
2. Upper water masses in the south-east Indian ocean
3. Surface and near surface group of water masses in Southwest Indian Ocean
4. Antartic intermediate water mass
5. Water masses in intermediate depths of the Southeast Indian Ocean.
6. Intermediate water masses in the Southwest Indian ocean
7. South Indian Deep water mass

Water masses of the North Indian Ocean

1. Water masses in the equatorial area between 10°N and 10°S.
2. High salinity water mass
3. Persian gulf high salinity water mass
4. Red sea high salinity water mass

Water masses in the Bay of Bengal

The Bay of Bengal is in the north-eastern corner of the Indian Ocean and is enclosed
on the northern, western and eastern sides. The southern boundary extends from the south
end of Sri Lanka to the north of Sumatra and is open to the Central Indian Ocean. The
northern Indian Ocean wind system, together with the Himalaya Mountains causes the
world’s highest rainfall, which drains into the Bay of Bengal.

The surface water mass characteristics of the bay exhibit wide variations from one
region to another due to differences in fresh water inflow and heat exchange. The Bay of
Bengal surface water masses are broadly divided into: (1) the North Dilute water mass and
(2) the Southern Bay of Bengal water mass (LaFond, 1958). The North Dilute water mass is
formed during October-November in the northern end of the bay by the addition of fresh
water.

80
 Based on an analysis of the physical oceanographic data collected in the southern
and central Bay of Bengal during the transition period between winters and summer
seasons, two water masses in the upper 100m has been identified. The first water mass
found in the upper 50m in the Eastern Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea which is
characterized with salinity less than 33.0 is named as the Eastern Dilute Water of Indo –
Pacific origin. This water is considered to form by the admixture of the run of water from the
Burmese coast with the (less saline) waters of Pacific origin entering the south eastern bay
through the Straits of Malacca. The second water mass which is encountered in the upper
100 m of the Southern Bay and the western and middle parts of the Central Bay with the
salinity range 33.0-34.0. Southern Bay of Bengal water reported by LaFond(1958). A high
salinity water mass traced in a specified region in the central part of the bay below 300m
depth is assumed to be the Persian Gulf Water, probably overlying the Red sea water. The
major subsurface water mass with the temperature range 4-16°C and salinity range 34.8-35
is found to be present in all parts of the Southern and Central Bay below 100-150m depth.

Varadachari et.al.(1968) have identified two water masses in the upper 1000m of the
Bay of Bengal with distinct salinity and characteristics. The upper water mass has the
characteristics of Persian Gulf water and the lower one, that of Red Sea water. Both the
water masses appear to enter the Bay south of 9°N latitude. Two isolated high salinity
pockets have been identified as the remnants of the Arabian Sea High Salinity Water mass.
The salinity maxima found in the depth range of 200-900 m have been considered to be due
to the penetration of the isohaline layer, which forms (at the boundary) when Persian Gulf
water mass and Red Sea water mass come in contact in the Arabian sea. Varkey and Sastry
(1992) utilizing the historical hydrographic data collected during several cruises, have
confirmed the presence of the following tropospheric water masses in the Bay of Bengal: (i)
Bay of Bengal Low Salinity Water around 20.8, (2) Arabian Sea High Salinity Water around
23.92 (3) Water Mass around 23.94 (4) Persian Gulf Water around 26.81 (5) Red Sea Water
around 27.19 (6) Equatorial Surface Water around 22.5.

Deep water masses in the Bay of Bengal are charactized by temperatures as low
as 1.1°C or even lower. As indicated by Sewel (1932), the main course of the Antarctic
Bottom drift from the South Polar region through the Indian ocean to the north appear to be
three main tongues of bottom water, of which the third can be traced into the Bay of Bengal.
In the region of the Bay of Bengal, the major portion of the bottom drift is considered to
undergo a further division into two subsidiary streams. One of these streams is likely to pass
northwards between Carpenter’s ridge on the west and the Andaman-Nicobar ridge on the
east through a deep channel, where water of a temperature as low as 1.0°C can be traced

81
on the bottom as far north as latitude 12°N. One portion of the other current branch is likely
to flow northwards into the Bay of Bengal along the east coast of India, Where water of a
temperature of only 1°C has been found at a depth of about 2000m as for north as latitude
9°N. Therefore the deep and bottom water masses present in the Bay of Bengal can be
considered as the water masses that are derived from the south polar region, similar
to those present in the Arabian Sea at deeper levels.

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 Unit 6: Chemistry of Sea Water

Introduction
Oceanography is the branch of science dealing with oceans. Oceanography is not a
single science but rather a combination of various sciences. Chemistry occupies a central
position among other sciences in understanding oceanography. In the field of physical
oceanography, the knowledge of the water masses of oceans and their origin is largely
based on measurements of chemical parameters such as salinity and CO2 content.
Chemical studies are also important to geologists in explaining the models of formation of
mysterious manganese nodules and phosphate nodules which grow on the ocean floor.
Determination of nutrients especially micro-nutrient elements (like N,P) are of great
importance to marine biologists concerned with fertility of the sea. Therefore to truly
understand the ocean and how it work, one should know about almost all fields of sciences
and their relationships to the marine environment. oceanography is divided into 4 main parts
as
i. Chemical oceanography
ii. Biological oceanography
iii. Physical oceanography
iv. Geological oceanography
In this unit the following topics will be covered.
1. Chemistry of sea water
2. Constancy of composition
3. Elements present in sea water
4. Artificial sea water
5. Dissolved gases in sea water
6. CO2 system and alkalinity
7. Inorganic agencies affecting composition of sea water

Chemistry of sea water

Seawater is a complex mixture of 96.5% water, 3.5% salts, and small amounts of
other substances. Chemical formula for water is H2O and for salt NaCl. Chemical formula for
water is H2o. Its atomic weight is 18. Chemical formula of salt depends on the compounds or
elements undergoing reaction when producing a salt common salts are Sodium chloride.

83
Properties of sea water
Seawater properties are different from pure water seawater has the following properties.
1. High density and specific gravity
2. Depression in freezing point
3. Elevated boiling point
4. Higher osmotic pressure
5. Good conductor of electricity

Properties of seawater
Sea water is a mixture of 96.5% pure water and 3.5% other material such as salts,
dissolved gases, organic substances, and undissolved particles. Its physical properties are
mainly determined by the 96.5% pure water. The physical properties of pure water will
therefore be discussed first.

Pure water, when compared with fluids of similar composition, displays most
uncommon properties. This is the result of the particular structure of the water molecule H 2O:
The hydrogen atoms carry one positive charge, the oxygen atom two negative charges, but
the atom arrangement in the water molecule is such that the charges are not neutralized the
charges would be neutralized if the angle were 180° rather than 105°.

84
 The major consequences of the molecular structure of pure water are:
1. The water molecule is an electric dipole, forming aggregations of molecules
(polymers), of on average six molecules at 20°C. Therefore, water reacts slower to
changes than individual molecules; for example the boiling point is shifted from -80°C
to 100°C, the freezing point from -110°C to 0°C.
2. Water has an unusually strong dissociative power, i.e. it splits dissolved material into
electrically charged ions. As a consequence, dissolved material greatly increases the
electrical conductivity of water. The conductivity of pure water is relatively low, but
that of sea water is midway between pure water and copper. The angle 105° is close
to the angle of a tetrahedron, i.e. a structure with four arms emanating from a centre
at equal angles (109° 28´). As a result, oxygen atoms in water try to have four
hydrogen atoms attached to them in a tetrahedral arrangement. This is called a
"hydrogen bond", in contrast to the (ionic) molecular bond and covalent bonding.
Hydrogen bonds need a bonding energy 10 to 100 times smaller than molecular
bonds, so water is very flexible in its reaction to changing chemical conditions.
3. Tetrahedrons are of a more wide-meshed nature than the molecular closest packing
arrangement. They form aggregates of single, two, four and eight molecules. At high
temperatures the one and two molecule aggregates dominate; as the temperature
falls the larger clusters begin to dominate. The larger clusters occupy less space than
the same number of molecules in smaller clusters. As a result, the density of water
shows a maximum at 4°C.
Physical properties of most substances show uniform variation with temperature. In contrast,
most physical properties of pure water show a minimum at some intermediate temperature.
Sound velocity shows a maximum at 74°C

A list of some minimum temperatures

The physical property is given first, followed by the
temperature in °C at which the minimum occurs.

oxygen solubility 80 0C

specific volume 40C

specific heat 340C

hydrogen solubility 370C

compressibility 440C

speed of light -10C

speed of sound ( maximum ) 740C

85
 When freezing, all water molecules form tetrahedrons. This leads to a sudden expansion
in volume, ie a decrease in density. The solid phase of water is therefore lighter than the
liquid phase, which is a rare property.

The Concept of Salinity

Sea water contains 3.5% salts, dissolved gasses, organic substances and
undissolved particulate matter. The presence of salts influences most physical properties of
sea water like density, compressibility, freezing point, temperature of the density maximum
to some degree but does not determine them. properties like viscosity, and light absorption
are not significantly affected by salinity. Particle and dissolved matter do affect light
absorption in sea water and this influence is used in most optical applications. Two
properties which are determined by the amount of salt in the sea are conductivity and
osmotic pressure.

Ideally, salinity should be the sum of all dissolved salts in grams per kilogram of sea
water. In practice, this is difficult to measure. The observation that - no matter how much salt
is in the sea the various components present in a fixed ratio, helps to overcome the difficulty.
It allows determination of salt content through the measurement of a substitution quantity
and calculation of the total of all material making up the salinity from that measurement.

Determination of salinity could thus be made through its most important component,
chloride. Chloride content was defined in 1902 as the total amount in grams of chlorine ions
contained in one kilogram of sea water if all the halogens are replaced by chlorides. The
definition reflects the chemical titration process for the determination of chloride content and
is still of importance when dealing with historical data.

Salinity was defined in 1902 as the total amount in grams of dissolved substances
contained in one kilogram of sea water if all carbonates are converted into oxides, all
bromides and iodides into chlorides, and all organic substances oxidized. The relationship
between salinity and chloride was determined through a series of fundamental laboratory
measurements based on sea water samples from all regions of the world ocean and was
given as
S (o/oo) = 0.03 +1.805 Cl (o/oo)
The symbol o/oo stands for "parts per thousand" or "per ml"; a salt content of 3.5% 0 is
equivalent to 35 o/oo, or 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water.

86
 The fact that the equation of 1902 gives a salinity of 0.03 o/oo for zero chlorinity is a
cause for concern. It indicates a problem in the water samples used for the laboratory
measurements. The United Nations Scientific, Education and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) decided to repeat the base determination of the relation between chlorinity and
salinity and introduced a new definition, known as absolute salinity,

S (o/oo) = 1.80655 Cl (o/oo) (1969)

The definitions of 1902 and 1969 give identical results at a salinity of 35 o/oo and do not differ
significantly for most applications.

The definition of salinity was reviewed again when techniques to determine salinity
from measurements of conductivity, temperature and pressure were developed. Since 1978,
the "Practical Salinity Scale" defines salinity in terms of a conductivity ratio:

The practical salinity, symbol S, of a sample of sea water, is defined in terms of the
ratio K of the electrical conductivity of a sea water sample of 15°C and the pressure of one
standard atmosphere, to that of a potassium chloride (KCl) solution, in which the mass
fraction of KCl is 0.0324356, at the same temperature and pressure. The K value exactly
equal to one corresponds, by definition, to a practical salinity equal to 35." The
corresponding formula is:
S = 0.0080 - 0.1692 K1/2 + 25.3853 K + 14.0941 K3/2 - 7.0261 K2 + 2.7081 K5/2
Note that in this definition, salinity is a ratio and ( o/oo) is therefore no longer used, but an old
value of 35o/oo corresponds to a value of 35 in the practical salinity. Some oceanographers
cannot get used to numbers without units for salinity and write "35 psu", where psu is meant
to stand for "practical salinity unit". As the practical salinity is a ratio and therefore does not
have units, the unit "psu" is rather meaningless and strongly discouraged. Again, minute
differences occur between the old definitions and the new Practical Salinity Scale, but they
are usually negligible.

Electrical Conductivity of seawater:

The conductivity of sea water depends on the number of dissolved ions per volume
(i.e. salinity) and the mobility of the ions (ie temperature and pressure). Its units are mS/cm
(milli-Siemens per centimetre). Conductivity increases by the same amount with a salinity
increase of 0.01, a temperature increase of 0.01°C, and a depth (ie pressure) increase of 20
m. In most practical oceanographic applications the change of conductivity is dominated by
temperature.

87
 Density
Density is one of the most important parameters in the study of the oceans'
dynamics. Small horizontal density differences (caused for example by differences in surface
heating) can produce very strong currents. The determination of density has therefore been
one of the most important tasks in oceanography. The symbol for density is the Greek letter
ρ (rho).
The density of sea water depends on temperature T, salinity S and pressure p. This
dependence is known as the Equation of State of Sea Water.
The equation of state for an ideal gas was given by
p=ρRT
where R is the gas constant. The exact equation for the entire range of temperatures,
salinities and pressures encountered in the ocean
ρ = ρ(T,S,p)
(where S is salinity) is the result of many careful laboratory determinations. The first
fundamental determinations to establish the equation were made in 1902 by Knudsen and
Ekman. Their equation expressed ρ in g cm-3. New fundamental determinations, based on
data over a larger pressure and salinity range, resulted in a new density equation, known as
the "International Equation of State (1980) ". This equation uses temperature in °C, salinity
from the Practical Salinity Scale and pressure in dbar (1 dbar = 10,000 pascal = 10,000 N m -
2
) and gives density in kg m-3. Thus, a density of 1.025 g cm -3 in the old formula corresponds
to a density of 1025 kg m-3 in the International Equation of State.

Density increases with an increase in salinity and a decrease in temperature, except

at temperatures below the density maximum. Oceanic density is usually close to 1025 kg m -
3
(In freshwater it is close to 1000 kg m -3). Oceanographers usually use the symbol σt (the
Greek letter sigma with a subscript t) for density, which they pronounce "sigma-t". This
quantity is defined as σt = ρ - 1000 and does not usually carry units (it should carry the same
units as ρ). A typical seawater density is thus σ t = 25 .A useful rule of thumb is that
σt changes by the same amount if T changes by 1°C, S by 0.1, and p by the equivalent of a
50 m depth change.

Notice that the density maximum is above the freezing point for salinities below 24.7
but below the freezing point for salinities above 24.7. This affects the thermal convection:
 S < 24.7: The water cools until it reaches maximum density; then, when the surface water
becomes lighter (ie after the density maximum has been passed) cooling is restricted to

88
 the wind-mixed layer, which eventually freezes over. The deep basins are filled with water
of maximum density.
 S > 24.7: Convection always reaches the entire water body. Cooling is slowed down
because a large amount of heat is stored in the water body. This is because the water
reaches freezing point before the maximum density is attained.
If your browser supports JavaScript you can check the range of seawater density and its
dependence on temperature and salinity at surface pressure with this density calculator:
Enter a value for temperature, a value for salinity and press the calculate button. Verify your
result against the appropriate TS-diagram.

Composition of sea water

As water is a good solvent most elements on the earth are found dissolved in sea
water of the 108 elements discovered so for 84 elements have been found to be in
seawater. The major constituents comprise about 99.7% of all dissolved materials. The
remaining 0.3% comprises of the three categories of dissolved gases, nutrients and trace
elements. The concentrations of dissolved gases, nutrients, and trace elements are greatly
affected by biological organisms, the climate, and some geochemical processes. Their
concentrations are varying so much from place to place and from time to time. As a very
rough approximation, the dissolved gases are generally one or two hundred times more
abundant that the nutrients, and the nutrients, in turn, are thousands of times more abundant
than are trace elements.

In addition to what is in solution seawater also contains some fine particulate matter
in suspension. Some of this particulate matter will eventually dissolve, and some will
eventually add to the sediment on the ocean bottom. Organic particulate matter has other
possible fates. It may be consumed directly by organisms or it may decompose through
bacterial action and return to solution as nutrients, reusable by plants in photosynthesis.

The suspended particulate matter has a noticeable effect on the seawater chemistry.
The particles may exchange some of their cations or anions with those dissolved in the
water. They also provide surfaces on which some dissolved materials may precipitate out of
solution and from which other materials may be dissolved into solution. The composition are
conveniently grouped into four broad categories.
a. Major constituents
b. Dissolved gases
c. Nutrients or dissolved organic matter
d. Trace elements

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Dissolved components of Sea water
A. Major constituents
According to Cuckin (1968) major constituents are those which makes a significant
contribution to measure salinity. Wilson (1975) classifieds major constituents as the
elements present at concentration greater than 1ppm/1mg/kg. Major constituents comprise
about 99.7% of all the dissolved materials. Major dissolved components of Sea water for a
salinity of 35%

Ion Concentration Percent Free

g/kg mMa Ion

Cl- 19.354 558 100

Na+ 10.77 479 98
Mg++ 1.290 54.3 89
SO4-- 2.712 28.9 39
Ca++ 0.412 10.5 88
K+ 0.399 10.4 98
HCO3-b 0.12 2.0 80

A.1. Primary are Cl- (55.04%) and Na+ (30.61%) which make up 85.65% of all the dissolved
constituents.
2. Adding the next four most abundant major elements are (SO42- ,Mg2+ , Ca2+ and K+ )
which brings the total to >99% of the salts.
3. Finally the last five (HCO3- ,Br- ,H3BO3, Sr2+ ,F-) brings the total to >99.99%.
4. Almost all of the 92 naturally occurring elements are found in the ocean.
5. Although the other components are a very small % of the dissolved materials they are
essential for life on Earth.
b. Seven dissolved constituents, in order of decreasing abundance.

Constituent

Cl- 19.2

Na+ 10.7

SO42- 2.5

Mg2+ 1.3

90
 Ca2+ 0.4

K+ 0.4

HCO3- 0.1

C. Other Elements in Seawater

Element Chemical Form Average Concentration
at 35%
Ag silver AgCl-2 25 pmol/kg++
Al Aluminium Al(OH)-4 20nmol/kg
Ar argon Ar (gas)
As Arsenic AsO4H2- 23nmol/kg

B Boron B(OH)3 0.42mmol/kg

Ba Barium Ba2+ 100nmol/kg
Be beryllium BeOH+, Be(OH) ° 2 20 pmol/kg
Bi Bismuth BiO+ ,Bi (OH)+2 0.01-0.2 pmol/kg
Br Bromine Br- 0.84mmol/kg
C Carbon Co3+ H-, organic C 2.3mmol/kg
Ca Calcium Ca2+ 10.3mmol/kg
Cd Cadmium CdCl ° 2 0.7nmol/kg
Ce Cerium CeCO+3, Ce3+, CeCl2+ 20 pmol/kg
Cl Chlorine Cl- 0.546 mol/kg
Co Cobalt Co2+,CoCO3 ° , CoCl+ 0.02nmol/kg
Cr Chromium CrO2-4, NaCrO4 4nmol/kg
Cs Cesium Cs+ 2.2nmol/kg
Cu Copper CuCo ° 3 ,CuOH+, Cu2+ 4nmol/kg
F Fluorine F-, MgF+ 68 µ mol/kg
Fe Iron Fe(OH) ° 3 1 nmol/kg
Ga Gallium Ga(OH)-4 ?
Ge Germanium Ge(OH)4, H3Geo-4 70 pmol/kg
H Hydrogen H2O
He He(gas)
helium

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Dissolved gases in sea water
Gases in seawater include nitrogen (N 2), Oxygen (O2), Carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrogen(H2), and the noble gases argon(Ar),neon (Ne), and helium (He). Nitrogen and the
three noble gases are inert (unreactive) and rarely involve directly in plant photosynthesis. In
contrast, levels of dissolved (O2) and (CO2) are greatly influenced by photosynthesis and
respiration of organisms. Therefore they vary greatly in space and time depending on the
activities of plants and animals and are regarded as non conservative.

Gas In Dry Air (%) In Surface Ocean Water-Air Ratio

Water (%)
Nitrogen (N2) 78.03 47.5 0:6
Oxygen(O2) 20.99 36.0 1:7
Carbon dioxide(CO2) 0.03 15.1 5.03:3
Argon (Ar), hydrogen(H2), 0.95 1.4 1:5
neon (Ne) and helium (He)

Trace elements in sea water

Trace elements are all chemical ingredients that occur in minute quantities in the
ocean. Most trace elements, such as manganese (Mn), Lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), gold (Au),
iodine(I), and iron (Fe), occur in concentrations of less than 1 ppm (part per million). Many
occur in quantities of less than 1 part per billion (ppb) and even at 1 part per trillion. These
low concentrations make certain trace elements difficult and sometimes even impossible to
detect in seawater. However, despite their extremely low concentrations, trace elements can
be critically important for marine organisms, Trace elements either help to promote life or kill
life (toxicity).
List of trace Elements
Trace Element Concentration(ppb)*
Lithium(Li) 170
Iodine (I) 60
Molybdenum (Mo) 10
Zinc (Zn) 10
Iron (Fe) 10
Aluminium (Al) 10
Copper(Cu) 3
Manganese(Mn) 2

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 Cobalt (Co) 0.1
Lead (Pb) 0.03
Mercury (Hg) 0.03
Gold(Au) 0.004
*ppb – Parts per billion

Constancy of composition
Salinity determinations from the world’s oceans have revealed an important, finding
that although salinity varies quite a bit because of differences in the total amount of
dissolved salts, the relative proportions of the major constituents are constant. In other
words the ratio of any two major constituents dissolved in seawater, such as Na +/K+ or
Cl-/SO42-, is a fixed value, whether the salinity is 25, 30, 35%, or whatever. To put it in more
familiar terms, let’s imagine that the ratio of females to males in a population is 1:4 (1 female
for every 4 males) and that this ratio never changes regardless of population size. This
means that the total number of people in the population can vary but the relative proportion
of females to males does not change. In other words, the ratio of females to males is
constant and is independent of population size. Just so, the ratio of any two major salt
constituents in ocean water is constant and is independent of salinity. This is called
constancy of composition.

This important discovery, made during the Glomar challenger expedition is termed
the principle of constant proportion or constant composition, and was a major breakthrough
in determining salinity of sea water in a rapid, accurate, and economical manner. In theory,
all that need be done to quantify salinity is to measure the amount of only a single major ion
dissolved in a sample of sea water, because all the other major constituents occur in fixed
amounts relative to that ion. Chemists chose to measure Cl- for determining the salinity of
sea water, because it is the most abundant solute in sea water and its concentration is easily
determined. Actually, elements in the halogen family, which include chlorine, bromine,
iodine, and fluorine, are difficult to distinguish analytically from one another. Therefore,
chemists determine, not merely the Cl- content, but the chlorinity, that is, the total quantity of
halogens dissolved in water, expressed as g/kg (%). It is then simple matter to convert
chlorinity to salinity by the given formula

Salinity (%)= 1.80655 x chlorinity (%)

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Today, oceanographers rely on a variety of methods, including the electrical conductivity of
sea-water, to make routine determinations of salinity.

Artificial seawater
Artificial seawater of 33 ppt was prepared by dissolving 3.5 kg of sea salt crystals in
100 1 of fresh water along with 100 g of calcium chloride and 10 g of sodium bicarbonate.
The next day the solution was filtered and the PH was adjusted to that of natural seawater
with 0.1 N NaOH. Artificial seawater is used mostly for small aquarium research projects
that need a highly repeatable and predictable seawater sources or inland systems where
there is little choice. The advantage of artificial seawater is that it has a defined composition
with reduced risk of chemical and biological contamination. Artificial seawater systems often
work quite well, especially if operated very conservatively. However for some specialized
applications such as the hatchery phases of delicate organisms, there may be some
problems due to complex interactions of seawater and organisms which are presently poorly
understood (Huguenin and colt, 1989). Artificial seawater formulations that are useable with
animals may not be suitable for plants.

Dissolved Gases in Sea water

Carbon Dioxide and Carbonate cycles
Carbon dioxide has the most complicated behaviour of all the gases in seawater. It occurs
as a dissolved gas and in several other chemical forms. It is highly soluble in seawater. The
carbon dioxide enter the sea from the atmosphere and respiration of plants and animals in
the ocean. When carbon dioxide (gas) dissolves, it forms a weak acid (H 2CO3), which acts
as a buffer to stabilize the acidity of seawater. (Acidity is another way of expressing the
abundance of hydrogen ions in water.)

Addition of acid (H+) creates more bicarbonate, which combines with acids to keep
the acidity of the mixture unchanged. Thus respiration and decomposition processes
producing carbon dioxide hardly affect the acidity of seawater, nor does removal of carbon
dioxide during photosynthesis. Carbonate and bicarbonate freely give up and accept
hydrogen ions in sea water, thus creating a buffer against sharp changes in acidity. Because
of its complex chemical behaviour, carbon dioxide is involved in many processes in the
ocean.

Alkalinity
Alkalinity or AT is a measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to
the equivalence point of carbonate or bicarbonate. Alkalinity is closely related to the acid

94
neutralizing capacity (ANC) of a solution and ANC is often incorrectly used to refer to
alkalinity. The alkalinity is equal to the stoichiometric sum of the bases in solution. In the
natural environment carbonate alkalinity tends to make up most of the total alkalinity due to
the common occurrence and dissolution of carbonate rocks and presence of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. Other common natural components that can contribute to
alkalinity include borate, hydroxide, phosphate, silicate, nitrate, dissolved ammonia, the
conjugate bases of some organic acids and sulfide.

Theoretical treatment of alkalinity

In typical ground water or sea water the measured alkalinity is set to be equal to:
AT = [HCO3−]T + 2[CO3−2]T + [B(OH)4−]T + [OH−]T + 2[PO4−3]T + [HPO4−2]T + [SiO(OH)3−]T −
[H+]sws − [HSO4−]
(Subscript T indicates the total concentration of the species in the solution as measured.
This is opposite to the free concentration, which takes into account the significant amount
of ion pair interactions that occur in seawater.)

Alkalinity can be measured by titrating a sample with a strong acid until all the
buffering capacity of the aforementioned ions above the pH of bicarbonate or carbonate is
consumed. This point is functionally set to pH 4.5. At this point, all the bases of interest have
been protonated to the zero level species, hence they no longer cause alkalinity. For
example, the following reactions take place during the addition of acid to a typical seawater
solution:
HCO3− + H+ → CO2 + H2O
CO3−2 + 2H+ → CO2 + H2O
B(OH)4− + H+ → B(OH)3 + H2O
OH− + H+ → H2O
PO4−3 + 2H+ → H2PO4−
HPO4−2 + H+ → H2PO4−
[SiO(OH)3−] + H+ → [Si(OH)40]

It can be seen from the above protonation reactions that most bases consume one
proton (H+) to become a neutral species, thus increasing alkalinity by one per equivalent.
CO3−2 however, will consume two protons before becoming a zero level species (CO2), thus
it increases alkalinity by two per mole of CO 3−2. [H+] and [HSO4−] decrease alkalinity, as they
act as sources of protons. They are often represented collectively as [H+]T.

95
 Alkalinity is typically reported as mg/l as CaCO3. This can be converted into
milliEquivalents per liter (mEq/l) by dividing by 50 (the approximate MW of CaCO3/2).

Factors influencing the composition of seawater

Inorganic agencies affecting composition of sea water
Inflow of river water, freezing and melting of sea ice, biological activity and exchange
of substances with the atmosphere are the factors which affect the composition of sea
water. Along the shores, spray is swept up in to the air. Through this spray the dissolved
salts in the water are removed from the sea to the atmosphere.
E.g. the chloride in the water are carried away in to the atmosphere. It is evidenced by the
observation of chloride content in air near ocean in range between 0.07 and 0.5mg km of
air. The exchange of dissolved gases and nitrogen compounds also modify the quantity of
these substance in sea water.

Effects of Rivers on the composition of sea water

Rivers contribute about 2.73 No9 x 109 metric tons of dissolved solids. River water
contains higher concentrations of phosphate and nitrogen compounds and it draws in to the
sea. River also drains the leached out salts from the rock and higher carbon dioxide
compounds are also added by the rivers in to the sea. River water also adds ions like,
CO3, So4, Cl-, NO3-, Ca++, mg++, Na+, K+, Sio2.

Effects of formation and melting of sea ice:

Rivers contribute about 2.73 No9 x 109 metric tons of dissolved solids. River water
contains higher concentrations of phosphate and nitrogen compounds and it draws in to the
sea. River also drains the leached out salts from the rock and higher carbon dioxide
compounds are also added by the rivers in to the sea. River water also adds ions like,
CO3, So4, Cl-, NO3-, Ca++, mg++, Na+, K+, Sio2. The formation of ice has pronounced effect
upon the relative composition of the salts in the water.

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 Unit 7: Distribution of Phosphorous, Nitrogen, Silicates and
Managanes in seawater

Chapter 1: Distribution of phosphorus

Nutrients in Sea water
Near surface nutrient concentration in seawater is as follows
Nutrient Concentration (ppm)
Phosphorus (P) 0.07
Nitrogen(N) 0.5
Silicon(Si) 3

Nutrients are essential for plant growth. All plants, including those that live in the
ocean, convert nutrients into food(organic compounds such as sugar) by photosynthesis.
Nutrients in seawater are compounds that consist primarily of nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P),
and silicon (Si). Representative concentrations of these nutrients in the ocean are listed in
the above Table 1. The concentrations are specified in parts per million (ppm). Most plants
cannot use elemental nitrogen and phosphorus and satisfy their nutrient needs by absorbing
phosphate (PO3-4) and nitrate (NO3-). Silicon is used by important groups of microscopic
plants (diatoms) and animals (radiolarian).Because of biological uptake and release, the
concentrations of nutrients in seawater, as on land, vary from place to place and over time at
any one place. Hence, Oceanographers refer to these substances as non-conservative ions
of seawater, signifying that levels of these substances are not constant in water, but vary
over time and from place to place. Limiting nutrient is a missing nutrient among three
nutrients needed. For seawater it is nitrogen and for freshwater it is phosphorous.

Phosphorus

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 Phosphorus is an essential element to all life forms. It is a structural and functional
component of all organisms. It provides phosphate ester backbone of DNA and RNA. Marine
organisms contain phosphorus in the form of orthophosphoric acid in complex organic
compounds such as phosphor proteins, nucleo proteins, nucleic acids, and phospholipids.
The turnover rate of phosphorus in the surface layers is quite rapid. In the upper layers of
the oceans chemical decomposition of simple excretory products may occur, by bacterial
decomposition of simple excretory products. Bacterial decomposition of organic debris and
organic compounds is the most important regenerative process. The phosphorus
regeneration rate is thus a function of water temperature and the phytoplankton population.
Laboratory experiments have shown that 35 to 55 percent reduction of plankton to
phosphate can occur in 17 to 35 days, very little organic phosphate is found in the oceans
below 300m.

The above figure shows the vertical distribution of phosphate in the various oceans.
The four layers described previously are clearly visible. In the Atlantic Ocean, water below
about 1000m exhibits a decrease in phosphate as one move from south to north. The
maximum phosphate concentrations are found at about 1000m depth in the Atlantic Ocean.
In the Pacific Ocean maximum phosphate concentrations (0.33ppm) are found north of the
equator. The Antarctic areas contain about 0.19ppm phosphate at all depths.

The phosphate in the phototrophic regions of the oceans is normally depleted

somewhat during spring and summer because of phytoplankton growth. Death of the
organisms, with subsequent phosphorus regeneration, increases the concentration later in
this season.

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Seasonal variation of phosphate
It is observed that phosphate is found in high values during winter and lowest during
summer season due to phytoplankton growth. Phosphorous is present in sea only in
inorganic form i.e. phosphate. About 50% of the total phosphorous in sea occurs in upper
60m of sea. Phosphorous are found in organisms in particulate and dissolved organic
compounds and as phosphate forms phosphorous is utilized by plants and they are released
in to the atmosphere during decomposition of the organic matter.
It is also found that
1. All utilization of phosphate takes place in upper 60m of Ocean.
2. That all downward transport of phosphorous is due to settling of organisms
3. That the upward transport of phosphorous is all due to eddy diffusion.
4. Phosphorous availability have impaction primary production rates.

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Chapter 2: Distribution of Nitrogen compounds

Nitrate in Oceans
Nitrate in the oceans, is the end product of decomposition of organic nitrogen.
Decomposition proceeds through organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrite and nitrate in successive
stages. Plankton utilizes all the inorganic nitrogen forms for their live processes and
especially during spring and summer they tend to deplete the inorganic nitrogen supply in
surface waters. Regeneration of nitrogen is accomplished mainly by bacterial action
although some chemical breakdown does occur.

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 Nitrate is found at all depths in the oceans in higher concentrations than the other
forms of nitrogen. Maximum nitrate concentrations are found at greater depths than that of
phosphorus, which suggests that nitrate generation is somewhat faster than that of
phosphorus.

The distributions of nitrate and of phosphate are quite similar in the oceans. Figure 1
gives the nitrate distribution with depth for the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocenas. It is
apparent from figure that the nitrate concentrations in the Atlantic Ocean are much lower
than those in either the Indian or Pacific oceans. The Antarctic Ocean has about twice the
nitrate concentration of Atlantic Ocean.
All deep waters of the Atlantic Ocean are relatively rich in nitrate while the surface
waters of the South Atlantic are generally richer in nitrates than surface waters of the North
Atlantic. The Northern Pacific Ocean waters are higher in nitrates than the Southern Pacific
waters. In the Antarctic Ocean the nitrate concentrations may reach 0.5ppm, but surface
waters in the tropical areas are nearly devoid of both phosphate and nitrate. The table shows
the variation in nitrate along the 30°W longitude line and points out clearly the high polar
nitrate concentrations compared to the small nitrate concentrations found in the tropical
surface waters.

Ammonium concentrations are most pronounced in the surface waters of the oceans
but never are as high as the concentrations of nitrates. Surface waters contain their
maximum amount of ammonium during winter. During the spring the minimum ammonium
concentrations occurs; in fact, there may be complete depletion. In deep ocean layers
ammonium, concentrations are around 0.002 ppm. Since ammonium compounds are a
result of the first step in the decomposition of organic nitrogen, it is reasonable that the
maximum concentrations would occur in winter. Except for anoxic basins, such as the
Cariaco Basin, ammonia does not occur in significant quantities below the euphotic zone in
the deep oceans.

Nitrite is found in very low concentrations in the oceans (on the order of a few
milligrams per cubic meter) and almost entirely nil in the surface layers, the maximum nitrite
being found at depth somewhere between 100 and 300m. Maximum nitrite concentrations
are usually found just below the photic zone.

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Chapter 3: Distribution of Silicates and Manganese

Silicates
Silica is required as a nutrient by all organisms, but it is especially necessary for the
formation of skeletons for many diatoms and some other organisms. Regeneration of silica
appears to be due to chemical rather than bacterial action. Silica that has passed through
the digestive tract of some marine organism seems to be broken down much faster than
silica not subjected to an organism’s digestive processes. Turnover time for silica is not
known but some estimates indicate that the turnover rate is faster than for phosphate and
nitrate.

Silica concentrations vary widely in the oceans. The variation in frustules-forming

diatom populations and the difference between the regeneration processes for silica and for
phosphate and nitrate cause silica distribution to differ somewhat from distribution for
phosphate and nitrate. The vertical distribution of silica is shown for the various oceans in
figure. In upper layers where silica is used by biological organisms, concentrations of less
than 0.014ppm are often found. Deep waters of the North Atlantic Ocean contains about
0.98ppm silica, while North Pacific contain much more, about 4.8ppm. Deep water in the
Antarctic Ocean and the Indian Ocean contains about 3.4ppm. Generally there is no
intermediate ocean depth at which a maximum silica concentrations occurs, as there is with
phosphate and nitrate. The concentration of silica increases with increasing depth in deep
waters.

Variation of silicon
The reduction of silicon in the surface layer is the result of biological activity and the
sinking of the organisms of the skeletal remains. Diatoms accumulate silicon from the sea

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and is returned to the sea after death of the organism. The skeletal remains forms
permanent constituent of the sediments. Siliceous sediments in form of diatom are found in
higher latitudes and in other regions, radiolarian skeletons form the major portion of the
sediments.

Manganese
Manganese occurs in sea water usually as a divalent ion. Particulate manganese is
not found in the sea except in surface waters. Although manganese has been proven to be
necessary for growth of various phytoplankton species, it is found in very low concentrations
in the sea, usually ranging from less than 0.001 to about 0.01ppm.

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