Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Solutions of problems

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem AA . . . quick pasta

Honza is cooking pasta for dinner in his dorm room. He has at his disposal a cooker of power P1 =
= 1 200 W and a kettle of power P2 = 2 200 W. What is the shortest time in which he is able to
heat half a liter of water from 20 ◦C to 100 ◦C? Honza was in a hurry to get dinner ready.
First, let us determine how long it would take a theoretical appliance of power P = P1 + P2
Q Q Q
P = ⇒ t= = ,
t P P1 + P2
where Q is the heat required for heating the water and t is the time in which the water is
able to be heated by the theoretical appliance. We can consider that we only have this one
theoretical appliance, because if we divided the water in such a way that it would start to boil
faster in one appliance than in the other one, we wouldn’t be using the power at our disposal
wisely.1
To calculate the required heat, we use the following equation

Q = mcwater ∆T ,

where m = V ρwater is the mass of half a liter of water, ∆T is the temperature difference between
the final and initial state of water, so ∆T = 100 ◦C − 20 ◦C = 80 ◦C and cwater is the specific
heat capacity of water.
Combining the two previous equations, we obtain
V ρwater cwater ∆T .
t= = 49 s .
P1 + P2

David Škrob
[email protected]

Problem AB . . . more panic on the escalators

We are riding up an escalator moving at speed u = 0.75 m·s−1 . When we are at two-thirds
of its total length s, we suddenly realize that we need to get back down as fast as possible.
What is the minimum speed we would need to run at, for it to be faster to turn around and
run down the escalator, rather than to run up to the top of and then run down the escalator
moving in the opposite direction? Ignore the people on the escalators and the run-over time at
the top. Karel was still thinking about what to do.
If we decide at two-thirds of the escalator to return down, we have two options: either run the
same distance against the motion of the escalator or run four-thirds of the distance s in the
direction of the moving stairs (one-third up and the whole staircase back down).
1
We can also imagine that once the water starts to boil in one of the appliances, we pour some of it
in the other one. This way, we are always using the full power, which is when the time will be the shortest.

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

When running against the stairs, our velocity relative to the surroundings is w1 = v − u.
When running in the direction of the stairs, our velocity is w2 = v + u. For it to be faster to
turn around and run down directly, the following inequality must hold

t1 < t2 ,
2 4
3
s 3
s
< ,
w1 w2
1 2
< ,
v−u v+u
v + u < 2v − 2u ,
.
v > 3u = 2.3 m·s−1 .

Therefore, to get back down as quickly as possible, it is worth turning around if we run
faster than three times the speed of the escalator, that is 2.3 m·s−1 (or 8.1 km·h−1 ).
Karel Kolář
[email protected]

Problem AC . . . gasoline magic

Three FYKOS members went on a trip to Vienna. While estimating the price of gasoline, they
had a disagreement. The physicist’s estimation was 1 500 Kč, while the computer scientist’s
was 2 665 Kč. After an intense discussion, it became clear that the computer scientist did
the following calculation: he took the distance to Vienna in kilometers, divided it by the
consumption of the car in liters per 100 km and multiplied it by the price of gasoline, 30 Kč per
liter, conjuring up utter nonsense.
The physicist, completely baffled as to how he could come up with a lower estimate than
the computer scientist, even when assuming the price of gasoline was 40 Kč per liter, quickly
found the error. Although they disagreed on the calculation method, they both coincidentally
estimated the same consumption for the car. What is the car’s fuel consumption in liters
per 100 km? Radek was interrogated regarding his calculations.
Let us denote Σ the computer scientist’s estimate, σ the physicist’s estimate, s the distance to
Vienna and V the car’s consumption per 100 km. For Σ and σ the following holds
s
Σ = 30 ,
V
40
σ= sV .
100
Let us now express the distance to Vienna s from both equations
1
s= ΣV ,
30
100 σ
s= .
40 V

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

The resulting equations can now be put into an equation, expressing V as

1 100 σ
ΣV = ,
30 40 V
q
σ
V = 75 .
Σ
Now by simple substitution and rounding we get
.
V = 6.5 l·(100 km)−1 .

Petr Sacher
[email protected]

Problem AD . . . slow down, slow down!

We want to stop a car on a flat surface at a distance of d = 50.0 m. We know that the car’s
wheels do not slip only when its acceleration is less than a = 0.780g. What is the highest
velocity the car can travel at to stop in time?
Karel thought that a classic would be a good place to start.
Firstly, if the car’s wheels were slipping, the braking effect would be diminished, meaning the
car would brake with the maximum specified acceleration a. The maximum deceleration occurs
when the car maintains this acceleration throughout. Now, we want the car to stop within
a distance shorter than d. Therefore, the following inequality must hold
1 2
d> at .
2
The braking time is simply r
2d
t< .
a
The maximum velocity the car can have before braking begins is
√ . .
v = at = 2da = 27.7 m·s−1 = 99.6 km·h−1 .

Therefore, if the car starts decelerating optimally 50 meters from the obstacle and can
decelerate with an acceleration of 0.780g, it will be able to stop if its speed is below 99.6 km·h−1 .
Karel Kolář
[email protected]

Problem AE . . . deeply they wave

Pepa sailed his private yacht during the holidays to watch the waves. He noticed that far
from the coast – in the so-called deep water – the effect of water depth is not significant. It
can therefore be assumed that the angular frequency of the waves ω depends solely on the
gravitational acceleration g and the wavelength λ. Deduce what this dependence should look
like, i.e., find the real numbers α and β such that ω = Cg α λβ , where C represents some
dimensionless constant. The relation obtained is equivalent to the so-called dispersion relation
for waves in deep water. Pepa was bored in Croatia.

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

The dispersion relation is the relationship between the wavelength λ and the angular fre-
quency ω. According to the assignment, we do not assume that ω depends on the depth
of the water but only on the specified quantities, i.e., the wavelength λ and the gravitational
acceleration g.
The principle of dimensional analysis is that on both sides of the equation for ω, the terms
must have the same unit, so in this case, Hz = s−1 .
Suppose the relationship is in the form

ω = Cg α λβ ,

where C is some dimensionless constant that we cannot determine by dimensional analysis.

For this expression to be meaningful, we must find the numbers α and β so that the units on
the right-hand and left-hand sides of the equation are the same. Symbolically, for the units
(without the constant C), we write the following

m0 ·s−1 = mα ·s−2α ·mβ .

Here, we symbolically write m0 = 1 on the right-hand side because meters do not appear in
the unit for ω. By comparing the exponents of seconds, we obtain the algebraic equation −1 =
= −2α, and for meters, 0 = α + β. Solving this simple system, we find α = 1/2 and β = −1/2.
Thus, (without the constant), it must hold that
q
g
ω∝ .
λ
For the record, if we were to solve the wave equation using the appropriate simplifications
within Airy’s linearized theory, we would get the exact relationship (including the constant)
for waves on water of depth h ≫ λ/2
r
2πg
ω= .
λ
We can see that the relationship is nonlinear, which leads to the dependence of the wave ve-
locity factor on the wavelength (the so-called dispersion). More precisely, the following relation
holds r
2πg 2πh
ω= tanh ,
λ λ
where in deep water, we neglect the hyperbolic tangent as tanh (2πh/λ) ≈ 1. Thus, we see that
waves of different lengths (at least within the approximation) move at different speeds, whether
they originate from gravity, surface tension, or other possible factors.
Josef Trojan
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem AF . . . calculating friction

We place a block of mass M = 5.5 kg on the table and connect it with a rope and pulley to
a block of mass m = 1.1 kg hanging next to the table. The coefficient of static friction between
the block on the table and the table is fs = 0.47, and the coefficient of dynamic friction is fd =
= 0.27. The blocks are initially at rest. How large will the frictional force between the block
and the table be? Lego thinks there has never been a catch like this before.
The key idea for solving this problem is that the equation Ft = f Fn describes the maximal pos-
sible frictional force, which works against the direction of motion. Therefore, when everything
is stationary, the force is just large enough for everything to stay stationary.
.
In our case, the maximal possible frictional force is Ft-max = fs M g = 25 N. However, the
.
block is pulled to the side with force Fk = mg = 11 N < Ft-max , which makes the frictional
force Ft = Fk . If the force were any larger, it would put the block in motion in the opposite
direction, which is not how friction works because it would immediately have to reverse its
direction.
The block remains stationary because Fk < Ft-max and friction is able to hold it in place.
The answer to the problem is that the frictional force is 11 N.
Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem AG . . . carbon emissions zero

Fykosaurus was captivated by the majestic cooling towers as he flew around the Temelín nuclear
power plant. From all the towers combined, water vapor was escaping at a volumetric flow rate
of Q. A moment later, Fykosaurus flew past the coal-fired power plant, where the cooling towers
were also emitting steam at a volume flow of Q. Fykosaurus wondered: how many times more
mass of coal must be burned in the coal power plant compared to the mass of uranium-235
that undergoes fission in the nuclear power plant to evaporate the same amount of water? The
average usable energy released from the fission of a single uranium-235 nucleus is 200 MeV.
The molar mass of the uranium-235 isotope is 235 g·mol−1 . The maximum calorific value of
black coal is 30 MJ·kg−1 . Assume that all thermal energy generated in the power plant is used
to evaporate water. The water is heated from a temperature of 20 ◦C in both power plants.
Neglect the change in specific heat capacity of water with increasing temperature.
This problem is brought to you by the CEZ Group.
Jindra would rather carry a gram of uranium to the power plant than a ton of coal.
The energy released per unit mass of uranium-235 isotopes is
EU NA E0
HU = = ,
mU M235
where E0 = 200 MeV = 3.20 · 10−11 J is the average extractable energy released during the
decay of a uranium-235 nucleus, M235 is the molar mass of the uranium-235 isotope, and NA =
= 6.022 · 1023 mol−1 is the Avogadro’s constant, which can be found in the list of constants.
From the problem statement, we know that the energy released when combusting a unit
weight of good quality coal is
Ec
Hc = = 30 MJ·kg−1 .
mc

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

To heat up a given amount of water, EU = Ec must hold

NA E0
mU = Hc mc ,
M235
mc NA E0 .
= = 2.7 · 106 .
mU M235 Hc
The mass of coal required for the vaporization of water is 2.7 · 106 times greater than the mass
of the uranium-235 isotope.
Jindřich Jelínek
[email protected]

Problem AH . . . pressure in an enclosed tube

Consider an enclosed U-tube with a constant cross-section S. Its ends are at different heights,
their difference being ∆h. The tube contains only water and an air bubble with a volume of V ,
which is in the “shorter end” of the tube in the beginning. We measure the pressure on the
bottom of the tube. Then we rotate the tube (without opening it) and let the air bubble move
to the longer end. Afterwards we return the U-tube to its original position and once again
measure the pressure at the bottom of the tube. How has the pressure changed? You can
assume that the air stays at a constant temperature, that the bubble always settles down in
the vertical part of the tube, and that the walls of the U-tube are perfectly rigid.
Lego found it on YouTube.
Considering that the water does not change its volume much and the walls of the tube are
perfectly solid, meaning that the tube does not change its volume, the air will not change its
volume either, because its volume is given by the difference between the volume of the tube
and the water in it. At the same time, we assume that the air temperature does not change
and considering that the tube is closed, the amount of air in the tube cannot change either.
From the equation of state of the air in the tube

pV = nRT ,

we see that we already know that everything except the pressure are constants. Therefore, the
pressure must also remain constant at all times; otherwise, the equation of state would not
always be satisfied.
Let us denote the pressure in the air bubble by p0 . Then the pressure at the bottom of the
U-tube will be p0 , to which we have to add the hydrostatic pressure from the column of water
between the bottom of the bubble and the bottom of the U-tube, which is p0 + h1 ρg. Since
we are only interested in the difference between this pressure at two different positions of the
bubble, p0 is canceled out and only the difference of hydrostatic pressures remains.
Since the volume of the bubble does not change and the cross-section of the tube is constant,
the height of the bubble itself will be the same in both cases. The pressure under the longer
end is therefore p2 = p0 + h2 ρg, where the hydrostatic pressure is caused by the column of
water h2 in the longer end. It is now higher by ∆h than when the bubble was in the shorter
end, so h2 − h1 = ∆h.

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Thus the pressure will be greater in the second case (when the bubble is in the longer end
of the tube) and will be greater by exactly
∆p = p2 − p1 = p0 + h2 ρg − (p0 + h1 ρg) = ∆hρg .

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem BA . . . fuel cell

A fuel cell is a device that produces electric- U
ity from fuel through electrochemical reac- mV
tions. In the current effort to switch to re-
newable energy sources, we may hear about 1 000
hydrogen fuel cells, which would use hydro-
gen H2 reacting with atmospheric oxygen to
produce water and electricity. Such a de-
500
vice acts as a source of electric current and
voltage, where both quantities are linked by
a polarization curve. Since fuel cells can
vary in size, the current is expressed as the 0
0 300 600 900 1 200
current density j, which represents the cur-
j
rent per unit area of the cell. Using the graph, determine the maximum −2 surface power density
mA·cm
that the given fuel cell can provide, with a tolerance of ±20 mW·cm−2 .
Jarda promotes electrochemistry across all competitions.
We can express the surface power density (or surface power for short) of a power source as P =
= U j, where U is the voltage across the cell. In the graph, we plotted the dependence of the
voltage on the current density, so we have both required quantities. Thus, we just need to
multiply them for several points on the graph and submit the highest value as the solution to
the problem.
At the edges of the graph, the surface power is zero because either the voltage or the current
density is zero. We can suspect that the curve will only have one maximum. Let’s successively
substitute for chosen points on the graph. For 300 mA·cm−2 , the voltage is about 830 mV,
which corresponds to about 250 mW·cm−2 . For 600 mA·cm−2 the voltage is about 700 mV,
which corresponds to about 420 mW·cm−2 , which is significantly more. For 900 mA·cm−2 ,
a power output is about 500 mW·cm−2 . So, the maximum will be somewhere around this value
of current density. At 1 100 mA·cm−2 the power is again significantly lower, so we can expect
the maximum to be between 700 mA·cm−2 and 1 000 mA·cm−2 . Let’s try 750 mA·cm−2 , where
we estimate the voltage to be 640 mV, which leads to about 480 mW·cm−2 . For 800 mA·cm−2 ,
this is then about the same value, at 850 mA·cm−2 we estimate the voltage to be 580 mW,
which leads to 490 mW·cm−2 .
The maximal calculated surface power was 500 mW·cm−2 at 900 mA·cm−2 . The analytically
calculated maximum for our function is 495 mW·cm−2 for 883 mA·cm−2 . We can see that in
just a few steps, we have gotten very close to the correct result, which is (495 ± 20) mW·cm−2
within the tolerance interval.
Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Table 1: Values taken from the graph.

j U P
mA·cm−2 mV mW·cm−2
300 830 250
600 700 420
900 550 500
1 000 480 480
1 100 370 410
750 640 480
800 600 480
850 580 490

Problem BB . . . microscopic expansion

The movement of the tip in the scanning tunneling microscope can be controlled with an
accuracy of 0.10 Å (where Å indicates the unit of angstrom; 1 Å = 10−10 m) in the direction
perpendicular to the sample surface. What could be the maximal value of the coefficient of
thermal expansion for a tip holder whose length is 300 μm, so that when the holder’s temperature
changes by 0.10 K, the change in the position of the tip is not greater than the above-mentioned
accuracy? This holder, like the tip itself, stands perpendicular to the surface. The Nobel
Prize for the invention of scanning tunneling microscope was awarded almost 40 years ago.
For a small range of temperature change ∆T , the change in length can be expressed using a
linear relationship
∆l = l0 α∆T ,
where l0 is the original length and α is the temperature expansion coefficient that we are trying
to find. Everything happens on a straight line, perpendicular to the surface of the sample. It is
therefore possible to express α and substitute the quantities from the problem statement
∆l 0.01 nm .
α= = = 3.3 · 10−7 K−1 .
l0 ∆T 300 μm · 0.1 K
The resulting value of α is low compared to commonly available materials. The holder must be
made from a suitable material and the temperature needs to be stabilized during the measure-
ments. Alternatively, the change in length can also be corrected electronically. An atomic scale
resolution can be achieved in this microscope, which allows us to study the electronic structure
of the individual atoms on the surface.
Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

Problem BC . . . exploring extraterrestrial puddles

A probe in the shape of a rectangular cuboid with a mass of m lands on a completely unknown
planet. It lands in an unknown fluid and remains floating in it so that it is submerged to a
depth of h and its base S is horizontal. The probe manages to measure that the pressure at
its bottom base is p and that the atmospheric pressure is negligible. It also measures that the

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

density of the fluid in which it is submerged increases linearly with depth (at least to the depth
to which the probe is submerged). What is the planet’s gravitational acceleration?
Lego simply wanted a pressure-based Archimedes problem.
The buoyancy force is just the sum of all the compressive forces acting on the body. The forces
exerted by the fluid pushing against the side walls of the probe cancel each other out. Thus, we
will only talk about the difference in pressure on the upper and lower bases. Since the assign-
ment states that the atmospheric pressure is negligible, there is no pressure acting on the top
base of the probe, leaving us with just the bottom base. The bottom base has the area S and
the pressure acting on the surface is equal to p, so the force is equal to Fp = Sp, which is,
therefore also the magnitude of the resulting buoyancy force. The gravitational force acting on
the probe must be of the same magnitude, and since we know the mass of the probe, we simply
determine the gravitational acceleration as gn = Fg /m = Sp/m.
Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem BD . . . stretching a pulley

In a room of height h = 300 cm, a spring of rest length l0 = 20 cm and a stiffness of k = 50 N·m−1
hangs from the ceiling. At its end is suspended a massless pulley of radius r = 10 cm, attached
by its center. Over the pulley we throw an inelastic massless rope of length L = 400 cm
and secure both ends to the ground (so that it hangs vertically). What is the force applied
on the rope? Lego wanted to steal this problem statement, but then no one else used it.
First, we need to calculate the elongation of the spring. There is πr of the rope wound on the
pulley and the rest is divided into two identical hlaves, which run vertically downwards. Thus,
the centre of the pulley is located at the height
L − πr
h1 =
2
above the ground. The length of the spring is therefore h − h1 , and hence the extension of the
spring is h − h1 − l0 .
From this we calculate the force exerted by the spring on the pulley upwards as
 
L − πr
Fk = k h − l0 − .
2
This force is distributed evenly on both sides of the rope, therefore the rope will be strained by
the force  
k L − πr .
FT = h − l0 − = 24 N .
2 2

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem BE . . . conductance quantum

Perhaps you have heard of Planck’s units, where physical units are defined using only the
universal constants c, G, kB and ℏ. If we include the elementary charge e, we could further
extend the list of possible units. Interestingly, some units defined in this way appear in various
physical theorems. One such unit is the “Planck’s” conductance (not to be confused with
conductivity, which is conductance per unit length). Your task is to find the value of Planck’s
conductance in SI units, which appears, for example, in the quantum tunneling theorem.
Jarda wanted to devise a problem for dimensional analysis and just encountered this.
Let’s use the so-called dimensional analysis to solve this problem. In this process, we look at
the units of the quantities available to us (c, G, kB , ℏ and e) and combine them in such a way
that the resulting unit is the same as the unit of the quantity we are looking for.
In SI units, the units of the given quantities are the following

[c] = m·s−1 ,
[G] = m3 ·kg−1 ·s−2 ,
[kB ] = m2 ·kg·s−2 ·K−1 ,
[ℏ] = m2 ·kg·s−1 ,
[e] = C

and the unit of the conductance is

[σ] = Ω−1 = kg−1 ·m−2 ·s1 ·C2 .

We see that the unit of conductance does not involve the kelvin unit, so there is no need to use
the Boltzmann constant. Also, there is a square of the coulomb unit, so the sought relationship
will certainly involve e2 . Now, we write three equations with three unknowns to deduce what
exponents must be applied to the speed of light, the gravitational constant, and the reduced
Planck constant, so that the combined product of its units gives the rest of the conductance
unit. If we notice that this “rest” is equal to the reciprocal of the reduced Planck constant’s
unit, we can simply write

e2
−1
σkvant = , [σkvant ] = C2 · m2 ·kg·s−1 = kg−1 ·m−2 ·s1 ·C2 .
ℏ
By inserting the numerical values, we get

e2 .
σkvant = = 2.43 · 10−4 kg−1 ·m−2 ·s1 ·C2 = 2.43 · 10−4 Ω−1 .
ℏ
Fun fact: this value corresponds to a macroscopic resistor with a resistance of about 4 kΩ.
Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem BF . . . an attempt at (not)shooting oneself

How much time do you have to dodge a bullet you fire on a planet or moon with no atmosphere?
You are shooting in such a way that the bullet remains at a constant (and negligible) height
above the surface of a perfectly spherical body of radius R and mass M on which you are
standing. Karel had some ideas.
The gravitational force attracting the bullet to the centre of the planet is
Mm
FG = G ,
R2
where G is Newton’s gravitational constant and m is the mass of the bullet. No other force
is expected to act on the bullet. Thus, if we want the bullet to fly along a circle of radius R,
we must shoot it at a velocity v for which the corresponding centripetal force Fd = mv 2 /R is
equal to the gravitational force. Let us put these two forces into equation
FG = Fd ,
Mm v2
G 2 =m ,
R R
r
M
G = v.
R
The distance the bullet travels before hitting us is s = 2πR, so the time we have for dodging is
r
s 2πR R3
t= = p = 2π .
v GM GM
R

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem BG . . . peristaltic pump

Consider a thin tube made of a very flexi-
ble material with inner diameter d. This
tube passes through a peristaltic pump R
ω
which contains a rotating ring that has N
rods evenly spaced around its circumfer-
ence. By rotating the whole ring, the rods
compress the tube and move the water for- d
ward (see figure). With what frequency f
must the ring of radius R rotate to gener-
ate a volume flow Q through the tube? Consider d ≪ R and neglect the compressed volume of
the tube. These pumps deliver water to the electrolyzers in Jarda’s lab.
The water in the tube moves at the same speed as the circumferential velocity of the circle,
which is v = 2πf R.
The volumetric flow rate is then
πd2 π2
Q = Sv = 2πRf = Rd2 f .
4 2

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

From here, we can express the frequency f as

2Q
f= .
π2 Rd2

Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

Problem BH . . . pineapple on pizza

Pineapple slices were thrown with the same initial velocity at angles α = 38◦ , β = 45◦ and
γ = 52◦ relative to the horizontal direction so that all fell on a pizza. The pizza has radius
of 16 cm and its center is 3.0 m from the point of ejection. Determine the interval of initial
velocities for which all three slices land on the pizza.
David is already dreaming about Hawaii.
The pineapple slices are thrown under angles α = 38◦ , β = 45◦ and γ = 52◦ , so it is a projectile
motion. For an oblique throw, the distance of impact from the throwing point can be derived
as
v 2 sin(2ξ)
D= 0 ,
g
for an arbitrary angle ξ. Let us denote the distance of the pizza as s and the radius of the
pizza as r, then the interval of the allowed distances D into which the slices can land is equal
to [s − r; s + r]. We can also notice that sin(2α) = sin(2γ), thus we just need to calculate the
allowed initial velocities r
Dg
v0 =
sin(2ξ)
for only two angles.
After substituting the extremes of the allowed values of D for the angles α and γ, the
interval of the initial velocity vα is

vα ∈ [5.4; 5.7] m·s−1 ,

and for the angle β the interval of the initial velocity vβ

vβ ∈ [5.3; 5.6] m·s−1 .

Our resulting velocity v will therefore lie in the intersection of the intervals vα and vβ , i.e.

v ∈ [5.4; 5.6] m·s−1 .

David Ševčík
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem CA . . . hard impact

We’re watching two identical cars driving in the same direction on a highway. One is travelling
at v1 = 80 km·h−1 , the other at v2 = 130 km·h−1 . When the faster car is on the same level
as the slower car while overtaking, both drivers notice an obstacle in front of them. They
both start braking with maximum braking force, which is constant and equal for both cars.
The slower car manages to stop right before the obstacle. What is the speed of the other car
when it hits the obstacle? Karel watched videos.
The traveled distance of the first car that stopped just before the obstacle was s. It is also the
distance that the second car has for braking. Let us denote the mass of the car by m. Then,
the braking force F = ma performs work W = F s. This amount of work is the same for both
cars. The slower car loses all of its kinetic energy
1
mv12 = F s .
2
Let’s calculate the final velocity of the second car vf from the change of its kinetic energy
1 1 1 1 p .
mvf2 = mv22 − F s = mv22 − mv12 ⇒ vf = v22 − v12 = 102 km·h−1 .
2 2 2 2

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem CB . . . a barking dog never bites

Jarda’s dogs are ill-mannered and often bark at passing cyclists. One such cyclist, riding towards
them, heard their barking with a period of T1 = 1.4 s. After riding past them, he continued
on his way and, luckily, heard the barking again, but this time with a period of T2 = 1.5 s.
Determine the cyclist’s speed, assuming he was moving in a straight line at a constant speed
and that the dogs’ barking occurs with a non-changing period.
Jarda’s online classes were disturbed by barking dogs.
This problem is an example of a classic Doppler effect. Let c = 343 m·s−1 denote the speed of
sound in air, v the speed of the cyclist, and T the barking period. The barking frequency is
therefore f = 1/T . As the cyclist approaches, the frequency of barking he hears is equal to
 
v
f1 = f 1 + ,
c
on the contrary, when moving away, it is
 
v
f2 = f 1 − .
c
By dividing one equation by the other and further rearranging the terms, we get
f1 − f2 T2 − T1
v=c =c ,
f1 + f2 T1 + T2
.
so the velocity of cyclist is v = 12 m·s−1 .
Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem CC . . . hill climb racing

Let’s have three inclined planes. The first one rises
with slope α1 = 30◦ , and after a sharp peak it flips
into another one that falls with slope α2 = 20◦ . After
a sharp minimum, this flips into a plane rising with
slope α3 = 10◦ . On the respective planes, there are blocks with masses m1 = 20 kg, m2 =
= 10 kg, m3 = 15 kg, which are connected by weightless ropes and pulleys (the ropes always
find themselves parallel to the hill, see figure). With what magnitude of acceleration will a
block of mass m3 be moving? Do not consider friction. Lego completed a ridge trail.
As long as we neglect friction, it is sufficient to consider only the forces parallel to each inclined
plane for each block. We will denote the tension in the rope between m1 and m2 as T12 , and
between m2 and m3 as T23 . Then, the equation of motion for the first block has the form

m1 g sin α1 − T12 = m1 a1 ,

where we consider the downward direction as positive.

For the second block, we will define the upward direction as positive, therefore, a2 is positive
exactly when a1 is also positive. Then, its equation of motion is

T12 − T23 − m2 g sin α2 = m2 a2 ,

and finally, for the third block, we will again define the downward direction as positive

m3 g sin α3 + T23 = m3 a3 .

Now, we have 3 equations and 5 unknowns: a1 , a2 , a3 , T12 , T23 . However, we have yet to use a
fundamental property of the rope – its inextensibility. This constraint implies that the accel-
erations of the connected masses must be equal, meaning a1 = a2 (Equation 4). Additionally,
if the rope remains taut at all times, as we have assumed, then a2 = a3 . Substituting these
relationships between accelerations into our system of equations simplifies it. Let’s proceed
with solving the system and then analyze the result

m1 g sin α1 − T12 = m1 a3
T12 − T23 − m2 g sin α2 = m2 a3
m3 g sin α3 + T23 = m3 a3 .

When we sum all the equations, we eliminate the tensions and get a very intuitive result

m1 g sin α1 − m2 g sin α2 + m3 g sin α3 = (m1 + m2 + m3 )a3

m1 sin α1 − m2 sin α2 + m3 sin α3
⇒ a3 = g .
m1 + m2 + m3
One way to check if the assumptions we used are correct would be to substitute a3 back into
the third equation of motion and calculate the value of T23 . If it is positive, this confirms that
the rope remains taut and applies a pulling force on the blocks. However, if T23 is negative,
our equations suggest that the rope pushes the blocks, which is impossible. This means our
assumption that the rope remains taut must be incorrect.

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Thankfully, it is unnecessary to substitute and do some complicated mathematical opera-

tions. Let us express T23 first
T23 = m3 (a3 − g sin α3 ) .
It will be positive if a3 > g sin α3 , and negative otherwise. This makes sense when we realize
that g sin α3 is the acceleration with which the block would accelerate downhill if it were not
being pulled or slowed down by anything. Since the rope pulls the block, we find that a3
is greater than this value, confirming our assumption. However, if a3 < g sin α3 , the result
would be unphysical, as the rope cannot slow down the third block. In that case, the correct
acceleration would simply be g sin α3 . Now, we only need to plug into all of the equations
m1 sin α1 − m2 sin α2 + m3 sin α3 .
= 2.0 m·s−2 ,
(tense)
a3 =g
m1 + m2 + m3
.
= g sin α3 = 1.7 m·s−2 .
(loose)
a3

And thus
.
= 2.0 m·s−2 .
(tense) (loose) (tense)
a3 > a3 ⇒ a3 = a3

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem CD . . . clear ice

How big of an area can we de-ice using a 30 l butane bottle with a pressure of 0.20 MPa? The
butane in the bottle has a temperature of 20 ◦C and a molar mass of 58 g·mol−1 . The burning
of butane has a specific energy of 46 MJ · kg−1 . The frost is formed by a layer of ice with
a density ρled = 916.8 kg·m−3 , specific heat capacity c = 2 090 J · kg−1 · K−1 and thickness
1.0 cm. Because it is cold, the frost (and the surrounding air) has a temperature of −5.0 ◦C.
Consider perfect heat transfer and butane in the bottle as the ideal gas.
David saw the sidewalks in Prague being de-iced.
First, we need to determine how much energy can be extracted from a butane bottle. To do
this, we must first calculate the amount of substance n of butane in the bottle. We can find
this using the ideal gas law
pV
pV = nRT ⇒ n = ,
RT
where p is the pressure in the bottle, V is the volume of the bottle, T is the temperature, and
R is the molar gas constant found in the List of Constants. From this, we can easily calculate
the mass m using the molar mass M as

m = Mn .

Now, we calculate the energy Ebottle which we can obtain as

pV .
Ebottle = mH = HM = 6.6 MJ ,
RT
where H is the specific burning energy of butane.
The heat required to de-ice the pavement is given by the calorimetric equation

Q(S) = mice (S) c∆t + mice (S) lt ,

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

where c is the specific heat capacity of the ice, ∆t is the temperature gain required to de-ice
the ice, and lt is the latent heat of fusion. The mass of the ice area mice (as a function of area)
is then
mice (S) = ρice dS ,
where ρice is the density of ice, d is the thickness of the ice, and S is its area. We now set
up an equation between the energy in the butane bottle and the energy required to de-ice the
pavement. We get
Ebottle = Q(S)
pV
HM = ρice dS (c∆t + lt ) .
RT
From this, we can easily express the area of S as
HM pV 1 .
S= = 2.1 m2 .
ρice d RT c∆t + lt
Thus, we can see that this method of de-icing is highly inefficient, and other methods are
more commonly used in practice.
David Škrob
[email protected]

Problem CE . . . wheelchair user

A wheelchair user can apply a force F to each wheel of the wheelchair. The mass of each wheel
is m, their radius is R, and the mass of the wheelchair user and the rest of the wheelchair
is M . What is the largest angle of an inclined plane the person can overcome using only their
own power? Assume that the wheels do not slip on the ground and that the wheelchair cannot
tip over. Jarda pushed his grandmother uphill.
When a wheelchair user stands on an inclined plane with an angle of inclination α, his center
of mass is (in general) not located directly above the point of contact between the wheels and
the plane. Therefore, since the wheels are connected only by a freely rotating axle, their weight
force M g acts vertically on this axle. The same applies to the weight of the rotating part of the
wheelchair (the entire wheelchair except for the wheels). On the other hand, the wheels have
their center of mass at their center, so their weight force is distributed also on their axle. In
total, a force of (M + 2m)g acts on the wheel axle, generating a torque of (M + 2m)gR sin α
with respect to the point of contact with the ground.
When the wheelchair user begins to apply a force F to the outer part of his wheel, he
thereby develops a torque of magnitude F R with respect to the wheel axle. However, since the
wheels do not skid and the inclined plane is stationary, this produces a total reaction torque
of magnitude 2F R with respect to the point of contact, where the coefficient 2 represents the
contribution from the two wheels. Thus, for the wheelchair to move upwards, it needs to satisfy
the condition 2F R ≥ (M + 2m) gR sin α, which implies a boundary angle
 
2F
α = arcsin .
(M + 2m)g

Jakub Kliment
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem CF . . . fast train in a turn

A high speed train travels on a track with a constant speed v = 100km·h−1 . It enters a curve
with a radius r = 1 000 m. By how many millimeters must the outer rail strip be higher than
the inner rail strip, in order for the resultant force to act perpendicular to the plane of the
tracks? The tracks have a gauge d = 1 435 mm and their angle of inclination with respect to
the horizontal plane is small. Prokop wanted to go home before Christmas. . .
The turning train with a mass m is subject to a centrifugal force of magnitude
mv 2
Fo = ,
r
which is perpendicular to the gravitational force FG = mg. The resulting force makes an angle
of α with the force of gravity
Fo
tan α = .
FG
For the resultant force to act perpendicular to the plane of the track, the track must be tilted
by an angle α to the horizontal plane
h
sin α = ,
d
where h is the desired track elevation and d is the track gauge. For small angles, we can
write tan α ≈ α ≈ sin α and then
Fo h
= ,
FG d
from which we can express the height of the outer rail relative to the inner rail
Fo d v2 d .
h= = = 113 mm .
FG rg

Prokop Bernard
[email protected]

Problem CG . . . ladybugs on a walk

Two ladybugs crawl up the arms of a right angle. On one of the arms, the first ladybug climbs
toward the vertex from a distance of l0 = 30 cm at a speed of u = 1.0 cm·s−1 . The second
ladybug walks starting from the vertex along the other arm at a speed of v = 1.5 cm·s−1 .
How long after the start of the movement will the ladybugs be closest to each other?
Pepa shamelessly stole physics problems from freshman mechanics.
Let us denote the distance between the ladybugs as S and the distances of the ladybugs from
the vertex as l and s. Since the ladybugs are moving along a right triangle, we can express S
using the Pythagorean Theorem as p
S = l2 + s2 .
The distances of the ladybugs from the vertex are here time-dependent, specifically as
l(t) = l0 − ut ,
s(t) = vt ,

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

so the relation for S can be expanded as

q
S(t) = (l0 − ut)2 + v 2 t2 .

The minimum distance is found by finding the extremum of the function S = S(t). By differ-
entiating the function with respect to time, we get
v 2 t + u(ut − l0 )
Ṡ(t) = p .
(l0 − ut)2 + v 2 t2
Now we set the derivative equal to zero
ul0
Ṡ(t0 ) = 0 ⇒ t0 = ,
u2 + v 2
2
and by substituting the values from the assignment we obtain the solution
.
t0 = 9.2 s .

Petr Sacher
[email protected]

Problem CH . . . flying octopus

Martin bought a plush octopus weighing m = 90 g at a night market in the Philippines. How-
ever, he felt sorry for the octopus because it was so small that it could hardly see the wonders
of the world. That’s when he decided to expand its horizons. He took a broken shaft from
a spring-loaded umbrella, which can be approximated as a spring with a stiffness constant
k = 25 N·m−1 . He put the octopus on top, compressed the shaft by length d = 15 cm and
released it so that the octopus flew straight up. By how many meters did the octopus’s horizon
expand at the highest point of its flight, compared to when it was just sitting on the uncom-
pressed umbrella shaft? We are asking by how much the maximum distance, measured along
the Earth’s surface, increased, in one direction that the octopus could see. Assume the Earth
to be a perfect sphere and that Martin held the umbrella shaft in such a way that when the
shaft was compressed, the octopus was at a height h0 = 1.5 m above the Earth’s surface.
Martin tried to entertain his octopus.
First, we determine the height the octopus will reach. Using the law of conservation of energy,
where all the potential energy stored in the spring is converted into the gravitational potential
energy of the octopus, we get
1 2 kd2
kd = E = mgh ⇒ h= ≈ 31.9 cm, .
2 2mg
The radial distance the octopus can see is given by c = RE φ, where RE is the Earth’s radius
and φ is the angle between two nearly parallel lines passing through the Earth’s center. One
2
If we were to be totally correct, we should still need check that it is actually the minimum and not the
maximum of the distance. We can verify this using for instance the second derivative of S. Alternatively, we
can just look at the shape of S and notice that this function must necessarily decrease up to a certain t0 and
grow ”to infinity” after this one is surpassed (but the relation holds only until the first ladybug reaches the
vertex of the triangle). This implies that it must indeed be a minimum at t0 .

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

line corresponds to the octopus’s trajectory, while the other extends to the farthest visible point
on the Earth’s surface. The angle φ can be determined using a right triangle as cos φ = RHE
with H representing the octopus’s distance from the Earth’s center at the peak of its flight.
As H = RE + h + h0 , we get
   
RE RE
c = RE arccos = RE arccos .
H RE + h + h0
When the octopus is just sitting on the rod, the height is given by d, so
 
RE
cd = RE arccos .
R E + d + h0
Difference ∆c = c − cd gives the distance the octopus can actually see
h    i
RE RE .
∆c = c − cd = RE arccos − arccos = 0.23 km .
RE + h + h0 RE + d + h0
The octopus’s perception of the wonders will be expanded by about 230 meters.
Martin Vaněk
[email protected]

Problem DA . . . pineapple on pizza reloaded

David threw two slices of pineapple with masses m1 = 0.30 kg and m2 = 0.60 kg against each
other over a pizza with radius 16 cm. These two pineapples collided in a perfectly inelastic
collision at a height of 50 cm above the center of the pizza, such that their vertical velocities
were zero at the time of the collision. What is the highest velocity v2 that the heavier slice can
have before the collision if 70 % of energy was lost in the collision and both slices landed on the
pizza after the collision? Furthermore, determine the speed v1 that the lighter slice will have
in this case. Consider that in a perfectly inelastic collision, the slices will stick together after
colliding. David was promised canned pineapple for this problem.
In order to find the highest velocity the heavier slice can move at for both slices to land on
the pizza, we need to find the total velocity that the two combined pineapples can have. We
find this by using the projectile motion equation for a height of h = 0.5 m and the maximum
distance they can to land at, D = 0.16 m
r
2h
D=v· ,
g

from where we express v as q

g
v=D· .
2h
Since this is a perfectly inelastic collision (the slices stick together), the law of conservation of
energy does not hold, but the conservation of momentum principle does. We therefore have the
following equation for the speeds of the slices

v1 · m1 − v2 · m2 = −v · (m1 + m2 ) .

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

In the equation we have introduced a sign convention where the direction of v1 will be positive
and the direction of v2 will be negative. After the collision we expect the slices to move in
the direction of v2 , therefore we will use the negative sign also on the right side of the equation.
From this equation we can express v1
− (m1 + m2 ) · v + m2 · v2
v1 = .
m1
Let us express the loss of kinetic energy as

Ek0 − Ek = 0.7 · Ek0 ,

where Ek0 is the total kinetic energy of both slices before collision, i.e.,
1 1
Ek0 = · m1 · v12 + · m2 · v22 ,
2 2
and Ek is the energy after the collision
1
Ek = · (m1 + m2 ) · v 2 .
2
After rearranging the equation, we get

0.3 · Ek0 − Ek = 0 .

By substituting in the speeds v and v1 , we obtain

p !2
3 − (m1 + m2 ) · D g
+ m2 · v2 3 1 g
· m1 · 2h
+ · m2 · v22 − · (m1 + m2 ) · D2 · = 0,
20 m1 20 2 2h

which after simplifying leads to a quadratic equation in its general form

 q 
g
v22 · m2 · m1 + m22 − v2 · 2 · m2 · D · · (m1 + m2 ) +
2h
 
10 g g
− · (m1 + m2 ) · D2 · · m1 − (m1 + m2 )2 · D2 · = 0.
3 2h 2h
We consider the positive root to the equation, as negative speed (i.e. the magnitude of the
velocity vector) is physically unrealistic. After substituting in the values, we see the maximum
.
possible speed of the heavier slice is v2 = 1.0 m·s−1 and from the conservation of momentum
.
principle we calculate the speed of the lighter slice to be v1 = 0.58 m·s−1 .
David Ševčík
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem DB . . . hill climb racing reloaded

Let’s have three inclined planes. The first one rises
with slope α1 = 10◦ , and after a sharp peak it flips
into another one that falls with slope α2 = 20◦ . After
a sharp minimum, this flips into a plane rising with
slope α3 = 30◦ . On the respective planes, there are blocks with masses m1 = 20 kg, m2 =
= 10 kg, m3 = 15 kg, which are connected by weightless ropes and pulleys (the ropes always
find themselves parallel to the hill, see figure). With what magnitude of acceleration will a block
of mass m3 be moving? Do not consider friction. A ridge trail was completed by Lego.
The approach is completely analogous to the one in the problem hill climb racing. The only
difference happens in the last step, where we plug the values into the same formulas we derived
(tense) . (loose) .
before. For the values used in this problem we get a3 = 1.6 m·s−2 and a3 = 4.9 m·s−2 .
The result is then determined from the condition for the tense string
(loose) .
= 4.9 m·s−2 .
(tense) (loose)
a3 < a3 ⇒ a3 = a3

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem DC . . . an inclined cylinder on an inclined plane

A cylinder on an inclined plane is a typical textbook problem. But what if we incline the
cylinder relative to the incline of the plane as well? We put a homogenous cylinder on an
inclined plane facing the slope of the plane, but then we rotate it by 45◦ around the normal of
the plane and let it go. What will be the magnitude of its velocity after time t? The plane is
inclined by 30◦ relative to the horizontal direction. Assume that the cylinder is not slipping.
Things are going downhill for Jarda.
The cylinder will perform a rolling motion (rotating and also moving translationally), so its
kinetic energy will consist of both a translational and a rotational component. The moment of
inertia of a homogeneous cylinder of mass m and radius R is I = mR2 /2. If it rotates with
angular velocity ω, its rotational kinetic energy is Iω 2 /2 = mR2 ω 2 /4. Since the cylinder does
not slip, v = Rω holds for its velocity. Thus, if the cylinder rolls down the plane by some
height ∆h, it converts its potential energy to kinetic energy
1 1 3
mg∆h = mv 2 + Iω 2 = mv 2
2 2 4
r
4
=⇒ v = g∆h .
3
Since it does not slip on the plane, it will move along the line given by its initial orientation.
Let’s denote the inclination of the plane as α = 30◦ and the deflection of the cylinder on
the inclined plane as β = 45◦ . If we displace the cylinder in the vertical direction by δh, it will
be δh/ sin α along the slope of the inclined plane. However, due to its trajectory being offset
by an angle β, the total displacement will be ∆h(sin α cos β). If we denote this path as l, the
following equation holds for its velocity in this direction
r r√
4 2
v = gl sin α cos β = gl .
3 3

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Figure 1: Sketch of the cylinder’s trajectory.

We could solve the above differential equation for l(t) to determine the velocity as a function
of time. However, to simplify, we will use an analogy with the √ velocity relation for free fall. We
only need to adjust the gravitational acceleration to g ′ = ( 2/6)g. From this analogy, we get
the dependence √
2 2
v(t) = g ′ t = gt sin α cos β = gt .
3 6

Jakub Kliment
[email protected]

Problem DD . . . a well-fed spaceman

A spaceman lives on a base on the pole of planet Xeno. The planet’s density is ρ = 2 707 kg·m−3 .
Every morning, he weighs himself on his terrestrial scale and is very much concerned about
the value shown. To make himself feel better, he moves to a base located on the equator of
the planet, where he happily finds out he weighs 1.69 times less than on the pole. How long is
a day on the planet? Petr, on the other hand, would like to gain some weight.
Let’s denote mp and mr as the astronaut’s weight at the pole and the equator of the planet.
We know that
mp
mr = ,
1.69
so, the ratio between the weight at the pole and at the equator must be equal to
mp
= 1.69 .
mr
For the following calculations, it will be convenient to denote the inverse of this ratio as µ.
Since the weight of the spaceman is given as terrestrial, it is defined as the ratio of the
gravitational force acting on him by the planet and the gravitational acceleration on Earth g.
G mM
R2
mp = ,
g

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

where G is the gravitational constant, m is the astronaut’s mass on Earth (inertial mass), and
R is the radius of the planet Xeno.
The weight at the equator is calculated similarly, except that at the equator, the astronaut
is also affected by a non-zero centrifugal force due to the planet’s rotation. The magnitude of
the centrifugal force is
Fo = ω 2 Rm ,
and since the following relation
2π
ω= ,
T
where T is the period of rotation (the length of one day) of the planet holds, we can write

4π2
Fo = Rm .
T2
The astronaut’s weight at the equator is therefore
2
G mM
R2
− 4π
T2
Rm
mr = .
g
By dividing the equation by the first term on the right side, we get

mr g 4π2 R3
mM
=1− 2 ,
G R2 T GM
4π2 R3
µ=1− .
T 2 GM
The expression on the left side is the inverse of the ratio µ. If we solve for T 2 , we obtain
have
1 4π2 R3
T2 = .
(1 − µ) GM
However, we do not know the mass of the planet M or its radius R. Lucky for us, we can
rewrite the equation as
3π
4
πR3
T2 = 3
.
(1 − µ)G M
From this, it is easy to notice that we have the inverse of the density ρ on the right side.
Therefore, we rewrite the equation as
3π
T2 = ,
(1 − µ)Gρ
r
3π
T = ,
(1 − µ)Gρ

and by substituting the values, we get the result

. .
T = 1.13 · 104 s = 3.14 h .

Petr Sacher
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem DE . . . a wild carousel

Pepa placed a weight of mass m on a perfectly smooth horizontal plane and attached one end
of a weightless ideal spring to it. He then took the other end in his hands and began to spin
the weight in the horizontal plane at a constant angular velocity ω.
However, when the angular velocity exceeds a certain magnitude ω, it flies off to infinity.
What is the maximum angular velocity with which the weight can rotate around the circle?
The spring has stiffness k and rest length l0 . Pepa was stealing from textbooks.
If a body suspended on a spring moves in a plane along a circle with radius r, the elastic force
of the spring Fp is equal (in size) to the centrifugal force Fo (from the point of view of the
non-inertial system associated with the body)

Fp = k(r − l0 ) = mω 2 r = Fo .

From this, we can easily express the radius of a circle as

l0
r= mω 2
.
1− k

We can see that for a positive r, the expression in the denominator must also be positive, which
implies a restriction on the ω in the form
r
mω 2 k
1− >0 ⇒ ω< = ωmax .
k m

For values of ω → ωmax

+
approaching the maximum from the right, we get r → +∞.
As a fun fact, we present a discussion of other cases. If the body is not rotating (ω = 0 Hz),
r = l0 and r has the meaning of the length of the spring (not the radius of the circle, since the
body does not rotate at all). We get the same result for an infinitely stiff spring k → +∞ as
for any ω, we have r = l0 , so the spring behaves like a “rigid” rod.
Josef Trojan
[email protected]

Problem DF . . . P-roblematic oven

Anežka wanted to bake a cake for Jarda, so she needed to heat the oven to the temperature Ts .
The thermometer in the oven compares the set temperature with the actual temperature in-
side T . A thermostat adjusts the heating power of the oven so that it is proportional to the
difference of these two temperatures with the constant of proportionality K. If the temperature
of both the room and the oven is Ta at the beginning of the heating process, at what temper-
ature will the inside of the oven stabilize? The oven loses heat at a rate of κ (T − Ta ), and its
heat capacity is C. Jarda found out that the prices in Světozor confectionery have gone up!
In many day-to-day systems, we need to set the value of some quantity. However, if the initial
value of this quantity is different, we need to adjust it. These adjustments cannot be arbitrary,
so a feedback loop is used to monitor the system’s evolution and guide the process toward the
target value. For instance, in temperature control, the goal is to regulate power to prevent
overheating the oven unnecessarily or to minimize excessive fluctuations around the desired
temperature. In our case, the power is proportional to the difference between the setpoint

25
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

temperature Ts and the actual temperature T . This type of regulation is called proportional
regulation. However, as we will see, this method has its limitations.
A more advanced approach is PID control, where the individual letters represent the propor-
tional, integral, and derivative components. In this method, the control mechanism considers
the current value of the quantity as well as its derivative and integral. By incorporating these
factors, PID control allows for precise and smooth adjustment, enabling the system to reach
the desired value without oscillations.
Let’s return to solving our task. The amount of heat in the oven denoted as Q changes
depending on how much heat is added by the external input Pin and how much heat is lost
through thermal losses to the surroundings Pout . According to the problem, both of these
quantities can be expressed as

Pin = K (Ts − T ) , Pout = κ (T − Ta ) ,

and the heat of the oven is Q = CT . Therefore, we can write the heat balance in time t as
dQ dT
=C = Pin − Pout = K (Ts − T ) − κ (T − Ta ) = KTs + κTa − (K + κ) T .
dt dt
The task asks for the steady-state temperature. In this state, the temperature change with
time is zero, which corresponds to a zero left-hand side of the equation. We can rearrange the
right-hand side into the form
Ta
KTs + κTa 1 + k Ts
Tf = = Ts ,
K +κ 1+k
where Tf is the sought temperature and k = κ/K. If all the numbers are positive, we find
that Tf < Ts , so the oven will never reach the desired temperature, which is a problem, to
say the least. The only solution is either to minimize k or to implement a more sophisticated
controller.
Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

Problem DG . . . compressing air-filled syringe

Lego was playing with a syringe. He filled it to a volume of V = 20 ml, then he blocked the
opening and began compressing it very slowly, so that the air inside had time to exchange
heat with the surroundings through the walls. How much work did Lego perform when he
compressed the syringe to a volume of V /2? The surroundings were under normal conditions
the entire time. Lego thought, that many people forget about surrounding air.
The formula for the work of an isothermal process is
V2
W = nRT ln ,
V1
where V2 is the final volume and V1 is the initial volume. However, we have to remember
that W is the work done by the gas. We are interested in the work done by us on the gas,
which has the opposite sign, thus inverting the fraction in the logarithm.

26
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

The gas in the syringe had a volume V and a pressure pa at the beginning, so we can express
from the equation of state
pa V = nRT ,
which, when substituted into the equation for work, yields
.
W = pa V ln 2 = 1.4 J .
It is intuitive that if I squeeze the syringe to half its original volume, I am realistically doing
less work than if I, for example, lift a 1.5 L bottle (about 15 N) 10 centimeters up (which is
only a little more than 1.4 J). So where did we make an “error”? We forgot to account for
the action of the air we have around us. It helps us since it compresses the syringe together
with us. We therefore don’t have to overcome all the pressure in the syringe, just the difference
between it and the atmospheric pressure. Since the atmospheric pressure remains constant
while the syringe is being squeezed, we can easily calculate how much work has been done by
the surrounding atmosphere to squeeze the syringe
V .
WA = pa ∆V = pa = 1.0 J .
2
We can calculate the work to be done by Lego as the difference between these two works
 
1 .
W = W A + WL ⇒ WL = W − WA = p a V ln 2 − = 0.39 J .
2

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem DH . . . a stretching suspense

Monča placed an apple on the edge of a spinning carousel and then stepped back. Standing
at the same height as the carousel, she stretched a rubber band weighing 5.0 g and shot it
towards the center of the carousel at a 45◦ angle to the horizontal, successfully knocking the
apple down. Determine the lowest possible circumferential velocity of the carousel if you know
that the rubber band has a stiffness of 10 N·m−1 and Monča would have succeeded in knocking
the apple if she stretched it to either 6.0 cm or 5.0 cm. Monča played on the playground.
We will solve the problem using the law of conservation of energy. First, we express the energy
of a stretched rubber band just before it flies off to the carousel. We approximate the rubber
band as a perfect spring, so its energy is given by
1 2
E= ky ,
2
where k is the stiffness of the rubber band, and y is the distance from the equilibrium position
to which it was stretched. After releasing the rubber band, all the energy is converted into
kinetic energy, which gives us
1 1
E = Ek = ky 2 = mv 2 .
2 2
From this, we can express the velocity of the rubber band as
r
ky 2
v= .
m

27
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

To calculate the tangential velocity, we need the difference in distances between the two
shots and the difference in their flight times. The time difference gives us half of the carousel’s
period since one shot occurs when the apple is closer to Monča and the other when it is on the
opposite side – meaning the rubber band must travel across the entire carousel. We derive

2πr 2π d πd π(x1 − x2 )
vkol = = T2 = = ,
T 22 2∆t 2(t1 − t2 )

where r is the radius of the carousel, d is its diameter, x1 , x2 are the distances the rubber band
flies to, and t1 , t2 are the flight times of the rubber band.
Let us analyze the projectile motion itself. As the band flies off at 45◦ , the horizontal and
vertical components of the velocity are the same. From the right triangle, we know that
p
v= vx2 + vy2 ,

and we can also express the velocity as

p √
v= 2vx2 = 2vx .

From the equations for projectile motion, we get two equations. One for the horizontal
distance and the other for the height

x = vx t ,
1
0 = vx t − gt2 .
2
From the first equation, we express the time and substitute it into the second equation,
which gives us
2v 2
x= x.
g
To express the time, we will use the first of the two equations to obtain
x 2vx
t= = .
vx g
Now, we need to substitute the velocity from the law of conservation of energy
r
v 1 ky 2
vx = √ = √ .
2 2 m
Finally, we perform all the necessary substitutions and obtain the difference in distances
2
2vx1 2v 2 ky 2 ky 2 k

(x1 − x2 ) = − x2 = 1 − 2 = y12 − y22 ,
g g mg mg mg
and the difference in times
r r r
2vx1 2vx2 2k 2k 2k
(t1 − t2 ) = − = y1 − y2 = (y1 − y2 ) .
g g mg 2 mg 2 mg 2

28
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Now we substitute into the equation for velocity

r r
π(x1 − x2 ) π mg
k
y12 − y22 k (y1 + y2 ) (y1 − y2 ) k
vkol = = q =π =π (y1 + y2 ) ,
2(t1 − t2 ) 8m (y1 − y2 ) 8m
2 (y1 − y2 )
2k
2 mg

and after substituting the values from the task, we get

r r
k 10 .
vkol = π (y1 + y2 ) = π (0.06 + 0.05) = 5.5 m·s−1 .
8m 8 · 0.005

The tangential velocity of the carousel is 5.5 m·s−1 .

Monika Drexlerová
[email protected]

Problem EA . . . Fingal’s Fingers

The strongman is lifting a huge and certainly very heavy rod. This homogeneous rod has
a mass m = 250 kg and a length l = 4.5 m. One end of the rod is fixed to the ground, and it can
rotate freely around this point. The strongman lifts it by starting at the opposite end, always
holding the rod at a height h = 180 cm, and moving closer to the fixed point as he goes. What
is the minimum force he needs to exert on the rod when his distance from the attachment point
is x = 1.5 m? Assume the strongman is standing upright. Lego was doomscrolling. . .
We can calculate the minimum required force by analyzing the torque equilibrium. We will
compute these torques relative to the point where the rod is attached, since it would be difficult
to calculate the force acting inside the rod itself.
The weight acting on the rod has a magnitude Fg = mg and acts at its center of mass,
which is located at the midpoint of the rod. Since this force acts vertically downward, we can
obtain its torque by multiplying it by the horizontal distance between the attachment point
and the center of the bar. The angle between the rod and the ground can be found using the
strongman’s height and distance with the formula:
h
φ = arctan .
x
The horizontal distance from the center of the rod to the axis of rotation will be xl/2 =
= (l/2) cos φ, so the resulting torque due to grafity is
 
l h
Mg = Fg xl/2 = mg cos arctan .
2 x
Now, let’s say the strongman pushes with a force F (the quantity we are solving for). What
is the length of the lever arm? Since the strongman is not limited to pushing only straight up,
and we are interested in the minimum force require, we are actually looking at the situation
where he pushes perpendicular to the √lever arm. The length of this arm can be easily calculated
using the Pythagorean theorem: r = x2 + h2 . The torque will therefore be equal to
p
Ms = F x 2 + h2 .

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

We still need to get rid of the term cos (arctan(h/x)) in Mg . We can either use some
trigonometric identities, or notice that the triangle with hypotenuse l/2, which we wanted to
calculate
√ the adjacent side for, is similar to the triangle we’ve already used (with a hypotenuse
of x2 + h2 and adjacent side x). So instead of using trigonometry, we can directly write
l x
xl/2 = √ .
2 x 2 + h2
Now we equate the torques

Mg = Ms ,
l x p
mg √ = F x2 + h2 ,
2 x 2 + h2
1 lx .
F = mg 2 = 1.5 kN .
2 x + h2
From this equation, we can see that when the strongman is near the end of the rod, he will
need to apply a very small amount of force. However, when x ≫ h, the required force will be
proportional to 1/x.
Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem EB . . . Lego borrowed Verča’s coin

Lego borrowed Verča’s coin from last year and decided to explore its properties. He turned
on a moving conveyor belt, which reached a velocity v. Then, he took the coin and placed it
on the belt in such a way that it could roll in the direction of the belt’s motion and that at
the moment of release, it was neither moving nor rotating. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between the coin and the belt is f . How long will it take for the coin to stop slipping? The
coin is a homogeneous disk with a radius r and mass m.
... and had Lego done it earlier, he could have advised Vojta with pétanque...
What happens when we place a coin on a moving belt? It will slip, and thus, the frictional force
will cause it to rotate and accelerate. This slipping stops when the velocity of the point at the
bottom of the coin reaches the velocity of the moving belt v. The velocity of the bottom point
is equal to the sum of the velocity of motion of the center of the coin and the circumferential
velocity of rotation of the coin. Let’s discuss the time evolution of both of these velocities.
We start with the acceleration of the center of the coin. This part is straightforward –
the force acting on the coin is simply the frictional force. Since friction is the product of
the coefficient of friction and the normal force, and in this case, the normal force equals the
gravitational force, we get
Ft = f mg.
We can obtain the acceleration by dividing this equation by the mass of the coin, so a =
= Ft /m = f g. Furthermore, the translational velocity of the coin is vt (t) = f gt.
To find the rotational velocity, we first need to find the angular acceleration, which we get
as the ratio of the torque and the moment of inertia. We already know that the frictional force
acting on the coin is Ft = f mg. Since the coin has radius r, the torque with respect to the

30
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

center of the coin will be Mt = Ft r = f mgr. The moment of inertia of a homogeneous disk of
mass m and radius r is I = mr2 /2. Thus, the angular acceleration of the coin is
Mt f mgr 2f g
ε= = 1 = .
I 2
mr 2 r

The angular velocity of the coin’s rotation will vary in time as ω(t) = εt = 2f gt/r, and the
circumferential velocity will therefore be vr (t) = ω(t)r = 2f gt.
It remains to think about the direction in which the moving belt will make the coin move
and rotate. At the bottom of the coin, the translational and rotational components of the
velocity have the same direction. Therefore, the resulting speed of the point at the bottom of
the coin will be the sum of the magnitudes of these two velocities vv (t) = vt (t) + vr (t) = 3f gt.
We need to determine when the slipping stops. As mentioned earlier, this occurs when the
velocity vv of the coin’s bottom point matches the belt’s velocity v
v
3f gt = v ⇒ t= .
3f g

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem EC . . . showered
Verča is showering under a stream of water coming out of a shower head
mounted on a stand. The shower head has a length r = 25 cm and is inclined
at an angle α = 45◦ to the vertical axis of the stand. Water is splashing out
perpendicularly at a velocity of v0 = 5.5 m·s−1 . The water jet hits Verča at
a horizontal distance d = 50 cm from the stand. However, she prefers the
water to hit her from a higher height, so she moves the shower head up by h.
She then adjusts the angle between the head and the stand to β = 60◦ so that
the water will again fall on her at a distance of d. By how much did Verča
move the head up on the stand? Ignore the thickness of the water stream and
consider that the head, the stand, and the point where the water hits Verča
are in the same plane. Ideas often come in a shower.
The water starts spraying from a distance d0 = r sin α from the stand axis. The projection of
its velocity into the horizontal direction will be v0x = v0 cos α. From this, we can calculate how
much time the water spends traveling from the showerhead to Verča
d − d0 d − r sin α
t1 = = .
v0x v0 cos α
From this, we can calculate the height difference h1 between the point where water exits
the head and where it falls on Verča
 2
1 2 d − r sin α 1 d − r sin α .
h1 = v0y t1 + gt1 = v0 sin α + g = 36 cm ,
2 v0 cos α 2 v0 cos α
where g is the gravitational acceleration.
Afterward, we can repeat this with the new angle β, from which we get the height dif-
ference h2 for this case. Let’s not forget that the height difference is caused by two factors:

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Verča’s adjustment of the showerhead’s height and the change in the head’s angle. To calculate
the head’s adjustment in height, we must subtract the change caused by the adjustment of the
head’s angle. The difference in height between the mount point and head is r cos α (the mount
point is lower by this amount), so h1 − r cos α is by h lower than h2 − r cos β. Therefore, we
get this equation
 2
d − r sin α 1 d − r sin α
sin α + g − r cos α + h =
cos α 2 v0 cos α
 2
d − r sin β 1 d − r sin β
= sin β + g − r cos β
cos β 2 v0 cos β
 2 !
 2
1 d − r sin β d − r sin α
h= g − +
2 v0 cos β v0 cos α
d − r sin β d − r sin α .
+ sin β − sin α − r(cos β − cos α) = 24 cm .
cos β cos α

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem ED . . . journey to the off-center of the Earth

What is the angle between the line connecting the center of the Earth to a point on the φ =
= 50.1◦ latitude on the Earth’s surface and the direction of the gravity of Earth at that point?
Lego really thinks about questions like this one.
The weight acting on a mass point on the surface of the Earth is the sum of the gravitational
force, which pulls the mass point toward the Earth’s center, and the centrifugal force, which
(seemingly) acts on it due to its rotation with the Earth’s surface. This force acts in a direction
perpendicular to the Earth’s axis and lies in the plane defined by that axis and the given mass
point. The “weight” acceleration is then the sum of the gravitational acceleration and the
centrifugal acceleration. We can obtain both by dividing the force acting on the mass point by
its mass m. Let us first calculate the magnitudes of these accelerations.
The Earth has a mass M and a radius R, so the gravitational acceleration will have a mag-
nitude of
M .
aG = G 2 = 9.80 m·s−2 ,
R
where G is the universal gravitational constant.
For an angle φ from the equator, the radius of rotation is r = R cos φ. Furthermore, we
know that the Earth completes one rotation every T = 24 h hours, so its angular frequency of
rotation is ω = 2πf = 2π/T . The magnitude of the centrifugal acceleration is then
.
aod = ω 2 r = 0.0216 m·s−2 .

Now, we move on to the trigonometry. Both accelerations lie in a plane defined by the
Earth’s axis and the point where they act. The centrifugal acceleration is perpendicular to the
Earth’s axis and points outward, away from the axis. The gravitational acceleration has two
components: one perpendicular to the axis, with magnitude aG cos φ, directed inward toward

32
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

the axis, and one parallel to the axis, with magnitude aG sin φ, directed toward the center of
the Earth. The weight acceleration (the one that comes from the sum of the previous two)
will have a component parallel to the Earth’s axis equal to the gravitational acceleration, and
a component perpendicular to the Earth’s axis with magnitude aG cos φ − aod . The angle that
the gravitational acceleration makes with the perpendicular to the Earth’s axis will then be
aG sin φ
α = arctan = 50.2◦ .
aG cos φ − aod
Latitudes are most commonly measured from the perpendicular to the Earth’s axis (the
equator is at 0◦ and the poles at 90◦ ). So, to determine the angle between the line connecting
the point and the center of the Earth and the gravitational acceleration, we must take the
difference between them. In our case, |α − φ| ≈ 0.1◦ .
Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem EE . . . conductive air

A parallel plate capacitor with an area A and spacing d is charged to voltage U . Determine
how long it takes for this voltage to drop to one third if there is air of conductivity σ between
the plates. Jarda’s batteries are dead.
The capacitance of a capacitor is typically determined as
εA
C= ,
d
where ε represents the permittivity, and the meaning of A and d is given in the problem. The
voltage U and the charge on the plates Q are related by the equation Q = CU .
Let us assume that the air between the plates forms a resistor with a large resistance,
specifically
1 d
R= .
σA
We can determine the displacement current between the plates as
U
I= ,
R
and the charge on the plates decreases as
dQ dU U
− = −C =I = .
dt dt R
We can solve this differential equation by a method called separation of variables
 
t
U = U0 exp − .
CR
Now, we need to substitute the previously found values of resistance and capacitance
εA 1 d ε
CR = = .
d σA σ

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

The time evolution of the voltage across the capacitor is

 
σt
U = U0 exp − .
ε
Therefore, the final solution is
ε
T = ln(3) .
σ

Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

Problem EF . . . my brother Coriolis

Pepa wanted a practical reminder of gravity, so he came up with a certain (thought) experiment:
by what distance from the base of a perpendicular does a textbook deviate during a free fall
from the Institute of Theoretical Physics at MFF UK due to the Coriolis force? Consider that
the Institute is at height h = 60 m, the air resistance is negligible and the latitude of Prague
is φ = 50◦ N. The relation for Coriolis acceleration is ⃗aC = −2 ω
⃗ × ⃗v .
Pepa had an exam on general relativity.
We will neglect higher-order effects in our solution and assume simple free fall (uniformly
accelerated motion), with the addition of the Coriolis force acting on the body. Since this
force is always perpendicular to the velocity ⃗v of the falling object, as given in the problem
statement, and the velocity remains nearly vertical, we will only consider its effect in the
horizontal direction.
In our case, the Coriolis force will be due to the Earth’s rotation about its axis, so our
.
angular velocity magnitude will be ω = 1 rot·day−1 = 7.27 · 10−5 rad·s−1 and its direction will
be identical to the direction of the Earth’s axis of rotation. Hence, the angle between the
vectors ω⃗ and −⃗v will be 90◦ − φ, so
aC = −2 |⃗ ω | |⃗v | sin(90◦ − φ) = 2ωv cos(φ) .
ω × ⃗v | = 2 |⃗
By integrating this acceleration over time, we obtain the value of the horizontal component
of the velocity vv (t) of the body at time t. We use the approximation that the horizontal
component remainsp significantly smaller than the vertical component of velocity vz throughout
the fall, so |⃗v (t)| = vz2 (t) + vv2 (t) ≈ vz (t) = gt. We then have
Z t Z t
vv (t) = aC (t) dt = 2ωgt cos(φ) dt = ωgt2 cos(φ) ,
0 0

where we set the initial value of the horizontal velocity vv (0) to zero (as well as vz (0)). Further
integration over time gives the trajectory that the body travels in the horizontal direction, i.e.,
exactly the deviation from the straight vertical trajectory we are looking for
Z t Z t
t3
sv (t) = vv (t) dt = ωgt2 cos(φ) dt = ωg cos(φ) .
0 0
3
Now, we need to substitute the time it takes the body to fall freely (in the vertical direction
only) from the height h, so r
t21 2h
h=g =⇒ t0 = .
2 g

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Thus, the deviation we are looking for is

r
2 2h3 .
sv (t0 ) = ω cos(φ) = 6.5 mm .
3 g

Jakub Kliment
[email protected]

Problem EG . . . interstellar chocolate

An unnamed chocolate company decided to distribute chocolate to distant planets. Calculate
the longest distance they can send a shipment of ten 100-gram bars that expire in exactly tcok =
= 1.0 y and about which the company can tell the aliens that their mdod = 5.0 kg of chocolate is
on its way. Consider that a speed approaching the speed of light has no effect on the properties
of the chocolate (taste, smell, expiration date etc. . . ), and that the time it takes for the chocolate
to accelerate is negligible relative to the time of the entire flight.
. . . weren’t the chocolates bigger?
To calculate the farthest possible distance, we need to calculate the speed the delivery must
travel at and the time the chocolate can fly before it expires.
First, we calculate the speed at which the condition for the weight of the chocolate delivery
is met. This speed is simply expressed from the formula for the relativistic mass as
mcok
mdod = q .
2
1 − vc2

So the speed will be r  2

mcok
v=c 1− .
mdod
Now let’s calculate the time. Consider that while the chocolate is moving almost at the speed
of light, this will have no effect on its properties, i.e. its expiration time will remain the same.
However, we also know that at this speed time passes at different rate for the chocolate, so we
must recalculate the maximum amount of time that chocolate can fly for time in its system to
be exactly one year. We use the formula for the time dilation
r
v2
tcok = t 1− ,
c2
tcok
t= q .
v2
1− c2

Now we will substitute the calculated speed into the expressed time to get
tcok tcok mdod
t= s  = .
mcok

2  mcok
c2 1− mdod
1− c2

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

All we have to do now is substitute the two calculated maxima into the formula for the distance
r  2 r 2
tcok mdod mcok mdod
x = tv = c 1− = tcok c − 1.
mcok mdod mcok
Finally, we just substitute the numerical values from the assignment. We can notice that the
product tcok · c gives us the light year, so we just need to evaluate the expression in the square
root  s 
 2
5.0 kg √
.
x = 1 − 1 ly = 1 · 24 ly = 4.9 ly .
1.0 kg

The farthest we can send this shipment of chocolate is 4.9 light years.
Monika Drexlerová
[email protected]

Problem EH . . . 4 pulleys and 4 weights

Let us consider pulleys and weights arranged as shown in the
figure. The weights have masses of m1 = 1.1 kg, m2 = 2.2 kg,
m3 = 3.3 kg and m4 = 4.4 kg. All ropes and pulleys are massless
and perfectly inextensible. What is the acceleration of the weight
with mass m1 ? Use a positive sign if it accelerates downward and
a negative sign if it accelerates upward.
Lego wanted a fairly typical pulley problem.
m1 m4
The fact that the ropes and pulleys are massless means that
the resulting forces and torques acting on them must be zero
(because F = ma = 0a = 0). In the following paragraph, we will
repeatedly use this fact.
For both ropes on which the weights hang, the tension is m2 m3
the same throughout the length of each rope. Let us denote the
tensions in the ropes as T1 and T2 . The upper free pulley is pulled
upward by a force of 2T1 , so the rope hanging from it must pull it downward with the same
force. This rope is also massless and is thus pulling the lower free pulley upward with a force
of 2T1 . This pulley is pulled downward by the second rope with a force of 2T2 . Therefore, it
must hold that 2T1 = 2T2 , from which it is clear that the tensions in both ropes are equal. Let
us denote T1 = T2 = T .
Let us define the acceleration of each weight as positive if it points downward and negative
if it points upward. We can then write the equations of motion (Newton’s second law) for all
the weights as follows

m1 a1 = m1 g − T ,
m2 a2 = m2 g − T ,
m3 a3 = m3 g − T ,
m4 a4 = m4 g − T .

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

It is also necessary to use the fact that the ropes do not change their length (and the
pulleys retain their shape). What would happen if we slightly moved the weights? The upper
free pulley moves upward by the average displacement of weights m1 and m2 downward. The
lower pulley must move upward by the same distance (the average displacement of weights m1
and m2 ), so the center of mass of weights m3 and m4 must also move upward by the same
distance. That gives us the condition for the displacements of the weights. Let us denote the
displacement of a weight as positive if it moves downward and negative if it moves upward. We
can express this condition mathematically as
∆x1 + ∆x2 ∆x3 + ∆x4
=− ,
2 2
∆x1 + ∆x2 + ∆x3 + ∆x4 = 0 .
When we take the second derivative of this relation with respect to time, we get the condition
for the accelerations
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 = 0 .
Thus, we have 5 equations (4 motion equations and 1 condition for accelerations) and
5 unknowns (4 accelerations and 1 tension in the rope). Let us solve them. From the motion
equations, we substitute all the accelerations except for a1 (since that is the one we are interested
in) into the condition for accelerations
 
1 1 1
a1 + 3g − T + + = 0.
m2 m3 m4
Now, substitute for T from the first equation of motion
 
1 1 1
a1 + 3g + m1 (a1 − g) + + = 0.
m2 m3 m4
We divide everything by m1 and rearrange the equation, isolating the terms with a1 on one
side and the terms with g on the other. Finally, we divide by the factor in front of a1 and get
the result
− m3 + m12 + m13 + m14 .
a1 = 1 1 g = −9.0 m·s−2 .
m1
+ m12 + m13 + m14

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem FA . . . Three Gorges Dam

How did the length of the day change after the Three Gorges Dam in China was filled? The
maximum volume of the dam is 39.3 km3 , its average altitude is 160 m above the sea level,
and its coordinates are 30◦ N and 111◦ E. Assume that the water was originally distributed
uniformly over the whole surface of Earth. And yet people can move the Earth!
Consider a model where water from the ocean surface is transferred to a single point to fill
the given volume of the dam. This changes the mass distribution over the entire planet,
its moment of inertia, and, according to the law of conservation of angular momentum, its
rotational velocity, and the length of the day. The altitude is negligible compared to the
Earth’s radius, so we consider the Three Gorges Dam to be at one point on the Earth’s surface.

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

The initial moment of inertia is

2 2
Ji = M⊕ R⊕ .
5
2 .
The volume of water transferred is V = 4πR⊕ d, where d = 0.08 mm is the thickness of the
water at the surface that is being removed to the Three Gorges Dam. The Earth’s moment of
inertia, ignoring this surface layer is
2
J− = Ji − 2
V ρR⊕ ,
3
where ρ is the density of water. We can neglect the thickness of the water layer in the equation
since d ≪ R⊕ . The water in the dam is now treated as being concentrated at a single point,
.
located at a distance R⊕ cos φ from Earth’s axis of rotation, where φ = 30◦ represents the
dam’s latitude. The new moment of inertia of the Earth is therefore
2
Jf = Ji − 2
V ρR⊕ 2
+ V ρR⊕ cos2 φ .
3
Now, let us use the law of conservation of angular momentum

Ji ωi = Jf ωf ,

where
2π
ω=
T
is the angular velocity of the Earth’s rotation, and T is its period. We get
  
Ji Jf Ji − 23 V ρR⊕
2 2
+ V ρR⊕ cos2 φ 5V ρ 2
= ⇒ Tf = Ti = Ti 1− − cos2 φ .
Ti Tf Ji 2M⊕ 3

The change in the length of a day is therefore

 
5V ρ 2 .
∆T = Tf − Ti = Ti cos2 φ − = 0.12 μs .
2M⊕ 3
The day has lengthened by 0.12 μs.
Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

Problem FB . . . TEM
It is possible to observe the diffraction of electrons on the periodic lattice of atoms in crystals
using the transmission electron microscope (TEM). Assume that electrons accelerated by the
voltage of 90.0 kV hit perpendicularly a square lattice of gold atoms with a lattice constant
of 407.856 pm. How many degrees are the electrons deflected at the first-order maximum?
Jarda wanted to combine all areas of physics into one problem.
To solve this problem, we must use our knowledge of quantum physics, relativity, and wave
optics. Electrons interacting with the atomic lattice exhibit wave properties determined by
their wavelength, which in turn depends on their momentum. We must use special relativity to
accurately determine this momentum, as classical physics would not provide the correct result.

38
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Finally, using the knowledge of the wavelength of electrons, we calculate their deviation from
the original direction.
Starting from the end – the equation for the diffraction of a wave on a grid is

d sin α = k λ ,

where d is the distance of the atoms in the lattice, α is the angle from the normal to the surface,
k = 1 is the order of the first maximum, and λ is the wavelength of the incident electrons. This
relationship can be derived through simple reasoning. The strongest electron scattering occurs
in directions where constructive interference takes place. For this to happen, the difference in
the distances traveled by the electrons must be an integer multiple of the wavelength λ. That
forms the right-hand side of the equation, while the left-hand side follows from the condition
on the path difference.
We see that the electron wavelength is required, which is given by the de Broglie equation
h
λ= ,
p
where h is Planck constant and p is the momentum of the particle. The wavelength for macro-
scopic objects is negligible, while for microscopic particles, it is comparable to, for example, the
inter-atomic distance and interference effects such as diffraction can occur. Our next task is to
calculate the electron’s momentum.
In classical physics, we can determine the momentum simply from the kinetic energy. The
electrons have gained kinetic energy Ek = U e = 90.0 keV by accelerating in the electric potential
.
U = 90.0 kV. However, this value is already comparable to their rest mass E0 = 511 keV, which
is the condition for using special relativity. We can calculate the momentum from the particle’s
rest energy and its total energy according to the relation

E 2 = (E0 + U e)2 = E02 + p2 c2 ,

where E = E0 + U e is the particle’s total energy. The momentum is therefore

q
1 1p
p= (E0 + U e)2 − E02 = 2E0 U e + U 2 e2 .
c2 c
As we now have everything to calculate the angular deviation from the initial direction, let’s
plug the results into the first relation
λ h hc
sin α = = = √ ,
d pd d 2E0 U e + U 2 e2
from which we obtain
. .
α = 0.551◦ = 9.61 mrad .

Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem FC . . . another race of point particles

Lego is preparing for a competition of theoretical physicists competing against each other in
a point mass race. The point particles circle a track that goes around a rod of length L lying
on the ground. Lego has made its point mass so that its highest acceleration is a and its speed
relative to the rod is always the same magnitude. Advise Lego how to choose the magnitude
of this velocity so that his point mass circles the bar in the shortest time.
Lego is still too inept to race anything real.
We can assume that the track consists of two identical straight sections and two identical curves.
Therefore, it suffices to analyze the total time for one straight section and one curve.
For a speed v, the mass point must move along a circular path (with radius R), for which
the following holds
v2 v2
a= ⇒ R= .
R a
Lego’s mass point will move on a semicircular curve with a length of o/2 = πR, which it
will undergo in
o/2 πR πv
t1 = = = .
v v a
If the mass point times the curve correctly, it will not only pass through the point where
the rod ends but will also be oriented perpendicularly to the rod at that moment. Then, the
straight section of the track will have a length of L − 2R, since there is a semicircle of radius R
on both sides (here, we tacitly assume that L > 2R, though we will later revisit the possibility
that this may not hold). The time required for Lego’s point to go across the straight section is
then 2
L − 2R L − 2 va L 2v
t2 = = = − .
v v v a
We want to minimize the total time
πv L 2v L v
T = t1 + t2 = + − = + (π − 2) ,
a v a v a
where the parameter we are minimizing over is v. To find the optimal value, we differentiate T
with respect to v and set the result equal to zero 0 to obtain the optimal velocity
dT L π−2
0= =− 2 + ,
dv v a
r
La
= v.
π−2
Let us verify our assumption that L > 2R, which ensures that the “straight section” has
a non-negative length, meaning that if the so-called “optimal velocity” does not satisfy this
assumption, it would indicate an incorrect mathematical approach. Evaluating, we find
2
vopt L L
Ropt = = > .
a π−2 2
Wait a minute– this actually needed verification. At first, I was surprised too!

40
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

The threshold velocity for which 2R = L is

r
v2 La
L = 2R = 2 ⇒ v0 = ,
a 2
which matches the condition where the “straight section” has zero length. The method we used
to compute the time is only valid for velocities v < v0 .
For velocities v > v0 , the point will simply move in a circular path with the radius we
calculated. Since the diameter of this circle is greater than or equal to L, the rod fits inside,
meaning the point can indeed orbit around it. In this case, the time for half an orbit is T = t1 .
Differentiating this time, we get
dt1 π
0= = ,
dv a
which has no solution. So, the time for v > v0 has a global minimum on the boundary of the
interval we are examining. Since its derivative is positive, the minimum occurs at the lower
boundary of this interval, i.e., at v = v0 . Similarly, T = t1 + t2 has a negative derivative for
all v < v0 , meaning the minimum is achieved at
r
La
v = v0 = .
2
This simply corresponds to the situation where the point moves in a circle such that the
rod is its diameter.
Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem FD . . . oscillating floating plate

Lego saw a plate floating on the surface of water. The plate has thickness c = 1.0 cm, length a =
= 100 cm, width b = 10 cm and density ρd = ρv /2, where ρv is the density of water. So he
figured he would use it (how else) for small amplitude oscillations. This time, however, he did
not simply push it down, but instead made it oscillate by rotating it a little around its longest
axis (which has length a). What will be the period of these small oscillations?
Lego edited his old physics problem so no one could complain that he was stealing.
Let us denote the angle by which Lego rotated the plate as dφ. If this angle is small enough,
we can ignore the movement of the parts of the plate that remain underwater throughout the
rotation and focus only on the sections that emerge or submerge.
We are interested in the torque opposing this rotation. It arises because, on the side that
moves downward, a larger portion of the plate becomes submerged, increasing the buoyant
force. Conversely, on the opposite side, part of the plate emerges, reducing the buoyant force.
Since the plate was initially in equilibrium (and its weight remains unchanged by the rotation),
the change in buoyant force at any given point is equal to the net force at that point. As we
mentioned, we are interested in the resultant torque, so for each distance from the axis, we
calculate the force, multiply it by the distance, and integrate this over all distances.
Thus, we will integrate over thin rectangular strips at a distance x from the axis. Each strip
has a width dx and a fixed length a. For small angles dφ, the vertical displacement of the plate

41
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

at the location of a given strip changes by x dφ. Thus, the volume of the submerged part will
change by
dV = x dφa dx .
To obtain the elemental force, we multiply by gρv . To obtain the elemental torque, we
further multiply by x, giving us

dM = x dF = xgρv dV = gρv ax2 dφ dx ,

which we integrate from −b/2 to b/2

Z b
2 1 b 1 b3
M= gρv ax2 dφ dx = gρv a dφ [x3 ]−
2
b = gρv a dφ .
b
−2
3 2 3 4

The plate is restored to its equilibrium position by a torque, which gives us an angular
stiffness of kφ = (1/12)gρv ab3 times the angle of displacement.
Next, we must determine the plate’s angular inertia, i.e., its moment of inertia about the
given axis. While this could be computed directly by integration, we can instead use the known
result for a homogeneous rectangle with sides b and c, viewed along the axis. Since the plate
has a mass of m = abcρd , we can use this to find the moment of inertia
1
J= abcρd (b2 + c2 ) .
12
Thus, the angular acceleration ε = M/J will be in the opposite direction to the displacement,
so the equation of motion will be
¨ + kφ dφ = 0 ,
dφ
J
which is the equation of the linear harmonic oscillator. We skip the lecture about its solving
and simply plug in the formula for the period of small oscillations
r s r
1
J 12
abcρd (b2 + c2 ) c(b2 + c2 ) .
T = 2π = 2π 1
= 2π = 0.14 s .
kφ 12
gρv ab3 2gb2

Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

Problem FE . . . mobile mirror

Teri was looking at her mobile phone screen from a distance
of 20.0 cm. Suddenly, her reflection on the screen caught her
attention and she focused on it. How many times must she have
increased the radius of curvature of the lens in her eye if we
assume that this lens is symmetrical and thin? The radius of the
eyeball is 1.20 cm, the refractive index of the air is n0 = 1.00, of
the lens n1 = 1.42 and of the vitreous humor n2 = 1.34.
Teri was posting stories on FYKOS’s instagram.

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

In this problem we use the following sign convention. The object and image distances are
negative to the left of the interface (or positive to the right of the interface), and the radius of
curvature of the lens is positive when the center of curvature lies to the right of the interface
(or negative when it lies to the left). The distance of the object is therefore a1 = −20 cm. The
ray goes from left to right, and therefore the centre of curvature of the first interface is positive
and that of the second is negative.
The lens is enveloped by air on one side and by vitreous humor on the other. Therefore, for
each lens interface, we use the equation for imaging through a spherical interface
   
1 1 1 1
n0 − = n1 − ,
a R a′ R
where n0 is the refractive index of the first medium, n1 is the refractive index of the other
medium, a is the object distance, a′ is the image distance, and R is is the radius of curvature
of the interface (lens).
First, we calculate where the screen is imaged. For the first interface, where by the sign
convention the radius of curvature of the lens is positive, we get the equation
   
1 1 1 1
n0 − = n1 − ,
a1 R1 s′ R1
where n0 is the refractive index of air, n1 is the refractive index of the lens, a1 is the distance
of the object (here the distance of the screen), s′ is the distance of the image and R1 is the
radius of curvature of the lens. The inverse of the image distance is therefore
 
1 n0 1 1 1
= − + .
s′ n1 a1 R1 R1
The distance of this image is now determined as the distance of the object to be viewed
through the second lens interface s′ = s. Again, we use the equation for imaging through
a spherical interface  
 
1 1 1 1
n1 + = n2 + ,
s R1 a′1 R1
where the sign in front of 1/R1 has changed because R1 is negative due to sign convention
(however, due to the lens symmetry, the absolute value is the same as for the first interface).
Furthermore, in the equation a1′ is the distance of the object, n2 is the refractive index of the
vitreous humor, and for 1/s we substitute the result of the previous equation. If the image is
supposed to be focused, it must appear on the retina, i.e. a′1 = 2r, where r is the radius of the
eye.
Overall, we express the radius of curvature from the previous equation
2a1 r(2n1 − n0 − n2 )
R1 = .
2n0 r − n2 a1
Looking at the reflection, Teri focused on it. This reflection is at the same distance from the
screen as she is, so we get a new distance a2 = 2a1 for the object, and we can express the new
radius of curvature R2 using the previous equation as
4a1 r(2n1 − n0 − n2 )
R2 = .
2n0 r − 2n2 a1

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

When we express the ratio of R1 and R2 , we get the resulting change in radius of curvature
R2 2n0 r − n2 a1 .
= = 1.04 .
R1 n0 r − n2 a1
Thus, Teri had to increase the radius of curvature of her lens by 4 %.
Tereza Hochmanová
[email protected]

Problem FF . . . point mass in a round corner

Consider a plane bounded by a boundary in the form of a circle with radius R = 15 m. A point
mass lies inside, close to the boundary. It is suddenly sent with velocity v0 = 30 m·s−1 tangent
to the boundary. The friction between the pad and the mass point is given by the friction
coefficient f = 0.60, as is the friction between it and the mantel. How long does it take for the
point to stop? Jarda was inspired by his favourite assignement.
The frictional force is defined as
FT = −f FN ,
where FN is the normal force on the base or the boundary, and the minus sign indicates that
the frictional force acts against the direction of motion of the point mass. For friction between
the point mass and the base, the friction force equals
FT = −f mg .
For the friction between the point mass and the boundary, we have
v2
FTO = −f m .
R
The coefficient v 2 /R represents the centrifugal acceleration acting on the mass point
v2
a = ω2 R = .
R
The equation of motion for a mass point, where we consider velocity v instead of position x,
can be written as
v2
mv̇ = −f mg − f m .
R
As it is a linear differential
√ equation with separated variables, we can solve it via integration
with substitution u = v/ gR
1 v2
v̇ = −1 − ,
fg gR
1 v̇
− = 1,
f g 1 + v2
Z
gR

1 1
−
dv = t ,
fg v 2
1+ gR

44
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025
r Z
1 R 1
− du = t ,
f g 1 + (u)2
r
1 R v
− arctan √ = t + t0 ,
f g gR
p  q 
g
v=− gR tan f (t + t0 ) .
R
The integration constant t0 can be expressed from the initial condition v(0) = v0 as
r  
1 R v0
t0 = − arctan √ .
f g gR

The overall solution for the velocity is then

 q  
p g v0
v(t) = − gR tan f t − arctan √ .
R gR

Now, we still need to determine when the velocity v will be zero. Luckily for us, the tangent
function takes the value 0 trivially at 0, which corresponds to the situation when

t = −t0 = 2.4 s ,

where t0 was expressed earlier in the search for a solution for velocity.
Petr Sacher
[email protected]

Problem FG . . . billiards
Petr is playing billiards. Only the black ball remains, and it is
located at a distance d = 30 cm from the center of a pocket with D0
a diameter D0 = 11.4 cm, The black ball is also a = 10 cm from
one of the table rails. The white ball is l = 1.0 m away from
d
the black ball and is at the same distance a from the same rail
as the black ball. What is the minimum kinetic energy Petr has
l
to transfer to the white ball with the pool cue so that the black a
ball falls into the pocket? Both balls decelerate uniformly with D
a deceleration of α = 30 cm·s−2 , and Petr aims the black ball at
the center of the pocket. Assume both balls have the same mass m = 160 g and diameter D =
= 5.7 cm, and their collision is perfectly elastic. Neglect ball rotation. All provided distances
are measured from the centers of the balls. Peter used to play billiards with his friends.
The ball will fall into the pocket when its center passes beyond the pocket’s edge. Since the
ball also decelerates uniformly with the rate of deceleration α, we can write the conditions for
the critical velocity of the black ball as.

vm − αt = 0 ,
1 D0
vm t − αt2 = d − ,
2 2

45
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

where t is the time it takes for the black ball to reach the edge of the pocket. From the
first equation, we can solve for t, and then substitute it into the second equation to find the
magnitude of the critical velocity vm
p .
vm = α(2d − D0 ) = 38 cm·s−1 .

When the white ball strikes the black ball, it transfers velocity to it according to conservation
of momentum principle. However, we only consider the component of velocity along the line
connecting the centers of the balls at the moment of collision. Notice that the white ball
transfers the entire velocity component to the black ball, because both balls have the same
mass m and the black ball is initially at rest. This can be written as

vm = v cos γ ,

where v is the velocity of the white ball before the collision (or the velocity of the black ball
after the collision), and γ is the angle between the velocity vector of the white ball and the
line connecting the centers of the balls at the moment of collision. Now, let us consider the
geometry of the problem, referring to the diagram provided. For the angle θ between the
horizontal direction and the line connecting the centers of the black ball and the pocket, we
have
a
cos θ = ,
d
a .
θ = arccos = 70.5◦ .
d
Since d is the shortest distance between the black ball and the pocket, we want to shoot
the black ball under this angle. Therefore, we want the white ball to strike the black ball such
that the angle between the line connecting the centers of the balls and the horizontal direction
during the collision is equal to θ. Let us denote by φ the angle at which we need to shoot the
white ball. By analyzing geometry, we get
D cos θ
tan φ = ,
l − D sin θ
D cos θ .
φ = arctan = 1.15◦ .
l − D sin θ
For γ, we have
π .
γ= − θ + φ = 20.6◦ .
2
Now, let us we determine the minimum initial velocity v0 . Let L be the distance traveled
by the white ball before the collision. We can calculate
D cos θ .
L= = 95 cm .
sin φ
For the velocity v0 , the following must hold

v0 − αT = v ,
1
v0 T − αT 2 = L ,
2

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

where T is the time it takes for the white ball to travel the distance L. Solving for T from the
first equation and substituting it into the second equation, we find v0 as
r
D cos θ α (2d − D0 ) .
v0 = 2α + = 86 cm·s−1 .
sin φ cos2 γ
Finally, we substitute into the well-known formula for kinetic energy

!
1 D cos θ d − D20 .
Ek = mv02 = mα + = 59 mJ .
2 sin φ cos2 γ

Petr Sacher
[email protected]

Problem FH . . . pencil on the edge

A pencil of length l with negligible thickness is placed on the right edge of the table so that 3/5
of its length are on the table and the remaining 2/5 are hanging in the air. What is the
greatest distance dmax from the table at which we can strike the pencil from below with an
upward impulse of force such that the pencil is immediately lifted off the table in its entirety
(and thus not merely tipped over its left end)? Provide the result as the ratio dmax /l.
Kuba was playing with a pencil during the lecture.
Let us denote the magnitude of the impulse of the force by I, the distance of the impulse of
the force from the center of gravity of the pencil by x and the mass of the pencil by m. Note
that to actually apply the impulse in the air and not on the table, the following must hold
l
x> .
10
The impulse of the force gives the pencil a momentum p and a moment L with respect to the
axis of rotation passing through its centre of gravity. If the pencil is to be lifted off the table
immediately (and thus receives no additional impulse of force from the table), we get from the
impulse theorems

∆p = F ∆t = I ⇒ p=I,
∆L = xF ∆t = xI ⇒ L = Ix .

Now let us examine the vertical displacement of the left end of the pencil dy0 at the first
infinitesimal time point dt. For the vertical y-coordinate of the centre of gravity y we have
dy p dt I dt
p=m ⇒ dy = = .
dt m m
At the same time, the pencil rotates around its centre of gravity by dθ, which satisfies
dθ 1 dθ 12L dt 12Ix dt
L=J = ml2 ⇒ dθ = = ,
dt 12 dt ml2 ml2
where we have used the relation for the moment of inertia of a thin rod with respect to the axis
through its centre of gravity J = (1/12)ml2 .

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

From the geometry, we see that the vertical displacement of the left end of the pencil dh
caused by rotation by dθ is
2 dh l dθ 6Ix dt
− tan dθ = − dθ = ⇒ dh = − =−
l 2 ml
and thus we get  
I dt 6x
dy0 = dy + dh = 1− .
m l
The pencil will detach from the table when dy0 > 0, which gives the condition
 
6x l
1− > 0 ⇐⇒ x < .
l 6
However, the task was to find out the maximum distance from the edge of the table
l l
dmax = xmax − = .
10 15
Thus, we obtain the final result
dmax 1
= .
l 15
Let us also comment on the fact that the solution of the problem is not affected by the
gravitational acceleration. The condition dy0 > 0 means in terms of derivatives

ẏ0 (0) > 0 . (1)

Thus, the function y0 (t) must be increasing (which is exactly what we want). However, the
gravitational acceleration will always be proportional to the term ÿ0 and therefore will not
eventually play a role in the (1) condition (thus affecting its convexity/concavity, but not its
monotonicity).
Jakub Koňárek
[email protected]

Problem GA . . . let’s not neglect Saturn

What is the ratio of the gravitational force acting on a body of mass m = 10.0 kg by Saturn
to that acting on it by Saturn’s rings? Assume that the body is exactly on the axis of the
rings at a distance D = 100 000 km from the centre of the planet. Consider further that the
rings are a homogeneous disk with a constant surface density ρ = 315 kg·m−2 with the inner
radius R0 = 67 300 km and the outer radius R1 = 140 000 km centered at the center of Saturn.
Saturn has a mass of MS = 5.68 · 1026 kg. Pepa decided to get out of his comfort zone.
First, we calculate the gravitational force exerted by Saturn on a body of mass m
MS m
FS = G .
D2
Let’s also determine the force from the rings. Consider a thin ring with an area of dS =
= 2πr dr, located at a distance r from the planet’s center. Since every point on the ring is
equidistant from the body, the forces acting toward the planet add up, while those in the plane

48
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

perpendicular to the line connecting the body and the planet’s center cancel out. The force
exerted by this thin ring on the body is given by
mρ2πr dr D
dFp = G √ ,
r2 + D2 r + D2
2
√
where r2 + D2 represents the square of the ring’s distance from the body, and D/ r2 + D2
accounts for the component of the force directed toward the planet’s center. The resulting force
is then obtained by integrating from R0 to R1 (this integral can be solved by substituting t
for r2 + D2 ). !
1 1
Fp = −2mDρπG p −p .
R12 + D2 R02 + D2
Then, we substitute in the ratio
p
FS MS (R02 + D2 )(R12 + D2 ) .
= p p  = 1.16 · 108 .
Fp 2D3 ρπ R12 + D2 − R02 + D2

Thus, the force exerted on the body by Saturn is more than 108 times stronger than the
force from its rings.
Radovan Lev
[email protected]

Problem GB . . . electrostatic pyramid

Imagine a square with sides of length a = 0.5 m. Positive point charges of size Q = 15 μC
are placed in the square’s vertices. We construct a fixed axis perpendicular to the square’s
surface passing through the center of the square. We thread a bead of mass m = 80 g charged
with a positive charge q = 2.0 μC to the axis. What would be the period of small oscillations
of the bead? Peter remembered Egypt.
Let us denote the height of the bead along the axis as z. For the gravitational force, we have
FT = mg .
The electrostatic force can be determined using the formula
1 Qq
FE = ,
4πε0 R2
where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity, and R the distance of the bead from the charge Q. Using
geometry, we can express this distance using the Pythagorean theorem as
r
a2
R= + z2 .
2
It is helpful to realize that the x and y components of the forces acting on the charge q
from the opposite charges Q cancel each other out (and the bead’s motion is restricted to the z-
direction). Thus, we only need to consider the z component of the force FE , i.e., its projection
onto the z-axis
Qq cos θ 1
FE,z = ,
2πε0 a2 + 2z 2

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

where θ is the angle between the axis and the line connecting the charges Q, q. With the help
of geometry, we can express √
2z
cos θ = √ ,
a2 + 2z 2
and then obtain √
2Qq z
FE,z = .
2πε0 (a2 + 2z 2 )3/2
Since there are four charges, the total force is the sum of four times the force FE,z and the
gravitational force FT √
2 2Qq z
F = − mg .
πε0 (a2 + 2z 2 )3/2
Now, we calculate the period of small oscillations (with the help of Taylor expansion). The
equation of motion for the bead is
√
2 2Qq z
mz̈ − + mg = 0 .
πε0 (a2 + 2z 2 )3/2

We can rearrange this equation by defining the stable position of the bead F (z0 ) = 0 and
introducing a new coordinate (displacement) ξ = z − z0 . To find z0 we would have to solve
a cubic equation, but for now, we will find its value numerically using a calculator. We will
come back to it later. Now, we can linearize the force dependence F (ξ) by assuming ξ ≪ z0 .

z0 + ξ z0 ξ 6z02 ξ
≈ + − =
(a2 + 2(z0 + ξ)2 )3/2 (a2 + 2z02 )3/2 (a2 +2z02 )3/2(a2 + 2z02 )5/2
√
πε0 mg 4z02 − a2 2 2Qq 4z02 − a2
= √ − ξ ⇒ ξ¨ + ξ = 0.
2 2Qq (a2 + 2z02 )5/2 πmε0 (a2 + 2z02 )5/2

Before solving this differential equation (for example, via variation of parameters), we recall
that the general form of the equation for a harmonic oscillator is

ÿ + ω 2 y = 0 ,

where ω is the angular frequency of oscillation. So, if the factor in front of ξ is positive (i.e., if
z0 > a/2), the frequency will be real, and we can compute it as
s √
2 2Qq 4z02 − a2
ω= .
πmε0 (a2 + 2z02 )5/2

We can calculate the period of oscillation using the relation ω = 2π/T

s
√ 5/2
2π3 mε0 (2z02 + a2 )
T = .
Qq 4z02 − a2

To find the numerical value of the result, we still need to compute the value of z0 . We can do
this using an iterative method, which is often used to solve analytically unsolvable equations. It
involves isolating the variable we seek on one side of the equation. The other side will contain

50
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

an expression that still includes this variable, so we substitute it with an initial estimate. By
computing the value of the expression, we get a better estimate for the sought value, which we
can then substitute again. This process is iteratively repeated on the calculator until the result
no longer changes (the sequence converges to the solution). In our case, we have two ways
to express the sought z0 from the equation F (z0 ) = 0, each of which converges to a different
solution.
√
2 2Qq z0
− mg = 0 ⇒
πε0 (a2 + 2z02 )3/2

3/2 .
z0,n = 2πε√02Qq
mg
a2 + 2z0,n−1
2
→ z0,∞ = 0.033 m
r 2/3
⇒
z0,n = Qq z0,n−1
− a2
2 .
→ z0,∞ = 1.087 m
πε0 mg

.
As we can see, only the second solution satisfies the condition z0 > a/2, so we have z0 =
.
= 1.09 m. We can now substitute this into the derived expression for the period of the bead
.
and get T = 1.6 s.
Petr Sacher Jakub Kliment
[email protected] [email protected]

Problem GC . . . heavenly aquarium

There is an aquarium in heaven with a height of h = 0.50 m filled with holy water, the refractive
index of which decreases linearly with height so that at the bottom it has the value n0 = 1.6
and at the surface n1 = 1.3. Saint Peter directed a laser beam into the aquarium from below
with an angle of incidence of 45◦ . Determine the horizontal distance from the point at which
the beam entered the aquarium at the bottom to the point at which it exited at the surface.
Consider the refractive index of air nvz = 1 (exactly) and that the walls of the aquarium are
negligibly thin.
Hint: Z
dx
√ = argcosh x, x ∈ ⟨1, ∞) .
x2 − 1
The same thought enlightened both Kuba and Petr.
Let us introduce a coordinate system with a horizontal axis x, a vertical axis y, and the
origin (0, 0) at the point where the ray enters the aquarium. Let y(x) denote the actual
trajectory of the ray in the aquarium. Before we start solving the problem itself, let us simplify
the situation a bit. Let us divide the aquarium into several equidistant layers, each with
a constant refractive index nk . In each layer, the ray will then propagate along a straight line.
If we denote by αk the angle that the k-th such line makes with the vertical, Snell’s law states
that the quantity nk sin αk is constant for all k. It is easy to realize that we can generalize this
idea for infinitely many layers, i.e. for a continuous change in the refractive index. For a ray
entering the aquarium from the air, in this limit we get
1
n(y) sin α(y) = nvz sin 45◦ = √ =: a0 . (2)
2

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

The refractive index n as a function of height y can be expressed as

n1 − n0
n(y) = n0 + y =: n0 + ky .
h
For the angle α from the geometry of a right triangle and from the properties of the derivative
we get √
dy 1 − sin2 α 1
= cot α = ⇒ sin α = p .
dx sin α 1 + (y ′ )2
The equation (2) can thus be modified to the form
n + ky
p0 = a0 .
1 + (y ′ )2
This is an ordinary differential equation that can be converted into a separated form by algebraic
manipulations
r
dy (n0 + ky)2
=± − 1,
dx a20
dy
q = ± dx . (3)
(n0 +ky)2
a2
−1
0

In the following, we will consider only the variant with a plus, we will return to the second
case later. We can now integrate the equation (3). On its left side we get
Z Z
dy a0 du a0
q = √ = argcosh u ,
(n0 +ky)2
−1 k u2 − 1 k
a2
0

where u = (n0 + ky)/a0 . We can easily see that u > 1, and argcosh u is thus indeed defined.
We integrate the right side trivially and get
a0 n0 + ky
argcosh = x − ξ, (4)
k a0
where ξ is the integration constant. If we now express the coordinate y from the equation (4),
we obtain  
1 k (x − ξ)
y= a0 cosh − n0 . (5)
k a0
Since the hyperbolic cosine is an even function, we see that the sign in the equation (3)
does not matter. It remains to determine the parameter ξ. We express it simply from the
equation (??) using the boundary condition y(0) = 0
a0 n0
ξ=− argcosh .
k a0
The resulting curve has the shape of a catenary, which in this case forms a concave arc.
This is exactly the shape of freely hanging chains. We will not delve into how surprising this

52
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

result is but simply note that both problems can be elegantly formulated using the calculus of
variations, which leads to the same variational problem in both cases.
We find the horizontal distance of the second intersection point by substituting y = h into
the resulting relation (5). As we would expect, we get two solutions
a0 n0 + kh
x=ξ± argcosh ,
k a0
where the larger solution corresponds to the unphysical case where the beam, after emerging
from the aquarium at the surface, turns around and re-enters. We can easily see that the correct
choice is the plus sign and the distance we are looking for is
a0 n0 + kh a0 n0
∆x = argcosh − argcosh ,
k a0 k a0
 
a0 n1 n0 .
= argcosh − argcosh = 0.28 m .
k a0 a0

Jakub Koňárek
[email protected]

Problem GD . . . strange equilibrium

Consider a non-conductive cylinder with a cross-sectional area S = 10 cm2 . The cylinder is
sealed on both ends with metal pistons, trapping some amount of ideal gas inside at a tem-
perature of T = 300 K. The external pressure is pa = 101 kPa, and the distance between the
pistons stabilizes on d0 = 1.0 mm. Then, the pistons are connected to a battery, which applies
a voltage of U = 250 V between the pistons. By how much will the pistons move closer due to
the applied voltage? Write a negative sign if they come further apart. Assume that d2 ≪ S,
the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant at T due to the heat exchange with the
surroundings, and the relative permittivity εr = 1. Lego
has wanted a problem like this problem for a long time but it was a pain to make it work.
When there is a potential difference between the pistons, it means that there are opposite
charge densities on them, and opposite charges attract each other. On the other hand, the
gas enclosed between the pistons will push them apart, but the surrounding atmosphere will
push them together. Therefore, the pistons will reach an equilibrium position where these two
forces cancel each other out. Let us calculate the magnitudes of these forces as a function of
the distance between the pistons.
We begin with the pressure. We use the ideal gas law in a form of p = nRT /V , where n
and R are constant, T is given, and V is the volume between the pistons. Since the cylinder
has a cross-sectional area S, for a piston distance d, the volume will be V = Sd. Thus, the
pressure of the gas becomes p = nRT /(Sd). On the opposite side, the atmospheric pressure pa
pushes on the piston. Therefore, the net force exerted by the air on the piston is:
nRT
Fp = S∆p = − pa S ,
d
From this, we can calculate that the number of particles n enclosed between the pistons is n =
= pa Sd0 /(RT ).

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

For sufficiently small distances d, the pistons will behave like a capacitor. The capacitance
of this capacitor is C = ε0 S/d, so the charge on the pistons will be Q = U C = U ε0 S/d, where
U is the potential difference between the pistons. This charge will be attracted by the electric
field produced by the charge on the opposite piston. For d2 ≪ S, this electric field will be the
same as the field produced by an infinite plate charged with a surface charge density σ = Q/S,
that is
σ Q
E= = .
2ε0 2Sε0
Be careful! We must consider the field from the second plate and not the field inside the
capacitor (which is twice as strong), because that would imply the plate “acting on itself”.
Mathematically, the field is discontinuous at the plate. The force exerted on the piston due to
this electric field is then:
Q2 U 2 ε20 S 2 U 2 ε0 S
FQ = EQ = = 2
= .
2Sε0 2d Sε0 2d2
The magnitudes of the two forces must be equal, from which we can express the distance d
for which they cancel each other out.
Fp = FQ ,
nRT U 2 ε0 S
− pa S = ,
d 2d2
1 2
0 = d2 pa S − dnRT +U ε0 ,
2
p
nRT ± (nRT )2 − 2S 2 pa U 2 ε0
Sd = ,
2pa S
p
pa Sd0 ± (pa Sd0 )2 − 2S 2 pa U 2 ε0
d= ,
2pa S
p
d0 ± d20 − 2U 2 ε0 /pa
d= ,
2
where in the penultimate step, we substituted from the initial condition pa Sd0 = nRT .
Now, we need to decide which root to consider. For U = 0, we should get d = d0 , which
we obtain exactly for the root with the plus sign, so we choose that one. The other root is
unstable – while the forces balance out, a small decrease in d would make the attractive force
stronger than the repulsive force, and the plates would approach each other to zero distance
(which is physically unrealistic). On the other hand, if d increases slightly, the system will
stabilize at the correct root.
Now, we can either directly substitute and subtract from d0 , or notice that d20 ≫ 2U 2 ε0 /pa
and perform a first order Taylor expansion
q
2U 2 ε0
d0 + d0 1− pa d2 U 2 ε0
= d0 −
0
d= .
2 2pa d0
.
Thus, the pistons approach by ∆d = U 2 ε0 /(2pa d0 ) = 2.7 nm, which corresponds to a few
dozen atoms.
Šimon Pajger
[email protected]

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem GE . . . a snow globe

Jarda has a decorative hemisphere with a Christmas motif (a snow globe). It has a radius R =
= 3.3 cm and is completely filled with water. Inside the globe, figurines are preparing to skate
on a frozen pond, represented by a reflective surface around the axis of symmetry. Elsewhere,
the base material of the snow globe is matte. The decoration is placed on a table, and one
day, Jarda illuminated it with a point light source positioned along the hemisphere’s axis of
symmetry at a height of h = 29 cm above the table. At what height above the highest point of
the hemisphere will the rays reconverge after interacting with the object?
Jarda was inventing promotional items for Výfuk.
If the reflective part is only near the symmetry axis of the snow globe, we will consider only
the rays traveling close to the optical axis of the system. Therefore, we can remain in the
approximation of classical geometrical optics, where all rays converge at a single point. Another
significant step is to realize that the mirror inverts the formed image around the plane of
symmetry – the base of the snow globe. However, nothing prevents us from flipping the situation
across the base plane and solving the problem in that setup. Thanks to the properties of the
mirror, our solution will be the same. Now, however, we are essentially computing the passage
of paraxial rays through a glass sphere because the hemisphere of the snow globe is conceptually
completed by another hemisphere behind the mirror. Thus, with a simple consideration, we
have transformed the problem into a somewhat simpler one.
Still, the problem is more complicated than it may seem at first. On the internet or in
textbooks, one can find pre-derived formulas for the focal length of a spherical lens, but we
need to derive them ourselves. The challenge is that this is not a thin lens, which we may
be familiar with from other problems, but rather a thick lens, where the distance between
the spherical interfaces is non-negligible (approximately 2R). Consequently, not all known
relationships apply here. There are different methods for solving problems involving thick
lenses, and we will choose the least direct one – computing the ray’s path from the source
through individual regions and determining the point where it intersects the optical axis again.
Let a be the distance of the source from the center of the sphere, and a′ be the distance of the
image from the center. According to the problem statement, we will eventually substitute a = h,
and our answer will be h′ = a′ − R.
Consider a ray emanating from the source at an angle α to the optical axis, intersecting the
sphere-air interface at point A, which is at a distance y from the optical axis. For this point,
we have
y = (a − R) α = Rφ ,
thus defining the angle φ, which the line connecting the sphere’s center and point A makes with
the optical axis. Recall that in the paraxial approximation, we work with small angles, so we
use the approximations x ≈ sin x ≈ tan x.
At point A, the ray refracts according to Snell’s law. In the air, the ray’s direction forms
an angle β = α + φ with the normal to the sphere’s surface. Inside, let the angle between the
ray and the line connecting the sphere’s center and point A be γ. Then

β = nγ ,

which is the Snell’s law form in our approximation, assuming the refractive index of air is one.
The angle γ thus depends only on the refractive index of water n. The glass maintaining the
snow globe’s shape is assumed to be very thin, so we neglect it.

55
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

The ray continues through the sphere until it reaches the opposite interface, where it refracts
again and eventually intersects the optical axis at the already defined distance a′ . Let us define
the second refraction point analogously to the first as A’, located at a distance y ′ from the
optical axis. Define angles γ ′ , β ′ , and α′ similarly to the previous interface. Here, we have β ′ =
= nγ ′ .
The problem is now well-defined and we only need to determine the distance a′ . Notice
that the triangle comprised of points A, A’, and the sphere center S is an isosceles triangle with
sides of length R. Thus, we have γ = γ ′ , which also implies β = β ′ , leading to
y y y′ y′
α + φ = α′ + φ′ ⇒ + = ′ + .
a−R R a −R R
The position of a′ should not depend on y or y ′ , so we must find another equation that
relates these two variables linearly. We have not yet considered the distance between the two
interfaces, so let us describe it using


y − y ′ = 2R γ ′ − φ′ = 2Rγ ′ − 2Rφ′ = 2Rγ ′ − 2y ′ ,
y + y ′ = 2Rγ .

Using Snell’s law, we successively substitute for γ

 
2R 2R 2R y y
y + y′ = β= (α + φ) = + ,
n n n a−R R
 
2R 1 1 n
y′ = y + − .
n a−R R 2R
Substituting this into our previous equation involving y and y ′ leaves us with
   
1 1 1 1 2R 1 1 n
+ = + + − ,
a−R R a′ −R R n a−R R 2R
from which we now express a′
1 1
n a−R
+R 1 1
− = ′ ,
2R 1
+ R − 2R
1 n
R a −R
 
a−R

n 1 2 1
− = ,
2R 1− nR(a−R) n a′ − R
2Ra
2a − na + nR
a′ = R +R,
2a (n − 1) − nR
a (2 − n) + 2a (n − 1)
a′ = R ,
2a (n − 1) − nR
nRa .
a′ = = 8.6 cm .
2a (n − 1) − nR

To correctly answer the problem, we must subtract the sphere’s radius

.
h′ = a′ − R = 5.3 cm .

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

The object is displayed at a distance of 5.3 cm above the top of the object. Incidentally,
using the Gaussian lens equation, we can express the focal length of the sphere as:
1 1 1 2R
+ ′ = ⇒ f= .
a a f 2 (n − 1)

Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

Problem GF . . . surface conductivity

Let’s consider an infinitely large conductive plane. We connect U
two electrodes to two points separated by a distance of a, allowing
a current I to flow between them. Another pair of electrodes I
is attached to the surface for voltage measurement. Together I

with the first two electrodes, they form a square on the surface.
a
The measured voltage between them is U . What is the surface
conductivity of the plane? Jarda simplified Karel’s task. a

We must first compute the electric field in the whole plane to

find the potential between the corners with voltage contacts. Then, we can obtain the potential
by integrating the field between these points. To calculate the field E, we use Ohm’s law in
differential form
j s = σs E ,
where σs is the surface conductivity, and js is the surface current density, which describes the
charge flow per unit length per unit time in a given point.
In this problem, the surface current density is easily determinable due to the symmetry of
the setup (the infinite extent of the plane, and the principle of superposition). We introduce
a 2D coordinate system with a conductor attached at the origin, injecting a current I into the
plane. The current must spread isotropically in all directions because the problem is angularly
symmetric. We assume the plane is grounded symmetrically at infinity, allowing the current
to flow away. For now, we do not consider another conductor making contact. Since the
current spreads out to infinity, its surface density must decrease with distance. Additionally,
conservation of current dictates that the total current crossing an imaginary circle of radius r
centered at the origin must satisfy
2πrjs (r) = I .
However, we must work with vectors. In the previous equation, js (r) represents the magni-
tude of the surface current density at a distance r from the center, and this relationship holds
only because the current density vector is perpendicular to the boundary of the imaginary cir-
cle. Knowing both the magnitude and direction of this vector, we can express its components
as
I x I y
js,x = , js,y = .
2π x2 + y 2 2π x2 + y 2
The expressions above describe the current density generated by current I flowing into the
plane at the origin. Now, by the principle of superposition, we add the effect of the current

57
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

flowing out at [a, 0], which has the same form but with an opposite sign (since it flows outward)
and shifted in x
I x−a I y
js,x = − , js,y = − .
2π (x − a)2 + y 2 2π (x − a)2 + y 2

Using the notation where the incoming current has a superscript in and the outgoing one out,
the total surface current density is
 
I x x−a y y
js = jin out
s + js = − , − .
2π x2 + y 2 (x − a)2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 (x − a)2 + y 2
Now that we have the current density, we can use the first equation to express the electric
field. The voltage between the measurement electrodes is given by
Z [a,a]
E · dl ,
[0,a]

where dl is the tangent vector along the path connecting these two points. We choose a straight-
line path. Due to the dot product in the integral, we only need to consider the x-component
of the electric field, as the y-component is perpendicular to this path. Since all points on the
path have the same y-coordinate, we can substitute y = a as we integrate over x from 0 to a
Z a  
I x x−a
U= − dx .
2πσs 0
x2 + a2 (x − a)2 + a2

Using the substitution u = x2 + a2 , du = 2x dx, we compute the first term in the integral as
Z a Z 2a2  
x 1 1 2a2 1
dx = du = ln = ln 2 .
0
x2 + a2 a2
2u 2 a2 2

By symmetry, the second term in the integral gives the same result with an opposite sign.
Thus, the voltage-current relationship gets simplified to
  
I 1 1 ln 2 I
U= ln 2 − − ln 2 = ,
2πσs 2 2 2π σs
from which we solve for the surface conductivity
ln 2 I . I
σs = = 0.110 3 .
2π U U
In our solution, we assumed a sign convention where both current and voltage are positive.
Since the problem does not specify this convention, we could include absolute values for I and U
to ensure a positive conductivity. However, this is not strictly necessary for the correct answer.
Jaroslav Herman
[email protected]

58
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Problem GG . . . cylinder à la rocket

Consider a hollow cylinder with base radius r = 3.00 cm and height H = 30.0 cm, which is half
filled with water. The cylinder without water has a mass M = 200 g and stands on a base (its
base is horizontal) on which it can move without friction. Just above the base of the cylinder
there is a small hole with a diameter r0 = 0.500 mm, from which water flows out perpendicularly
to the surface of the cylinder. What will be the speed of the cylinder after all the water flows
out? Assume that the acceleration of the cylinder is small enough so that the outflow velocity
will be given by the Torricelli relation. Rado’s morning coffee has escaped from him.
Since the hole in the wall of the container is small compared to the water surface and the
inertial force on the water can be neglected, the outflow velocity u is given by the Torricelli law
p
u= 2gh ,

where h denotes the height of the liquid surface in the container. Now let us denote the mass
of the cylinder M and the mass of water remaining in the cylinder at that moment m. Next,
suppose that the cylinder is moving at a given moment with a velocity v, then from the law of
conservation of momentum we have

(M + m)⃗v = (M + m − ∆m)(⃗v + d⃗v ) + ∆m(⃗

u + ⃗v ) .

By simplifying and neglecting the term dm d⃗v we get

0 = (M + m) d⃗v + ∆m⃗
u.

Since ⃗
u and d⃗v have opposite directions, we can rewrite the equation in the form

(M + m) dv = ∆mu .

Now we should also note that ∆m denotes the mass of the spilled water (i.e. the negative sign
when added to the mass of the water in the container m), so ∆m = −dm.
dm
dv = − u
M +m
Next, we need to express u in terms of m. So we express h as a function of m and plug it into
the Toricelli relation
m
h= ,
ρS
where S is the surface of the water and ρ is the density of the water. By substituting it, we get
r
m
u= 2g .
ρS

And thus r √
2g m
dv = − dm .
ρS M + m
By integrating, we get r Z 0 √
2g m
vmax = − dm .
ρS m0
M +m

59
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025
√
The integral on the right hand side can be solved by substituting for m
Z √ Z Z Z  
m t2 1 √ 1
dm = 2 dt = 2 dt − 2  2 dt = 2t − 2 M arctan √ t .
M +m M + t2 M
√1 t + 1
M

√
For t we substitute m and we obtain the solution
r " #0
√ q 
2g √ m
vmax = −2 m − M arctan ,
ρS M
m0
r √ q 
2g √ m0
vmax = 2 m0 − M arctan ,
ρS M

where m0 is the original mass of water in the cylinder. Expressing S and m0 using the given
quantities gives us

S = πr2 ,
H
m0 = πr2 ρ ,
2
r r r !!
2g H √ H
ρπr2
vmax = 2 ρπr2 − M arctan 2
,
ρπr2 2 M
.
vmax = 1.15 m·s−1 .

The maximum velocity the cylinder will reach is therefore 1.15 m·s−1 .
Radovan Lev
[email protected]

Problem GH . . . a little restive dipole

A little magnetic dipole with the magnetic moment m = 1.0 · 103 A·m2 harmonically oscillates
on the axis of a conductive circular loop with the radius R = 1.0 m, at a frequency f = 1.0 MHz
and with an amplitude of the deflection equal to h0 = 1.0 mm. The direction of the magnetic
moment is parallel to the axis of the loop and the equilibrium position of the little dipole is
located in the geometric center of the loop (meaning the little dipole oscillates between the
maximum distance h0 below and h0 above the loop). Determine the amplitude of the induced
voltage in the loop, assuming the little dipole is sufficiently small, and therefore the vector
potential it creates can be expressed as
µ0 m × r
A(r) = ,
4π r3
where r is the vector from the little dipole to any point in space, r = |r|, and µ0 is the vacuum
permeability. Recall that the magnetic induction is given by B = ∇ × A.
Kuba likes little dipoles.

60
Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

Let us count a magnetic induction flux Φ generated by the little dipole inside the loop. From
the formula for magnetic induction in the assignment and from Stokes’ integral theorem we
recieve Z Z I
Φ= B · dS = (∇ × A) · dS = A · dl .
S S ∂S

Let the equilibrium position of the little dipole be located in the origin of a Cartesian coordinate
system and the magnetic moment heads in a positive direction of the axis z. Then

r = R + h,

where R is the vector from the middle of the loop to the point on the loop and h is the vector
from the little dipole to the middle of the loop. Count
I I
µ0
Φ= A · dl = m × (R + h) · dl .
∂S
4πr3 ∂S

In front of the integral we put the total distance r of the little dipole from the point on the
loop, because it is the same for every point of the loop. Since m ⊥ R and m ∥ h, we receive
I
µ0 µ0 µ0 mR2 µ0 mR2
Φ= mR dl = 2πR mR = = .
4πr3 ∂S
4πr 3 2r 3
2 (R2 + h2 )3/2
Now let us consider time dependenece

h = h0 cos(ωt) .

For the induced voltage U we receive

dΦ
U =− ,
dt
µ0 mR2 d  2 −3/2
=− R + h2 ,
2 dt
2  −5/2 dh
3µ0 mR
= R 2 + h2 2h ,
4 dt
2  −5/2 2
3µ0 mR
=− R2 + h20 cos2 (ωt) h0 ω cos ωt sin ωt . (6)
2
Now we use the formula

cos(2x) = cos2 x − sin2 x = 2 cos2 x − 1 ,

sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x

and the equation (6) we will rewrite in the form

 −5/2
3µ0 mR2 h2 h2 cos(2ωt)
U =− R2 + 0 + 0 h20 ω sin(2ωt) . (7)
4 2 2

From the assignment it is evident that h0 ≪ R. So let us develop the result to a Taylor
expansion for ε = h0 /R

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Fyziklani 2025 19th year 14th of February 2025

 −5/2
3µ0 mωR2 h20 h2 h2 cos(2ωt)
U =− R2 + 0 + 0 sin(2ωt)
4 2 2
 −5/2
3µ0 mωε2 1 + cos(2ωt)
=− 1 + ε2 sin(2ωt)
4R 2
 
3µ0 mωε2 5 1 + cos(2ωt) 2
=− 1− ε + O(ε4 ) sin(2ωt)
4R 2 2
3µ0 mωε2
=− sin(2ωt) + O(ε4 ) .
4R
Since h0 is three orders less than R, additional members will have no effect on the solution
given (in accordance with the assignment) with precision to two valid numbers.
For the amplitude of voltage U0 we can write

3µ0 mωh20 3π µ0 mf h20 .

U0 ≈ = = 5.9 mV .
4R3 2 R3

Jakub Koňárek
[email protected]

FYKOS
Institute of Theoretical Physics
Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University
Czech Republic
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