1.

7) Timber:
Timber is one of the building materials known earliest to mankind. Before man realized other
building materials, timber was perhaps the only material used by him to build his place of
living. Today timber is used as a structural material. Timber is used for beams, columns piles,
roofing, bridges, trusses, doors, windows, furniture etc. In places like Kashmir where timber is
available in abundance it is used in almost all constructions.

1.7.1) Classification of Trees

Trees may be classified into flowering trees or phanerogams and non-flowering trees or
cryptogams. The flowering trees may be further classified into exogens or outward trees and
endogens or endward growing trees, Sal, teak ere are exogens while Bamboo, palm etc. are
endogens Exogens provide wood for engineering use.
Exogens may further be classified into conifers and deciduous tree.
Conifers: These trees provide soft wood. Leaves fall only when new leaves grow. Hence these
are evergreen trees. Pine, Deodar, Kail, Walnut, Chir, Fir are conifers. These trees show clear
annular rings. They are poor fire resistant. They have a resinous structure. They show feeble
medullary rays. They are light. They are strong in tension and weak in shear.
Deciduous trees: These trees have broad leaves. These trees shed old leaves in winter a grow
new leaves in spring. Sal, Teak Beech Oak, Sisum etc. are deciduous trees. These trees provide
wood for engineering constructions. They do not exhibit annular rings but show distinct
medullary rays. They are dark colored and close grained. They are strong, heavy and durable.
They are better fire resistant. They are non-resinous.

1.7.2) Section of an Exogenous Tree:

The outer bark This is the outer most layer of the tree. It shows fissures and cracks. This layer
is also called the cortex.
The inner bark: This is just inner of the outer bark. The inner bark protects the inner parts.
Cambrium layer: This is the layer that exists between the inner bark and the sap wood This
part represents the sap which has not yet been converted to sap wood.
Sap wood: This is the region between the cambrium layer and the central heart wood. It has a
light weight and is also light in color. This part contains a liquid called sap which flows up the
tree. This part is also known Alburnum.
Heartwood: This is in the zone of the inner rings surrounding the pith. This is dead wood
providing rigidity to the tree. This produces the strong timber meant for construction.
Pith: This is the innermost region of the tree.
Medullary rays: These are radiating thin fibers radiating from the pith to the cambrium layer.
These fibers hold the annual rings of heart wood and sap wood.
1.7.3) Defects in Timber:
(Dec 14)
Timber may have defects caused by the climatic situation, the type of soil where the trees have
grown and also due to certain calamities produced by nature. The defects in timber are mainly
due to irregularity of the grains. Defective timber affects the quality and leads to wastage. The
common defects in timber are the following:
1) Shakes: These are discontinuities or separations between the annular rings. These affect the
shearing strength. The appearance of timber is seriously affected. The following types of shakes
may be noted:
a) Heart shake: This is a split which originates at the center and runs from the pith towards
sap wood. The splits are wider near the center and become narrow outwards.
b) Star shake: These are opposite in their form compared to heart shakes. These are radial
splits wider in the outer region and become narrow towards the center.
(c) Cup shake: These are curved splits which are seen between the annual rings. Sometimes a
considerable part of an annual ring may remain separated from the adjacent ring.
2) Rindgall: A rindgall is a characteristic swelling due to the fresh growth of sap wood over
cuttings when the branch is cut off in an irregular manner. The freshly developed layers do not
join properly with the old rot producing cavities in which the decay develops.
3) Knot: This is an assembly of roots of small branches. A knot breaks the continuity of the
fibers, causing reduction of strength.
4) Rupture: This is an injury caused due to the crushing of fibers.
5) Bow: It develops in non-coniferous timber and may develop after felling tree or during
conversion and seasoning and seasoning.
1.7.4) Characteristics of Good Timber:
The following are the characteristics of good timber meant for constructions-
a) The annular rings of the section must be close to each other.
b) When freshly cut, the cut face should emit a sweet smell,
c) Timber should have a dark uniform colour.
d) Timber should be dense.
e) It should allow itself to be easily worked.
f) It should not present woolliness at a freshly cut face.
g) It should have straight fibers and should have a uniform texture.
h) When it is struck it should produce a sonorous sound.
i) The medullary rays should be compact.
j) It should be free from defects like spongy hearts, dead knots porous grains, sap wood etc.

1.7.5) Seasoning of timber:

(Dec 15, Dec 16)
Removal of moisture from timber so as to be in equilibrium with moisture in surrounding
atmospheric conditions, where timber is likely to be used is called as seasoning of timber.
In other words, seasoning of timber means getting rid of all the sap and moisture from it. After
seasoning has been done, timber is not liable to be decayed, owing to fermentation of the sap
or warp or bend due to uneven expansion or contraction of timber, due to rise and fall of
temperature. After seasoning, the timber becomes dry, hard, light in weight, less in bulk and
resilient. A well-seasoned timber can easily be worked with saw, crack, twist and split. The
strength of well-seasoned timber is increased.
There are different methods of seasoning like:
1) natural seasoning 2) artificial seasoning
Natural Seasoning: These are of two types-
(a) Air Seasoning - It is the best method of seasoning. In this method, water or the moisture is
driven out from the timber by a very slow process of evaporation. The object of seasoning is
to ensure regular and uniform drying throughout the timber. In this process, the timber balks
are stacked under a shed. The timber balks should be kept perfectly horizontal, to avoid twisting
of timber during seasoning. The stack should be made on damp proof materials, preferably on
cast iron, stones, concrete block, etc. The stacks should be kept up from ground at least by 30
cm.
b) water seasoning: In this method, the logs are kept immersed in ponds or in running streams
with the root ends upstream for three to four weeks. Maximum sap is washed out by this
process. The logs should be kept entirely down under water by chaining them. Now after that
these logs are kept under shed for free air circulation.

Artificial Seasoning-There are different methods of artificial seasoning-

(a) Mc Neills Seasoning-This is believed to be the best process of artificial seasoning, as it has
no adverse effect on the appearance and strength of timber. Timber seasoned by this method is
rendered harder, denser and proof against dry rot. But it is a costly method of seasoning timber.
The time required varies with the nature of the timber, usually from 15 days to two months. In
this process, the timbers are stacked in a chamber with one-third air space and containing a
large water surface to produce vapour by various hot gases as the products of combustion of
fuel in the fireplace within the chamber. Thus, the timbers are subjected to moist warm
atmosphere. The chamber is usually built with bricks. The greener the timber when first put
into the chamber, better is the result of seasoning.
(b) Hot Air Seasoning - In this process, the timbers are stacked in racks in a hot chamber
heated with steam pipes on the floor. Within the hot chamber the timbers are subjected to a
swifty moving current of air passing over the hot pipes. The timbers are kept there for about
three days at a constant temperature of 90°C. The hot air absorbs sap or moisture content of the
timbers.
The moisture-laden air is expelled from the upper part of the chamber and fresh dry air is
introduced from the bottom. The process is also known as kiln-seasoning. It renders timber
brittle and bleaches deep coloured timber
(c) Seasoning by Boiling in Water-Water-seasoning can be done by using boiling water. The
timber is kept immersed in boiling water for four hours. By this process the strength and
elasticity of the timber is reduced, although there us less shrinkage. Following the boiling, the
timber should be dried slowly under a shed. This method of seasoning is expensive.
d) Seasoning by steaming- This is similar to seasoning by boiling, but the timber dries soon
after the steaming. Steaming prevents dry rot in timber, but it is expensive.