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Forgiveness or Revenge
 Series Editors
Dr Robert Fisher Lisa Howard
Dr Ken Monteith

Advisory Board

Simon Bacon Ana Borlescu

Katarzyna Bronk Ann-Marie Cook
John L. Hochheimer Peter Mario Kreuter
Stephen Morris John Parry
Peter Twohig Karl Spracklen
S Ram Vemuri

A Probing the Boundaries research and publications project.

[Link]

The Making Sense Of: Hub

‘Forgiveness’

2015
 Forgiveness or Revenge:

Restitution or Retribution?

Edited by

Sheila C. Bibb

Inter-Disciplinary Press
Oxford, United Kingdom
© Inter-Disciplinary Press 2015
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for research and publishing. The Inter-Disciplinary Press aims to promote and
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Oxfordshire. OX29 8HR, United Kingdom.
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ISBN: 978-1-84888-358-1
First published in the United Kingdom in eBook format in 2015. First Edition.
 Table of Contents

Introduction: This should be Flush Left vii

Sheila C. Bibb

Part I Belief Systems

As Lions, as Lambs: Forgiving the Unrepentant Wrongdoer 3

Gabriel Gerard Gross

A Philosophical Exploration of Forgiveness in Islam 13

Mriganka Sankar Poddar

Christian Forgiveness and a Ghanaian Traditional Belief 21

Alice Matilda Nsiah

Forgiveness as an Experience of Ritual Cleansing 29

in African Religion
Bartholomew Chidili

Forgiveness in Turkish Culture 39

Defne Erdem Mete

Old Order Amish Approaches to Teaching 49

Community Forgiveness
Angela Kueny and Sandra Cardenas

Part II Forgiveness and Revenge: Crimes and Offenses

An Exploration of Relationships between the Propensity 65

to Forgive Severe Offenses, Individual’s Moral Rationales
and Their Preferences for Restorative and Retributive Justice
Luis Arturo Pinzon-Salcedo, Natalia Silva and Silvia Martinez

Revising the TRC’s Concept of Forgiveness in 77

Achmat Dangor’s Bitter Fruit
Francesca Mussi

Forgiveness: Complexities and Paradoxes in the Context 87

of Genocide and Slavery
Eva Kahana, Boaz Kahana, Timothy Goler and Julia Kay Wolf
 I Should Help, but I Wouldn’t: The Evolutionary Psychology 99
of Revenge and Its Application in Domestic
Violence Intervention
Susan DiVietro and Jordan Kiper

Part III Theoretical Arguments and Inherent Paradoxes

Overcoming Resentment: Hannah Arendt on the Virtue 121

of Forgiveness
Marinus Schoeman

Forgiving Architecture: The Case of Gianni Pettena 129

Leslie Anne Boldt

Forgive and Forget, but How? 141

Aysel Demir

For Authentic Forgiveness: Which Anthropological Paradigm? 147

Giulia Maniezzi

The Paradox of Forgiveness: Forgiving the Unforgivable 159

Ilana Shiloh
 Introduction

Sheila C. Bibb
In July 2014 I was privileged to be the Project Leader for the 7 th annual
conference on Forgiveness, which was held at Mansfield College, Oxford. I say a
privilege advisedly because this year, not only was there a good mix of disciplines
which really facilitated the inter-disciplinary nature which we seek, but the range
of subjects covered, together with the collegiality and depth of the ensuing
discussions resulted in a memorable conference and the setting of a great
foundation for future exchanges of ideas. It is to be hoped that these exchanges will
not only continue but also stimulate and inspire future work and add new
dimensions to the way in which we think about Forgiveness. As an example of the
ways in which a change of approach can bring new perspectives, we have now held
7 conferences debating Forgiveness and 4 conferences looking at the concept of
Revenge but this year we decided that, in view of the crossover of ideas at each
conference, we would combine them. The result has been a new dynamism
producing some interesting divergences from the normal ideas, and a greater focus
on the paradoxes inherent in the concepts of both Forgiveness and Revenge.
As with any conference which has as the subject matter an intangible notion
such as Forgiveness or Revenge, one of the problems faced is the definition of the
concept applied by each author and the context in which they chose to apply it.
Much of the discussion which occurred between papers and at the general sessions
of the conference hinged on this problem. This volume however, seeks not to delve
into these aspects but rather to reproduce the papers given and thus provide a
snapshot of the conference which allows the reader to decide for him or herself on
the validity of each argument put forward. To better facilitate this, the chapters
have been organized into three sections, each having a common basic theme. Part I
therefore is a selection of writings linked by the broad term of Belief systems, and
includes both writings espousing an overtly religious approach to the subject and
also chapters which rely on cultural or traditional beliefs to explain their argument.
Part II embraces not only Forgiveness but also the idea of Revenge and retaliation
as the chapters there examine various crimes and offences, the ways in which these
impact on all involved, possible ways of dealing with them either individually or
collectively, and the possible outcomes. Part III concludes these writings by
putting forward some sociological and theoretical arguments and particularly
emphasizing the paradoxes inherent in granting Forgiveness.

Part I: Belief Systems

As already indicated, the common theme of this section is that those beliefs
which we hold will determine our actions and reactions and thus our ability to
Forgive. In reality this is so broad that the chapters involved have been grouped
into those which are based on recognised religious approaches to Forgiveness and
viii Introduction
__________________________________________________________________
then those that are linked much more closely with cultural beliefs and expectations,
which may well include a religious element. Starting then with those chapters
which have a recognised religious basis, the first chapter in this section, ‘As Lions,
as Lambs: Forgiving the Unrepentant Wrongdoer’, is by Gabriel Gerard Gross and
puts forward a Christian viewpoint espousing the need to attain some degree of
agapic love for both the victim and the wrong-doer, even when the latter shows no
remorse or repentance for their actions. The ideas put forward here can be
compared and contrasted with Mriganka Sankar Poddar’s chapter, ‘A Philosophical
Exploration of Forgiveness in Islam’, where an examination of the need to achieve
harmony in order to become nearer to God is apparently contradicted by the need
for punishment (i.e. violence) as a means to discourage hypocrites and unbelievers.
By analysing The Qur’an, Poddar argues that these apparent inconsistencies can be
easily resolved to provide the desired harmonious framework. The final chapter in
this sub-division is ‘Christian Forgiveness and a Ghanaian Traditional Belief’ by
Alice Matilda Nsiah. Here she first examines the story of the Prodigal Son as found
in the gospel of Luke, which tells of a repentant sinner who returns home and is
warmly greeted and received even before he makes any attempt to apologise or
make restitution. This is contrasted with the belief associated with the shrine of the
river goddess of Antoa in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The traditional belief is
that once the goddess is invoked, she is going to punish the offender severely if
confession and restitution do not take place immediately. The argument therefore is
between compassion, which is at the core of the relationship between the Christian
God and his children, while justice and retribution appears to be at the heart of the
relationship between the river goddess and those who come into contact with her.
The second sub-division of this section focuses more on cultural beliefs and
expectations, the first being Bartholomew Chidili’s ‘Forgiveness as an Experience
of Ritual Cleansing in African Religion’. In this chapter Chidili shows how an
African belief that every aspect of national and civil life as well as human
interactions, including morality, is governed by God through the earth deity, so that
the community is compelled to purge itself of any misdemeanour, whether
committed by an individual or collectives, through the long established tradition
which is Ritual Cleansing. This, he argues, facilitates forgiveness, pardon and
reconciliation. This case, while similar to that put forward by Nsiah, differs in that
while there is no actual element of Christianity involved, there does seem to be an
element of compassion not normally associated with traditional African religions.
The next chapter, by Defne Erdem Mete, entitled ‘Forgiveness in Turkish Culture’,
also looks at rituals used by a community to enable forgiveness and face-saving.
Here the emphasis is again on the collective response to a situation. The final
chapter in this section is ‘Old Order Amish Approaches to Teaching Community
Forgiveness’ by Angela Kueny and Sandra Cardenas. Based on their work with an
Old Order Amish community, Kueny and Cardenas show the various means
whereby the members of the community, for example parents and teachers, as well
 Sheila C. Bibb ix
__________________________________________________________________
as material goods such as children’s books, and even cookbooks focus on
discipline, humility, and the Golden Rule. By using these strategies they instill in
the children a strong foundation for forgiveness, increasing the willingness and
capacity to forgive in Amish adults and the community as a whole.

Part 2: Forgiveness and Revenge: Crimes and Offences

Moving away from the religious influence on Forgiveness, this next section
comprises four chapters each detailing situations where one of the main elements is
in fact revenge or retaliation and looks at the way in which the individual or the
society concerned deal with the opposing needs of all involved. Starting with ‘An
Exploration of Relationships between the Propensity to Forgive Severe Offences,
Individual’s Moral Rationales and Their Preferences for Restorative and
Retributive Justice’, authored by Luis Arturo Pinzon-Salcedo, Natalia Silva and
Silvia Martinez, the reader is introduced to Colombia and the options facing the
country as they enter a period of post conflict peace building. Similarly Francesca
Mussi in her chapter, ‘Revising the TRC’s Concept of Forgiveness in Achmat
Dangor’s “Bitter Fruit”’, reflects on the Truth and Reconciliation Committee
established in South Africa at the end of Apartheid and the validity of the challenge
to the Christian rhetoric of Confession/forgiveness put forward by Dangor. In so
doing she attempts to seek answers to what truth is, and whether it is a precondition
to forgiveness. Continuing with the theme of a society, (together with the
individuals within that society), seeking to come to terms with a wrong, Eva
Kahana, Boaz Kahana, Timothy Goler and Julia Kay Wolf, in their chapter
‘Forgiveness: Complexities and Paradoxes in the Context of Genocide and
Slavery’ examine two crimes against humanity – the Nazi Holocaust and Slavery
in the United States. This chapter considers often neglected influences of
environmental and social contexts and transactions between the offenders and
victims relevant to understanding the processes involved in forgiving. Focusing on
the perspective of the victims, it particularly notes the need for restitution, and the
impact that moving from the scene of the trauma has on the ability to forgive.
Finally in this section we have a totally different scenario as we turn to the chapter
by Susan DiVietro and Jordan Kiper, ‘I Should Help, but I Wouldn’t: The
Evolutionary Psychology of Revenge and Its Application in Domestic Violence
Intervention’. While the other chapters examine the need for restitution and
forgiveness of a crime primarily from a collective point of view, DiVietro and
Kiper examine the role of revenge within a domestic violence scenario and the
ways in which both the crime, and the reaction to it, are dealt with on an individual
level. It also looks at the community or collective response which indicates that
those not directly involved are often reluctant to intervene in such matters.
x Introduction
__________________________________________________________________
Part 3: Theoretical Arguments and Inherent Paradoxes
For the final part of this book we turn to five chapters which cover a range of
theoretical perspectives and thought as well as highlighting some of the paradoxes
inherent within the very concept of Forgiveness. Starting with a chapter by
Marinus Schoeman, entitled ‘Overcoming Resentment: Hannah Arendt on the
Virtue of Forgiveness’, he tells us that Arendt sees virtue, trustworthiness and
forgiveness as the highest ‘principles’ of action and the opposite of resentment and
revenge. In order therefore to overcome such negative qualities, it is necessary that
an individual strive for virtue and forgiveness by developing strategies for
accomplishing this. This positive approach towards overcoming a wrong is echoed
in the chapter ‘Forgiving Architecture: The Case of Gianni Pettena’ by Leslie Anne
Boldt. In this instance the focus is on the use of memorials and architecture to
bring about a transformation, both to the landscape and the lives of those affected
by the wrong, and in so doing to facilitate healing. This practical approach is
echoed in Aysel Demir’s chapter, ‘Forgive and Forget, but How?’. When the
wrong is murder or rape, the question of forgiving becomes more difficult,
particularly if the state gives an amnesty to those convicted of such crimes. Using
the example of the Rahsan Amnesty in Turkey in 2000, it is argued that the state
not only undermined and harmed the concept of justice but also created legal,
political and ethical problems. Most importantly though, the victims felt that
justice had not been served and therefore they erred more towards feelings of
revenge than forgiveness.
Giulia Maniezzi in her chapter, ‘For Authentic Forgiveness: Which
Anthropological Paradigm?’, asks a more general question namely, can we in fact
talk about forgiveness in any particular context such as religion, or culture, or a
philosophical manner and still have the same meaning? If the meaning differs
depending upon the context we use, then is there any possibility of an authentic
forgiveness? Ilana Shiloh’s, ‘The Paradox of Forgiveness: Forgiving the
Unforgivable’, also raises questions about the reality and authenticity of
forgiveness for, as she says, ‘Forgiveness is a paradox. Slight misdeeds or
wrongdoings do not necessitate forgiveness. If I forgive because the offensive deed
is forgivable, because it is easily excusable, then I’m not forgiving. I can only
forgive when there is something unforgivable. Forgiveness thus predicates on its
opposite and is both an impossibility and a necessity.’ From this intriguing
viewpoint she discusses various ways of attempting to solve this paradox and
explores the way in which Paolo Sorrentino’s 2011 film This Must Be the Place
approaches this subject.
In short then we have fifteen chapters each introducing a different perspective on
a much debated subject. The range of ideas and styles are a reflection of the inter-
disciplinary nature of this gathering and show just how valuable a multiple
approach to a subject can be in creating a dynamic atmosphere from which new
and fruitful conversations can spring. It was indeed a pleasure to be associated with
 Sheila C. Bibb xi
__________________________________________________________________
this conference and I am delighted to present these arguments to the reader. I also
wish to thank all who participated for their hard work and diligence.
 Part I

Belief Systems
 As Lions, as Lambs: Forgiving the Unrepentant Wrongdoer

Gabriel Gerard Gross

Abstract
The goal of forgiveness, broadly construed, is to attain some degree of agapic love,
i.e. regard for the well-being and the good of both oneself and one’s wrongdoer.
This chapter focuses on one aspect of forgiveness--forgiving the unrepentant
wrongdoer--and proposes the Lion-Lamb model as a means to achieving agapic
love within that aspect. The Lion-Lamb model takes a simultaneous defence-
meets-grace approach to ensure that victims actively resist the wrong done to them,
but also (when ready) welcome back the wrongdoer to the moral community via
grace. Though its precise formulation in each instance of forgiveness is client- and
context-dependent, the Lion-Lamb model facilitates agapic love when used
appropriately. The model answers objections regarding forgiveness of unrepentant
wrongdoers, namely the worries that such forgiveness condones the wrong and/or
compromises a victim’s self-respect. The Lion-Lamb model also solves the often
cited case of ‘the abused housewife,’ who continually lets her unrepentant husband
off the moral hook and thus leaves herself vulnerable to further harm. When
forgivers strike the proper balance of self-defence and grace, the Lion-Lamb model
directs agapic love toward both victim and wrongdoer. Its strength lies in
defending the former, while its grace rests in accepting the latter, despite her
wrong. The love achieved by this model may not be flawless, but it is nonetheless a
love well worth pursuing.

Key Words: Forgiveness, repentance, unrepentant wrongdoer, agape, grace, self-

defence, Kingdom of God, neighbour love.

*****

We are all of us wrongdoers. We are all of us victims. We have each known the
hurt that an offender leaves behind, and we have each been an offender. After
offenses come, often enough, lost trust, broken relationships, anger, hatred,
resentment, and a need for some degree of moral reparation. Here is where
forgiveness has its place.
From a Christian context, forgiveness is one means of sustaining the Kingdom
of God, constituted by Christ’s followers who seek to embody Him in how they
live. To be Christ-like, one must prioritize the most important commandments,
among which is the call to ‘love your neighbour as yourself.’ The sort of love
Christ commands here is not the lustful Eros, nor the friendship-seeking Philia, but
the communal Agape. Should we intend to forgive in such a way as to bolster the
Kingdom of God, to be like Christ, then I maintain that the overarching goal of
forgiveness ought to be attaining agapic love. Here, agapic love shall mean a
4 As Lions, as Lambs
__________________________________________________________________
communal neighbour-love, a regard for the well-being of others as for one’s self.
Pertaining to forgiveness, loving agapically means that, to the appropriate extent,
the victim exhibits a regard for her own well-being and for her wrongdoer’s well-
being. Moreover, she recognizes the actual and potential good in both herself and
her wrongdoer, and thus treats both as worthy of love.
Understandably, it tends to be easier to exercise agapic love toward a repentant
wrongdoer. Sincerely apologizing, recognizing one’s wrong, and promising to do
better can go a long way. But keeping one’s sights on the goal of agapic love is
especially important in instances where one’s wrongdoer is unrepentant. It is
difficult, yet critical to keep love in mind when a perpetrator refuses to
acknowledge her wrong, apologize for it, or take action to turn from that wrong
toward more moral ways. Philosophers debate how we ought to forgive
unrepentant wrongdoers; some question whether such perpetrators warrant
forgiveness at all.
Within the context of this chapter, I will maintain that the unrepentant
wrongdoer ought to be forgiven, or at least ought to have the proverbial door
opened to forgiveness. This is different from saying that such a wrongdoer
warrants or justly deserves forgiveness, but I will not be treating forgiveness as a
matter of justice. I will treat forgiveness as a matter of love, which calls us to step
beyond justice’s limits of desert, and sees all human beings as potentially worthy
objects of forgiveness. As Robert Adams suggests, ‘We ought in general to be
treated better than we deserve,’ and this is the stance I take in support of forgiving
unrepentant wrongdoers.1
But how we forgive these wrongdoers is key. My position is that we ought to
forgive the unrepentant wrongdoer in such a way as to show love for her, but also
for ourselves, ensuring agape. However, to do so, we must confront the objections
of David Novitz and others who insist that forgiving unrepentant wrongdoers may
compromise a victim’s self-respect and lead to further harm,2 or that this sort of
forgiveness amounts to condoning the wrong.3 I will present a model that allows us
to accomplish these tasks. But before I do, I must clear up some definitional issues.
I intend to make clear what I mean by forgiveness, and how I think we can best
take up the task of forgiving an unrepentant wrongdoer. The forgiveness I am
concerned with here is what Glen Pettigrove calls commissive forgiveness. It
requires two tasks of the victim: ‘forswearing hostile reactive attitudes and
committing myself (to some degree) to [the wrongdoer’s] well-being.’4 The former
task calls the victim to let go of, or at least commit to reducing, such attitudes as
resentment, hatred, and anger toward the wrongdoer. This means that forgiveness
is unilateral--only requiring action from the victim--and intrapsychic, occurring
within the victim’s mind rather than necessarily manifesting in a behavioural way.
Pettigrove’s latter task is half the battle of agapic love, showing regard for the
wrongdoer’s well-being. But what is well-being? What are we, as forgivers
committed to agape, called to show regard for?
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Marine. Naval, nautical, maritime; oceanic, salt-water, pelagic.
Ant. Terrene, fresh-water, terrestrial, land.
Marital. Connubial, nuptial, hymeneal, conjugal, wedded,
matrimonial.
Ant. Single, unwedded, celibate.
Maritime. Marine, oceanic, nautical.
Ant. Terrene, land.
Mark, n. Impress, stamp, vestige, impression, imprint, track,
evidence, proof, characteristic, badge, indication; distinction,
eminence, importance.
Ant. Effacement, obliteration, erasure, plainness.
Mark, v. Remark, notice, regard, heed, show, betoken, characterize,
denote, stamp, imprint, impress, brand; label, designate, observe,
stigmatize, signalize, specify, specialize; decorate.
Ant. Overlook, ignore, omit; mislabel, misindicate, mismark.
Marked. Noted, notable, prominent, remarkable, eminent,
distinguished, conspicuous.
Ant. Ordinary, mean, commonplace, everyday,
undistinguished.
Marriage. Matrimony, wedlock, wedding, espousal, nuptials,
conjugal union, spousal, union.
Ant. Divorce, celibacy, virginity, bachelorhood, widowhood,
maidenhood.
Marrow. Medulla, pith, essence, quintessence; gist, substance,
cream, kernel.
Ant. Excrescence, surplusage, redundancy, superfluity; surface,
exterior; amplification; body, volume, mass.
Marsh. Fen, swamp, quagmire, morass, bog, slough.
Ant. Solid ground.
Marshal, v. Order, arrange, direct, guide, lead, rank, array,
dispose, draw up; herald.
Ant. Disarray, misguide, disarrange, disorder.
Martial. Warlike, military, soldierly, brave.
Ant. Peaceful, unmilitary, unwarlike.
Martyrdom. Martyrlike state; torture, torment, persecution;
confession.
Ant. Denial, retraction; abjuration, renegation.
Marvel, n. Wonder, prodigy, miracle; surprise, astonishment,
amazement, admiration; portent, phenomenon.
Ant. Commonplace, imposture, cipher, farce, trifle.
Marvelous. Wonderful, astonishing, surprising, strange,
improbable, incredible; miraculous, stupendous, extraordinary,
wondrous, supernatural, portentous, prodigious.
Ant. Commonplace, everyday, regular, normal, customary,
natural, anticipated, current, calculated, expected.
Masculine. Male, manly, virile, manlike; strong, robust, powerful,
bold, hardy, courageous.
Ant. Feminine, womanly, womanlike, female; effeminate,
womanish.
Mask, n. Cover, disguise, pretext, subterfuge, screen; revel, frolic,
evasion, pretense, ruse, plea; redoubt; domino, blind, veil;
hypocrisy.
Ant. Truth, nakedness, candor, verity, openness; exposure,
detection, unmasking.
Mask, v. Disguise, cover, hide, protect, conceal, veil, shroud,
screen.
Ant. Expose, unmask, discover, detect.
Mass. Quantity, sum, bulk, magnitude, body, size, main part,
majority; aggregate, whole, totality; heap, assemblage,
combination, concretion.
Ant. Fragment, section, portion, bit, morsel, minority, segment.
Massacre, v. Murder, butcher, kill, slaughter, slay.
Ant. Preserve, spare, rescue, restore.
Massive. Compacted, weighty, heavy, massy, ponderous, bulky,
huge, immense, vast, solid, colossal.
Ant. Slight, slender, frail, airy; petty, small, light.
Master, n. Ruler, director, manager, leader, employer, owner,
governor, superintendent, commander, captain; teacher,
instructor, tutor; adept; possessor, proprietor; professor, head,
chief.
Ant. Servant, slave, pupil, employee, subject, learner, student.
Master, v. Conquer, subdue, vanquish, overcome; acquire, learn.
Ant. Yield, fail, surrender, succumb.
Masterly. Imperious, domineering, arbitrary, despotic; skilful,
clever, expert, dexterous, adroit; finished, excellent, artistic,
consummate.
Ant. Humble, obedient, compliant, rude, clumsy, bungling.
Mastery. Authority, dominion, supremacy; victory, triumph,
preëminence, ascendency, superiority; acquirement, attainment,
acquisition; skill, dexterity, cleverness, ability.
 Ant. Subservience, tutelage, submission, guidance, obedience,
inexpertness, ignorance; defeat, failure, surrender.
Masticate. Grind, chew.
Ant. Bolt, gobble, swallow.
Match, n. Equal, mate; contest; union, marriage; competition, trial;
companion; pair.
Ant. Superior, inferior; disparity, mismatch, oddity, inequality.
Match, v. Mate, rival, oppose, equal; correspond; adapt, fit, suit;
marry; harmonize; join, couple, combine.
Ant. Fail, exceed, surpass, preponderate; separate, dissociate.
Matchless. Unequaled, peerless, unparalleled, incomparable,
inimitable, consummate, exquisite, excellent, surpassing,
unrivaled.
Ant. Common, ordinary, mediocre, everyday, commonplace,
general.
Mate, n. Companion, associate, compeer, match, equal; fellow,
intimate; assistant, subordinate; peer.
Ant. Stranger; superior, inferior; principal, chief, head.
Material, n. Substance, solidity, weight, stuff, matter.
Ant. Work, production, design; spirit, purpose.
Material, a. Corporeal, physical; important, essential; momentous,
vital, weighty; bodily.
Ant. Spiritual, sublimated, incorporeal, evanescent, ethereal.
Matrimony. Marriage, wedlock.
Ant. Celibacy, virginity.
Matron. Wife, widow, dame; housekeeper, head nurse; dowager.
Ant. Girl, maid, maiden, virgin, spinster, miss, lass.
Matter. Substance, body, material, constituency; concern, affair,
business; trouble, difficulty; amount, portion, space; sense,
significance, moment; import, importance; topic, subject, question;
thing, event.
Ant. Immateriality, incorporeality, spirituality; mind, soul,
spirit, intellect; animus, zeal, temper.
Mature. Ripe, perfect, ready, perfected, completed, full-grown.
 Ant. Raw, crude, blighted, immature, undeveloped, unripe.
Matutinal. Morning, dawning, early, waking.
Ant. Vesper, evening, late, waning, twilight.
Maudlin. Tearful, sentimental, weak, silly; drunken; intoxicated,
inebriated, tipsy, muddled.
Ant. Dry, sober, sensible, unsentimental, unromantic.
Mawkish. Nauseous, disgusted, squeamish; insipid, flat, stale,
sickly, disgusting, loathsome, maudlin.
Ant. Sensible, savory, fine, sound, palatable, pungent.
Maxim. Principle, axiom, proverb, aphorism, apothegm, adage,
saying, saw, dictum, precept, rule.
Ant. Sophism, quibble, absurdity, enigma, paradox.
Maximum. Greatest; climax, zenith, apex, acme, culmination,
completion, utmost, ultimate.
Ant. Minimum, least; morsel, fragment; initiative,
commencement; decrease, wane; incompletion, abortion.
Maybe, ad. Perhaps, possibly, haply, mayhap.
Maze. Labyrinth, intricacy; bewilderment, uncertainty, perplexity;
embarrassment.
Ant. Clue, elimination, explication; solution.
Meager. Thin, lean, lank, poor, gaunt, starved, hungry, emaciated,
barren, scanty.
Ant. Stout, brawny, fat, chubby; abundant, fertile, copious.
Mean, n. Middle, medium, average, intermediate point; (pl.)
resources, property, revenue; media.
Ant. Extreme, excess, exorbitance, enormity, extravagance;
poverty, end, purpose, object.
Mean, v. Purpose, intend, design; signify, import, indicate, denote,
express.
Ant. Do, perform, execute; say, state, enunciate, declare.
Mean, a. Ignoble, abject, beggarly, wretched, degraded, degenerate,
vulgar, vile, servile, menial, groveling, slavish, dishonorable,
disgraceful, shameful, despicable, contemptible, paltry, sordid.
 Ant. Noble, kingly, heroic, princely, exalted, generous, eminent,
honorable, spirited, liberal, masterly, worthy, bountiful,
munificent.
Meaning. Purpose, aim, intention, import, design, object; sense,
explanation, significance, interpretation, force, purport,
acceptation.
Ant. Statement; proceeding; affidavit, declaration.
Meanness. Stinginess, illiberality, sordidness, vileness,
penuriousness, niggardliness, abjectness, baseness; destitution,
poverty, lowness, scantiness, smallness, rudeness, selfishness.
Ant. Nobleness, generosity, unselfishness, liberality, large-
heartedness.
Measure, n. Dimension, capacity, quantity, amount; moderation,
restraint; extent, limit, proportion, degree; rule, gage, standard;
meter.
Ant. Bulk, mass; segment, section, portion; immensity, infinity.
Measureless. Unlimited, infinite, immeasurable, immense,
boundless, limitless, vast, unbounded.
Ant. Circumscribed, finite, limited, bounded, restricted.
Mechanic. Artificer, artisan, handicraftsman, hand, craftsman,
operative, workman.
Ant. Artist, designer, planner, architect, constructor.
Mechanical. Approximate, empirical; machine-made; automatic,
involuntary, blind; habitual, unreflective, spontaneous, effortless,
unimpassioned.
Ant. Labored, feeling, self-conscious, forced, spirited,
appreciative, lifelike, lively, animated, impassioned.
Meddle. Interfere, handle, disturb; intrude, interpose, intervene,
intercede; mediate, arbitrate.
Ant. Withdraw, retire, remove, recede, retreat.
Meddlesome. Meddling, intrusive, officious; pragmatical,
interfering; impertinent, obtrusive.
Ant. Unobtrusive, modest, unofficious, shy, retiring,
unassuming, reserved.
Mediate, v. Intervene, reconcile, interpose, intercede, arbitrate.
 Ant. Retire, withdraw, let be, leave, abandon.
Mediation. Interposition, intercession, intervention, arbitration,
interference, adjustment, reconciliation.
Ant. Indifference, neutrality; non-interference.
Mediator. Reconciler, intercessor, interceder, advocate, umpire,
propitiator.
Medicament. Remedy, specific, medicine, cure, relief, help,
restorative.
Ant. Irritant, infection, aggravation, hurt, disease.
Medicate. Drug, treat, heal, cure.
Ant. Harm, infect; catch, contract.
Medicine, n. Drug, physic, remedy, medicament; antidote,
corrective, salve, cure; therapeutics.
Ant. Poison, virus, bane; aggravation.
Mediocre. Moderate, indifferent, ordinary, mean, medium,
average, middling, commonplace.
Ant. Superior, inferior, extraordinary, distinguished,
distinctive.
Mediocrity. Inferiority, average, moderate or middle state,
medium; moderation; commonplace, mean; sufficiency.
Ant. Excellence, superiority, distinction, brilliance, rarity.
Meditate. Consider, ponder, revolve, study, weigh, plan, contrive,
devise, scheme, purpose, intend; contemplate, muse, reflect, think,
cogitate.
Ant. Execute, enact, complete, consummate.
Medium, n. Middle, mean; moderation, average; proportion;
mediator, intermediary; means, agency, instrumentality.
Medium, a. Middle, mean, middling, intermediate, medial,
mediocre, central.
Ant. Outer, extreme, distant, remote.
Medley. Mixture, jumble, miscellany, potpourri, hodge-podge;
tumult, confusion, litter, diversity, complexity.
Ant. Order, harmony, simplicity; arrangement, classification,
assortment, disposition, grouping.
Meed. Merit, reward, recompense; worth, desert; guerdon,
premium, prize, award, remuneration; gift, present.
Ant. Penalty, punishment, brand, stigma, amercement.
Meek. Submissive, yielding, unassuming, gentle; mild, patient,
humble; lowly, modest.
Ant. Bold, arrogant, proud, self-assertive, irritable,
presumptuous, high-spirited.
Meet, v. Join; confront, encounter; be present; perceive,
experience, suffer; equal, satisfy; assemble, congregate; harmonize,
agree, unite; fulfil, comply, gratify, answer.
Ant. Miss, escape, elude; be absent; avoid, separate, vary,
diverge, decline, part, disagree; disappoint, fall short, fail.
Meet, a. Suitable, fit, proper, appropriate, qualified, convenient.
Ant. Inappropriate, unfit, inconvenient, unsuited, improper.
Meeting. Conference, assembly, company, convention,
congregation, junction, union, confluence; interview, encounter;
assemblage, concourse, gathering.
Melancholy, n. Melancholia; depression, dejection, brooding,
gloominess.
Ant. Happiness, gladness, sanity, merriment, mirth, cheer,
hopefulness.
Melancholy, a. Sad, dispirited, low-spirited, down-hearted,
unhappy, hypochondriac, heavy, doleful, afflictive; dejected,
depressed, disconsolate, gloomy, sorrowful, moody, desponding;
grave, somber, dark.
Ant. Happy, cheerful, gladsome, sprightly, lively, merry,
mirthful, blithesome, gleeful.
Mellifluous. Smooth, honeyed, sweet, mellow, euphonious,
silvery, dulcet.
Ant. Raucous, hoarse, discordant, harsh, rough, broken,
abrupt.
Mellow. Ripe, soft, tender; subdued, delicate; genial, jovial.
Ant. Unripe, hard, green, acid, sour; harsh, glaring;
discordant.
Melodious. Musical, agreeable, harmonious, dulcet, sweet,
tuneful, rhythmical, concordant, mellifluous.
Ant. Discordant, harsh, dissonant, raucous, jarring,
inharmonious.
Melody. Harmony, rhythm, air, tune, music, song, sweetness of
sound, descant, theme, unison, symphony.
Ant. Discord, jarring, dissonance, harshness, discordance.
Melt. Liquefy, fuse, thaw, mollify, soften; be dissipated, run, blend,
flow, dissolve.
Ant. Harden, combine, consolidate, unite, crystallize.
Member. Organ, limb; constituent, part; clause, phrase; essential;
portion, component.
Ant. Whole, body, entirety, aggregate, sum, totality,
community, society, association, organization, constitution.
Memoir. Memorial, biography, record, narrative, chronicle,
register.
Memorable. Important, illustrious, remarkable, extraordinary,
signal, distinguished, famous, celebrated, great, conspicuous,
prominent.
Ant. Ordinary, trivial, commonplace, insignificant, mediocre.
Memorial. Monument, record, memorandum, memento, souvenir.
Ant. Silence, oblivion; non-observance; erasure.
Memory. Remembrance, recollection, reminiscence; fame,
renown, reputation; monument; retrospection, retrospect;
perpetuation, retention.
Ant. Oblivion, oversight, unmindfulness, obliviousness,
forgetfulness.
Menace, n. Threat, evil intention, denunciation, threatening.
Ant. Good will, benediction, blessing, kindness; protection.
Mend. Help, amend, emend, correct, rectify; repair, improve,
reform, better, restore, ameliorate.
Ant. Impair, damage, spoil, corrupt; harm, deteriorate,
pervert.
Mendacity. Lying, deceit, falsehood, untruth, duplicity, lie,
untruthfulness, deception; prevarication.
Ant. Truth, honesty, rectitude, uprightness, veracity, accuracy,
exactness.
Menial. Servile, mean; domestic; dependent, attendant.
Ant. Noble, independent, autocratic, supreme, superior.
Mental. Intellectual, spiritual, metaphysical, subjective,
psychological, psychical, intelligent.
Ant. Physical, corporeal, objective, bodily.
Mention, n. Reference, allusion, notice, remembrance, hint,
communication, observation, declaration.
Ant. Omission, silence, suppression, forgetfulness, neglect.
Mention, v. Speak of, notice, announce, observe, remark, hint,
declare, tell, state, report, disclose, allude to, name, refer to.
Ant. Suppress, omit, be silent about, forget, silence, drop,
neglect, disregard, slight.
Mercantile. Commercial, traffic, business; wholesale, retail;
interchangeable, marketable.
Ant. Professional; unmercantile, unmarketable, stagnant,
unprofitable.
Mercenary. Paid, hired, hireling, venal; greedy, sordid, avaricious,
selfish.
Ant. Generous, unselfish, lavish, prodigal, liberal,
philanthropic, benevolent.
Merchandise. Wares, commodities, goods; trade, traffic,
commerce; stock.
Merchant. Trader, shopkeeper, dealer, tradesman, trafficker;
importer.
Ant. Shopman, salesman, retailer, pedler, huckster.
Merciful. Compassionate, tender, humane, gracious, kind, mild,
clement, benignant, lenient, pitiful, forgiving; tender-hearted.
Ant. Remorseless, pitiless, inexorable, unrelenting, severe,
cruel, hard, illiberal.
Mercy. Compassion, grace, favor, helpfulness, clemency,
forbearance, tenderness, forgiveness, gentleness, pardon, blessing,
pity, kindness, mildness, lenity, benevolence, benignity, lenience,
leniency.
Ant. Harshness, rigor, severity, sternness, penalty, justice,
vengeance, revenge, punishment, hardness, cruelty, implacability,
ruthlessness, inhumanity, brutality, exaction.
Mere. Unmixed, pure, absolute, unqualified, simple, bare,
unaffected; unadulterated.
Ant. Compound, mixed, impure, blended, combined,
adulterated.
Meridian, n. Midday, noon, zenith, height, culmination, summit,
apex, pinnacle, acme.
Ant. Midnight, antipodes, depth, profundity, base, depression,
nadir.
Merit, n. Desert, worth, excellence, reward, approbation;
worthiness, credit, goodness.
Ant. Worthlessness, error, unworthiness, demerit, weakness,
imperfection, fault.
Merry. Gay, jovial, sportive; cheerful, happy; blithe, lively,
sprightly, vivacious, mirthful, gleeful, joyous, jocund, hilarious.
Ant. Gloomy, sad, disconsolate, dismal, moody, dejected.
Message. Notice, word, communication, missive, letter,
intimation.
Ant. Interception, silence, non-communication, neglect.
Messenger. Carrier, harbinger, intelligencer, courier, forerunner,
herald, precursor.
Metaphysical. Mental, intellectual, psychological, abstract,
general, ideal, psychical, subjective, rational, abstruse, conceptual.
Ant. Physical, substantial, physiological, material, practical,
objective, palpable, external.
Method. Order, system, rule, way, manner, mode, course,
arrangement, process, means, regularity.
Ant. Disorder, experimentation, guesswork, conjecture,
attempt, empiricism.
Midst. Middle, center, heart; thick; press; burden.
Ant. Circumference, rim, surface, border, outside, perimeter.
Mien. Aspect, manner, bearing, look, carriage, deportment,
appearance.
Ant. Character, disposition, nature, constitution, personality.
Might. Force, energy, power, means, resources; strength, capacity,
ability.
Ant. Weakness, feebleness, infirmity, impotence; inability,
inefficiency, incapability; want, lack.
Mild. Gentle, pleasant, clement, kind, soft, bland; moderate, placid,
tender, genial, meek.
Ant. Harsh, fierce, savage, rough, wild, violent, merciless,
severe.
Mind. Understanding, intellect, soul; opinion, judgment, belief;
choice, inclination, liking, intent, will; courage, spirit;
remembrance, memory, recollection; reason, brain, sense,
consciousness, disposition, intelligence, thought, instinct.
Ant. Body, matter, brute force, brawn, limbs, material
substance, members; feelings, emotions, heart, affections,
sensibilities; conduct; forgetfulness, obliviousness.
Mindful. Regardful, attentive, heedful, observant, thoughtful,
careful.
Ant. Inattentive, regardless, careless, forgetful, oblivious,
absent-minded.
Mingle. Combine, join, confuse, compound, mix; unite, associate;
intermarry; blend, amalgamate.
Ant. Separate, sever, segregate, dissolve, sift, sort, classify,
analyze.
Minister, n. Delegate, official, ambassador; clergyman, priest,
parson, ecclesiastic, preacher, divine, vicar, curate; envoy.
Ant. Monarch, master, superior, principal; layman;
government.
Minor, a. Inferior, less important, smaller, less, junior,
unimportant, younger.
Ant. Major, greater, older, senior, elder, main, important.
Minute. Small, tiny, slender, diminutive, slight, little; precise,
particular, detailed, critical, circumstantial, exact, fine,
comminuted, specific; inconsiderable; microscopic.
Ant. Monstrous, great, enormous, grand, huge; general,
abstract, broad, comprehensive; inexact, superficial.
Miraculous. Supernatural, super-physical; wonderful, awesome.
Ant. Natural, ordinary, scientific.
Mis-. A prefix used in the sense of amiss, wrong, ill. Words to
which this prefix but adds this meaning are omitted here, and their
synonyms and antonyms may usually be readily found by reference
to the root words.
Misanthropy. Cynicism, hatred, egoism.
Ant. Philanthropy, benevolence, altruism, humanitarianism.
Miscellany. Mass, mixture, collection, medley, jumble, variety,
hodge-podge, diversity.
Ant. Selection, system, arrangement, order, group, assortment,
classification.
Mischief. Damage, harm, hurt, injury, detriment, evil, ill; mishap,
trouble.
Ant. Benefit, good, blessing, profit, gratification, compensation,
favor.
Miser. Niggard, skinflint, curmudgeon, churl.
Ant. Spendthrift, profligate.
Miserable. Abject, forlorn, pitiable, wretched, mean; worthless,
despicable, contemptible; unfortunate, unlucky.
Ant. Comfortable, happy, respectable, contented, cheerful, easy.
Misery. Unhappiness, wretchedness, woe; calamity, disaster,
misfortune.
Ant. Happiness, contentment, ease, comfort, pleasure,
enjoyment.
Misfortune. Adversity, failure, ill luck, hardship, harm, ill,
affliction, calamity, blow, disaster, disappointment, trial,
tribulation, sorrow, ruin, distress, stroke, misery, reverse,
mischance, visitation, chastening, trouble, chastisement,
misadventure, bereavement, mishap.
 Ant. Consolation, blessing, boon, happiness, joy, prosperity,
relief, triumph, success, comfort, good fortune, gratification, good
luck, pleasure.
Mission. Message, errand, commission, deputation; embassy;
ministry, legation; trust, office.
Ant. Assumption, usurpation, self-appointment; faithlessness,
betrayal.
Mist. Fog, vapor; obscuration, cloudiness, perplexity,
bewilderment, haze.
Ant. Clarity, brightness; perspicuity, revelation, clearness,
discernment, insight, understanding; lucidity.
Mob. Rabble, masses, dregs of the people, the vulgar, populace,
crowd, canaille, lower classes.
Ant. Élite, aristocracy, nobility, nobles, patricians.
Mobile. Movable, excitable, inconstant, changeable, fickle;
variable, ductile, sensitive.
Ant. Immovable, firm, set, steady, unvarying, unchangeable,
inexorable.
Model. Mold, copy, design, example, image, imitation, standard,
type, representation, pattern, prototype, facsimile, original,
archetype; norm.
Ant. Imitation; work, production, execution; accomplishment.
Moderate, a. Sparing, temperate, frugal, calm, mild; limited,
restrained, reasonable; dispassionate, controlled; abstinent, sober;
austere, ascetic.
Ant. Immoderate, intemperate, luxurious, excessive,
extravagant.
Modern. New, novel, modish, fashionable, present, late, extant,
recent.
Ant. Past, ancient, antiquated, old, antique, obsolete, former.
Modesty. Humility, lowliness, humbleness, meekness, shyness,
reserve, coldness, bashfulness, backwardness, constraint, timidity,
unobtrusiveness, coyness.
Ant. Frankness, freedom, impudence, indiscretion, self-conceit,
sauciness, abandon, arrogance, confidence, egoism, assumption,
assurance, boldness, forwardness, haughtiness, loquacity,
pertness, pride, vanity, self-sufficiency, openness, effrontery.
Moment. Instant, twinkling, consequence, weight, consideration,
force, value, signification, avail; second, trice.
Ant. Age, period, decade, century, generation; insignificance,
unimportance, triviality.
Monarch. Ruler, sovereign; king, prince, emperor, queen.
Ant. Subject, peer, plebes.
Money. Coin, cash, currency, gold, funds, property, specie, silver,
bills, bullion, notes, capital.
Monopoly. Exclusiveness, possession, privilege, appropriation,
engrossment, preëmption.
Ant. Community, partnership, competition, free trade;
participation, sharing; communism; socialism.
Monotonous. Unvarying, uniform, wearisome, dull, tedious,
same, unison, humdrum, undiversified; similar, like.
Ant. Varied, changed, diversified; harmonic; lively; divergent,
variant.
Monster. Prodigy, enormity, marvel, portent; monstrosity,
wonder; demon, fiend, dragon, sphinx, colossus, leviathan; ogre.
Ant. Pigmy, dwarf, elf; angel, beauty, cherub.
Monstrous. Abnormal, extraordinary, prodigious, portentous,
marvelous, unnatural; vast, immense, colossal, stupendous;
shocking, horrible, hateful, terrible, hideous.
Ant. Beautiful, small, reasonable, little, shapely, regular, fair,
pretty, comely; ordinary, familiar, natural; charming, lovely.
Moral, a. Dutiful, right, virtuous, just, worthy, ethical; intellectual,
spiritual, religious, pious, righteous, ideal.
Ant. Immoral, wrong, sinful, unjust, unworthy, vicious, gross;
irreligious, impious, sensual; physical, bodily, carnal.
Moreover. Besides, further, in addition; also, likewise, in addition
to.
Ant. Finally, lastly.
Morose. Gruff, gloomy, crusty, crabbed, acrimonious, severe,
snappish, sullen, surly, churlish, dogged, ill-humored, ill-natured,
sulky.
Ant. Bland, gentle, benignant, good-natured, kind, loving,
pleasant, sympathetic, genial, amiable, friendly, tender,
indulgent, complaisant, mild.
Mortal. Deathlike; deadly, destructive, poisonous; vulnerable,
vital; human, perishable, ephemeral, transient, transitory.
Ant. Immortal, undying, everlasting, eternal, divine, celestial,
life-giving, perennial.
Motherly. Maternal, motherlike, parental; kind, loving,
affectionate.
Ant. Paternal, fatherlike, fatherly; harsh, unloving, unkind,
hateful.
Motion. Movement, change, action, act, passage, move, process,
transit, transition.
Ant. Quiescence, quiet, rest, repose, stillness, immobility.
Motive. Incentive, incitement, inducement, reason, spur, stimulus,
cause; object, purpose; argument, conviction; impulse, prompting.
Ant. Deed, achievement, execution, action, attempt, project;
deflector, preventive, dissuasion, deterrent.
Mourn. Lament, grieve, regret, rue, bewail, sorrow.
Ant. Exult, joy, rejoice, be joyful, triumph, make merry.
Mournful. Lugubrious, heavy, sad, sorrowful, grievous,
calamitous.
Ant. Joyful, jubilant, gladsome, cheerful, happy, pleasant,
joyous.
Move. Stir, agitate, trouble, affect, persuade, actuate, impel,
prompt, instigate, incite, offer, induce.
Ant. Stop, stay, arrest, prevent, deter; calm, appease, deflect.
Movement. Motion; compulsion, stimulation, incitement,
agitation, arousing, instigation.
Ant. Stoppage, stay, pause, calm, quiet.
Much. Great; long; considerable; abundant; far; ample, plenteous.
Ant. Little, small, scarce, few, scanty, near; narrow.
Multiplication. Teeming, multiplicity, multitude, increase,
plurality, reproduction, augmentation, swarming,
multifariousness, multitudinousness.
Ant. Diminution, division, subtraction, reduction; extinction;
rarity, scantiness; unity, singularity.
Multitude. Throng, crowd, assembly, assemblage, commonalty,
swarm, populace; host, rabble, mob, concourse.
Ant. Individual, solitude; aristocracy; oligarchy; scantiness,
paucity, scarcity.
Mundane. Worldly, terrestrial, earthly; sublunary; secular,
temporal.
Ant. Unworldly, spiritual, celestial, eternal, supramundane,
stellar, solar, lunar.
Munificent. Bounteous, bountiful, liberal, generous; beneficent,
free, lavish, extravagant.
Ant. Small, niggardly, saving, sparing, mean, close.
Musical. Melodious, harmonious, tuneful, symphonious,
mellifluous, rhythmical.
Ant. Discordant, inharmonious, harsh, raucous, unmelodious.
Mute. Silent, dumb, speechless; voiceless; still, unpronounced;
unresponsive; taciturn.
Ant. Talkative, chattering, garrulous, vocal, speaking,
loquacious, loud, noisy.
Mutual. Common, correlative, reciprocal, joint, interchangeable.
Ant. Detached, distinct, disunited, separate, severed, sundered,
unshared, unreciprocated, unrequited, disconnected.
Mysterious. Abstruse, enigmatical, dark, mystical, occult, obscure,
secret, transcendental, unknown, unfathomable, mystic, hidden,
inexplicable, inscrutable, cabalistic, incomprehensible, recondite.
Ant. Clear, plain, apparent, manifest, bright, light, explainable,
simple, comprehensible, obvious, easy, revealed, understood.
Mystic. Unknowable, obscure, mysterious; allegorical, enigmatical;
transcendental; cabalistic, symbolical.
Ant. Familiar, simple, ordinary, commonplace, obvious, plain.