Why Do we Need To Classify

Elements:
• Classification helps us to understand the properties
of the elements and their compounds. …

• Due to discovery of different elements, it was difficult

to organize the information and properties of the
elements, so there was a strong need to find some
pattern in the properties of different elements so that
they can be grouped together. That's why we classify
elements.
•
• Based on their position in the periodic table one can
predict the properties of the elements and their
compounds.
Genesis Of
Periodic
Classification:
• In 1869 Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev
started the development of the periodic table,
arranging chemical elements by atomic mass.
• He predicted the discovery of other elements, and
left spaces open in his periodic table for them.
• In 1886 French physicist Antoine Bequerel first
discovered radioactivity
Dobereiner’s TraidS:
• In Chemistry, Dobereiner triads are defined as, any of several
sets of three chemically same elements, the atomic weight of
one, which is nearly equal to the mean of the atomic weights of
the other two elements.

• Such triads, including the calcium-strontium-barium, sulfur-

selenium-tellurium, and chlorine-bromine-iodine, were noted
by the German chemist named J.W. Döbereiner between the
years 1817 and 1829.

• This triad was the earliest atomic-weight classification of these

elements
Newlandoctave’s:
• Newland’s Law of Octaves states that when Elements are arranged in increasing order of Atomic Mass, the
properties of every eighth Element starting from any Element are a repetition of the properties of the
starting Element.
• Law of Octaves was true only for Elements up to Calcium
• ADVANTAGES-
– This law gives a basis for the classification of an element having similar properties into groups of elements.
– The law provided a broad scope to order all known elements into a tabular form
– Newlands law of octave was the first to logically based on the atomic weight, i.e., it links the elements’ properties to their
atomic masses.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
And His prediction :
• Soon, Mendeleev was predicting the properties of
three elements – gallium, scandium and
germanium – that had not then been discovered.

• So convinced was he of the soundness of his

periodic law that he left gaps for these elements
in his table.
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
 Modern Periodic Law:-
• The modern periodic law states that the physical and chemical properties of the elements
are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers.Scientists arranged elements in
increasing order of their atomic numbers from left to right across each row. And
discovered that the elements having similar properties repeat after regular intervals.
• "Atomic mass is the total mass of the protons and neutrons present in a nucleus of an
atom. Whereas, the atomic number is the number of protons in a nucleus. Also, the
number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the electrons present outside the nucleus.
• We know that the nucleus is deep-seated
inside an atom. But the electrons outside it,
especially the ones in the outermost shell,
are free to move around. Hence they take
part in chemical reactions. For this reason,
the properties of an element depend on the
atomic number rather than the atomic
mass."
Long Form of Periodic Table:-
• "The modern or long form of the periodic table is based on the modern periodic law. The table
is the arrangement of elements in increasing order of their atomic numbers. The modern
periodic table is the present form of the periodic table. And it consists of 18 vertical columns
and 7 horizontal rows."
• "Groups are the vertical columns in the modern or long form of the periodic table.There are 18
groups in the periodic table.These groups are numbered from 1 to 18. Each group consists of
elements having the same outer shell electronic configuration."
• "Groups are the vertical columns in the modern or long form of the periodic table"
• There are 18 groups in the periodic table.
• These groups are numbered from 1 to 18.
• Each group consists of elements having the same outer shell electronic configuration.
• Periods are the horizontal rows in the modern or long form of the periodic table.
• There are 7 periods in the periodic table.
• These are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 from top to bottom.
• The 1st period consists of only two elements – Hydrogen and Helium.
• While the 2nd and 3rd period consists of 8 elements each.
• The 4th and 5th period consists of 18 elements each
• On the other hand, the 6th period consists of 32 elements.
• The 7th period of the periodic table now has four new elements. They are 113-Nihonium,
115- Moscovium, 117-Tennessine, and 118 –Oganesson. This addition has completed the 7th
period with 32 elements.
• Also, the long form of the periodic table consists of a separate panel at the bottom. It consists
of 14 elements of the 6th period called the lanthanoids. And 14 elements in the 7th period
called the actinoids.
•Each period represents the number of shells or energy levels present in an atom of an
element.
• The cause of periodicity in properties is the repetition of similar outer electronic
configuration after certain regular intervals.
•For example, all the elements of group 1 i.e. alkali metals have a similar outer
electronic configuration, ns1. Here n refers to the Principal Quantum Number of the
outermost shell.
• In the same way, the elements of group 17 have a similar outer electronic configuration,
ns2 np5. Hence have similar properties to one another. They are halogens.
•Similarly, the elements of group 18 have an outer electronic configuration of ns2 np6. They
have full filled orbitals. They comprise of non-reactive elements called Inert gases. Helium and
Argon have electron configuration similar to the elements of this group. So they are together
and known as Inert gases!
•Likewise, elements in a group have similar properties to those of all the other members of the
same group. This is because they all have a similar electron configuration of the outer shell.
• Furthermore, based on the entry of the valence electrons in the respective sub-shell, the
periodic table is divided into s, p, d and f block.
 Trends in physical properties
1.Atomic radius:
It refers to both covalent and metallic radius depending on whether the element is metal or non-metal.
Size of an atom~1.2 A°i.e1.2×10-10 m.

(a) Covalent radius:

It is a measure of the size of an atom that forms part of one covalent bond.
Like,the bond distance in chlorine molecule is 198 pm then half distance 99pm is the covalent radius.

(b) Metallic radius:

It is taken as half the internuclear distance separating the metal cores in the metallic crystal.
Like,the distance between two adjacent Cu atoms in a solid Cu is 256 pm ; hence the metallic radius of cu is 128 pm .
• There are 2 trends in atomic radius interms of nuclear charge and energy levels.
1. The atomic size generally decreases across a period.
2. The atomic radius increases regularly with atomic number.
• For alkali metals and halogens as we descend the groups,the principle quantum number (n) increases and the valance
electrons are farther from nucleus.
 (2) Ionic radius:
• The ionic radii can be estimated by measuring the distance between cations and
anions in a ionic crystal.
In general, the ionic radii of elements exhibit the same trend as atomic radii.
• A cation is samller than it’s parent atom because it has fewer electrons while nuclear
charge remains the same.
eg-Na+ ionic radius is 95pm while atomic radius of Na is 186 pm
• The size of an anion will be larger than that of parent atom because the addition of
one or more electron would result in increased repulsion among the electrons and
decrease in effective nuclear charge.
eg- F- ionic radius is 136pm while radius of F atom is 64 pm.
 (3)Ionization Enthalpy:
• A quantitative measure of the tendency of an element to loss electron is given by its Ionization Enthalpy.
• It represents the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom in its ground state.
Equation
E(g) →→→ E¹ (g) + e I₁ = 1st ionization energy
Equation
E¹ (g)→ E²¹ (g) +eI₂ = 2nd ionization energy
Equation
E(n-1)+(g) → E (g) +e In=nth Ionization energy.
• 1st Ionization Enthalpy<2nd Ionization Enthalpy<3rd Ionization Enthalpy
• The noble gases have low I.E generally increases as we go across a period and decreases as we descend in group.
The Ionization Enthalpy and atomic radius are closely related properties.The factors that affect I.E are
(1) The attraction of electron towards nucleus
(2)The repulsion of electrons from each other
 (4)Electron gain enthalpy:
• When an electron is added to neutral gaseous atom(g) to convert it into a negetive ion,the
enthalpy change accompanying the process is defined as Electron gain enthalpy.
This process can be either endothermic or exothermic.
• For many elements energy is released when an electron is added to the atom and the electron
gain enthalpy is –ve.
eg- Gr-17 elements have very high –ve e.g.e because they can attain stable noble gas
electronic configuration by picking up an electron.
• On the other hand ,noble gases have large e.g.e because the electron has to enter the next
higher principle quantum level leading to a very unstable electronic configuration.
The e.g.e have large –ve values towards the upper right of the periodic table proceeding
the noble gases.
• As a general rule ,e.g.e becomes more –ve with increase in the atomic number across a
period and e.g.e becomes less –ve as we go down a group.
(5)Electronegativity:
• It is a qualitative measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract
shared electrons to itself is called electro-negativity.
It is not a measurable quantity like I.E and E.G.E .
• The American scientist Linus pauling in 1992 assigned arbitrarily a value of 4.0 to
fluorine ,the element considered to have the greatest ability to attract electron.
• The Electronegativity of any given elements is not constant,it varies depending on the
element which it is bound.
• Electronegativity generally increases across a period from left to right (Li to F) and
decreases down the group(F to As)in the periodic table.
The attraction between electron and nucleus increases as the atomic radius decreases
in a period.
. The trend is similar to that Ionization Enthalpy .
• Non-metallic elements have strong tendency to gain electrons.Therefore, electro-
negativity is directly related to that non-metallic properties of elements.
 TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
• The valence is the most characteristic property of the elements and can be understood in terms of their electronic
configurations
• The valence of representative elements is usually equal to the number of electrons in the outermost orbitals and / or
equal to eight minus the number of outermost electrons
• However the transition elements show variable valency involving valence electrons and 4 electrons of the
penultimate energy shell.
• The common valence of transition metals are either 2 or 3.
• Variation in a period: In the case of representative elements, the number of valence electrons increases from 1to 8
from left to right in a period.
• Variation in a group: In a group, all the elements have same number of valence electrons and hence, all the
elements same valency. For example, the elements of group 1(alkali metals) show monovalency while the elements of
group 2 (alkaline earth metals) show divalency.
GROUP 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
NO OF 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
VALENCE
ELECTRON

VALENCE 1 2 3 4 3,5 2,6 1,7 0,8

2. NATURE OF OXIDES
•OXIDES-Oxides are binary compounds formed by the reaction of oxygen with other elements.
•In a period, the nature of the oxides varies from basic to acidic

•In a group, basic nature increases or acidic nature decreases.

•Oxides of the metals are generally basic and oxides of the non-metals are acidic.
•The oxides of the metalloids(Al, Zn, Sn, As and Sb) are amphoteric.
•Neutral oxides- CO, NO, N2O, H2O
•We can summarize that as the electronegativity of element increases, acidic character of oxides increases.
•When an element forms a number of oxides, the acidic nature increases as the percentage of oxygen increases.
3. NATURE OF OXY-ACIDS
•OXY-ACIDS-It is a compound that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and at least one other element with
at least one hydrogen atom bonded to oxygen that can dissociate to produce the H+ cation and the
anion of the acid.

•In a period, the strength of the oxy-acids formed by non-metals increases from left to right.

•In a group, the strength of the oxy-acids of non-metals decreases

•If a non-metal forms a number of oxy-acids, the strength increases with the increase of percentage of
oxygen.
•Sulphur forms two oxy-acids H2S03 and H2S04, H2S04 is stronger acid than H2S03.
•Chlorine forms a number of oxy-acids:

•Greater is the oxidation state of central atom; more will be the acidic strength.
 4. NATURE OF HYDRIDES
•HYDRIDES- A binary compound of hydrogen with a metal or any chemical compound having a
hydrogen atom bonded to a more electropositive element(metals) or groups.

•The nature of the hydrides changes from basic to acidic in a period from left to right.

•In a group, the acidic nature of the hydrides of non-metals increases. The reducing nature also
increases but stability decreases from top to bottom.
5. ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOUR OF THE ELEMENTS OF SECOND PERIOD

•It has been observed 'that in the case of representative elements, the first element in each
group, i.e., lithium in the first group, beryllium in the second group and boron to fluorine in the
groups 13 to 17, differ in many respects from the other members of their respective groups.

•The anomalous behaviour of the first member of each group is attributed to following reasons:
(a) small atomic radius of the atom and ionic radius of its ion.
(b) high electronegativity.
(c) non-availability of d-orbitals in their valence shell.
(d) tendency to form multiple bonds by carbon, nitrogen and oxygen.
(e) high charge/radius ratio.

For e.g. - "N" can't show +5 oxidation state but rest all members of the group 15 can show +5
oxidation state like N2O5 can't be formed but P2O5 can be formed