ETHICS LESSON 2
Introduction
• The world is rapidly changing in terms of its society, economics,politics, environment, and technology.
• Human life becomes complex while trying to cope up with these localand global transformation, way of life and norms.
• Moral problems / dilemmas are inevitable as one tries to develophimself to the fullest.
• Along the way, man must maintain a moral judgment, decision andaction for right and good living in the society.
• Ethics and moral standard with right reason will lead to the rightpath of life.
The Concepts: ETHICS
Etymology and Meaning
• Ethics comes the Greek word “ethos” meaning custom,habit, behaviors and character used in the works of Aristotle while the
term “moral” is the Latin equivalent.
• Ethics is the study of what is right and wrong, or good andbad, in human behavior. It involves understanding andevaluating how
people should act and make decisionsbased on moral principles.
• Moral – Greek word “Mos”, Latin word “mores” means manner, character and behavior. It is the adjectivedescribing a human act
as either ethically right or wrong,qualifying a person, personality, character, as eitherethically good or bad.
• Morality – refers to rightness and wrongness.
• Moral philosophy is a branch of Philosophy whichdeals with moral standards, inquiries about therightness and wrongness of
human behavior or thegoodness or badness of personality, trait or character.
Moral Standards or Moral Frameworks and Non-Moral Standards
• Moral Standards are norms or prescriptions that serve asthe frameworks for determining what ought to be done or what is right
or wrong action, what is good or bad character.
The following can be classified as moral standards:
• Do not lie
• Don’t steal
• Don’t cheat other
• Don’t kill
Moral Standards or Moral Frameworks
• Moral Standards are either consequences standards or non-consequence standards.Consequence standards - refer to a
framework or approach that evaluates the moral rightness or wrongness of actions based on their outcomes or consequences.
• An act that results in the general welfare aiming to promote overall well-being andminimize harm.
Non-consequence standards – are based on the natural law.
• Natural law is the law of God revealed through human reason. It is the “law” of God written in the hearts of men”
• To preserve human life is in accordance with the natural law, therefore it is moral.
• It may also be based on good will or intention, and on a sense of duty.
• Respect for humanity, treatment of other as a human reason, an act that ismoral, springs from sense of duty, a sense that you will
apply to all human persons.
Non-Moral Standards
• Non-moral Standards – these are social rules, demands of etiquette and good manners.
• They are guides of action which should be followed as expected by society.
• Sometimes they may not be followed, or some people may not follow them.
• In sociology, non-moral standards or rules are called folkways. In short, non-moral actions are those where moral categories
cannot be applied.
Examples of non-moral standards
Good manners and right conduct, etiquette, rules of behavior set by parents, teachers, and standards of grammar or language,
standards of art, sports set by other authorities.
• Do not eat with your mouth open
• Observe rules of grammar
• Wear black or white for mourning; never red
• The male should be the one to propose marriage notfemales
• Submit school requirements on time
• If you are male, stay by the danger side (roadside) when talking with a female.
Division of Ethics
META-ETHICS
APPLIED ETHICS
NORMATIVE ETHICS
META-ETHICS
• Meta-Ethics - is the study of the nature, scope, and meaning of moral judgment .
• It deals with the questions, what do ethical statement mean? Do ethical statements have objective truth or a mere subjective
expression of opinion?
MORAL REALISM
Moral Realism - is the belief that moral facts exist independently of our opinions or feelings. This means that things like "kindness is
good" or "murder is wrong" are objectively true, just like facts about science or math.
According to moral realism:
Moral truths are real and not just personal or cultural beliefs. Right and wrong exist whether people agree on them or not.
For example, if moral realism is true, then slavery was always morally wrong—even when some societies accepted it.
Examples of Moral Realism
1. Murder is Wrong - A moral realist would argue that the statement "murder is wrong" is an objective moral fact.
2. Human Rights: The belief that everyone has a fundamental right to life, liberty, and dignity is seen as an objective moral fact by
moral realists.
3. Honesty is a Virtue: Moral realists might assert that the value of honesty is an objective moral fact.
4. Justice and Fairness: The principle that people should be treated equally and fairly is viewed as an objective moral truth.
5. Charity and Compassion: A moral realist might hold that acts of charity and compassion are morally right in an objective sense.
MORAL ANTI-REALISM
Moral Anti-Realism: is the view that moral facts do not exist independently of human beliefs, feelings, or cultures. In other words,
there is no universal, objective "right" or "wrong"—morality is something we create, not something we discover.
There are different types of moral anti-realism, including:
Moral subjectivism – Morality depends on individual opinions (e.g., "stealing is wrong for me, but not necessarily for you").
Moral relativism – Morality depends on cultural or societal views (e.g., "different cultures have different moral codes, and none are
objectively right").
Moral nihilism – Morality is entirely an illusion; there is no real right or wrong at all.
So, unlike moral realism, anti-realists believe that morality is not a fixed truth but a human-made concept.
Examples of moral anti-realism:
• Moral Subjectivism: This perspective holds that moral statements are expressions of individual preferences or emotions rather
than objective facts. For example, if someone says, "Stealing is wrong," a moral subjectivist might interpret this as expressing that
the person personally dislikes stealing, rather than asserting an objective moral fact. Thus, "stealing is wrong" reflects personal
sentiment rather than an absolute truth.
META-ETHICS: ETHICAL RELATIVISM
Ethical Relativism: Ethical relativism is the idea that morality is not absolute but depends on cultural, societal, or personal
perspectives. What is "right" or "wrong" is not universal—it varies from one society or individual to another.
There are two main types:
Cultural relativism – Morality is based on societal norms. (E.g., "In some cultures, arranged marriage is morally right, while in others,
it is not.")
Moral subjectivism – Morality is based on personal beliefs. (E.g., "Lying might be wrong for you, but I think it's okay in some cases.")
Ethical relativism opposes moral absolutism, which says that some moral truths apply to everyone, no matter their culture or
beliefs.
ETHICAL RELATIVISM
Examples of Ethical relativism in action:
• Cultural Practices: In some cultures, practices like arranged marriages are considered normal and acceptable, while in others, they
might be viewed as outdated or even unethical.
• Dietary Habits: Different cultures have varying dietary practices. For instance, in some cultures, eating beef is considered perfectly
normal, while in others, it is seen as taboo.
• Punishment Methods: The use of corporal punishment, such as flogging, might be accepted in certain societies as a legitimate
form of discipline, while other societies view it as inhumane and unacceptable.
NORMATIVE ETHICS
Normative Ethics - is the branch of ethics that focuses on what people ought to do and the principles that guide right and
wrong actions. It’s about developing rules or guidelines for behavior, helping us decide how we should act in various situations.
Normative ethics tries to answer questions like:
•What is the right thing to do?
•How should we live our lives?
•What makes actions morally right or wrong?
NORMATIVE ETHICS: DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS
• Deontological Ethics: In simplest terms, it focuses on following moral rules or duties, regardless of the consequences.
• Follow universal rules, norms and duty.
• The phrase "the ends do not justify the means" is closely associated with Immanuel Kant, a prominent 18th-century philosopher.
• Kantian ethics, or deontological ethics, holds that actions must be judged based on their adherence to moral rules or duties rather
than the outcomes they produce.
• Thus, according to Kantian ethics, the means (how you achieve something) are not justified by the ends (the outcome or goal) if
the means violate moral principles or the rights of individuals.
Examples of deontological ethics in action:
• Honesty: According to deontological ethics, telling the truth is a moral duty, regardless of the consequences.
• Keeping Promises: If you make a promise to a friend, deontological ethics would argue that you have a moral duty to keep that
promise, even if breaking it could lead to a better outcome in some situation.
• Respecting Rights: Deontological ethics emphasizes respecting individuals' rights. For instance, it would argue that it is wrong to
infringe on someone’s rights or autonomy, even if doing so might lead to a greater overall good.
• Duty to Help Others: Some deontologists believe in a duty to help others in need..
• Following Moral Rules: Deontological ethics often involves adhering to established moral rules or laws.
NORMATIVE ETHICS: VIRTUE ETHICS
• Virtue Ethics: Rooted in Aristotle's philosophy, virtue ethics focuses on the character and virtues of the moral agent rather than
specific actions. It emphasizes traits such as courage, temperance, and wisdom.
• Focuses on the character traits of the person performing the action rather than the action itself.
• Constant practice of virtues that will lead to that purpose or end.
• Moral Virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, temperance, goodness, and generosity.
• For example, a virtuous person is someone who consistently acts with integrity and kindness.
NORMATIVE ETHICS: CONSEQUENTIALISM
Consequentialism - the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on its outcomes or consequences.
• Utilitarianism - Associated with philosophers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, utilitarianism evaluates actions based on
their consequences. An action is considered morally right if it maximizes overall happiness or minimizes suffering.
• It is an ethical theory that suggests the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or well-being and minimizes overall
suffering. In simplest terms, it means choosing actions that produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people. The focus
is on the outcomes or consequences of actions, aiming to achieve the highest net benefit.
NORMATIVE ETHICS: UTILITARIANISM
• The story of Robin Hood, who is famously known for "robbing from the rich and giving to the poor”.
• Applying the Utilitarianism to Robin Hood’s actions:
• Positive Outcome: Robin Hood’s thefts from the rich (particularly from corrupt officials) and redistribution of wealth to the poor
are aimed at improving the well-being of the less fortunate.
• Negative Outcome: On the other hand, stealing involves breaking the law and infringing on others' property rights
APPLIED ETHICS
• Applied ethics - is the branch of ethics that deals with real-world moral issues and applies ethical principles to specific situations or
problems.
Examples of Applied Ethics:
• Medical Ethics: Deals with ethical issues in the medical field, such as euthanasia, patient consent, and bioethical concerns.
• Business Ethics: Focuses on moral issues in the business world, including corporate responsibility, ethical marketing, and fair trade.
• Environmental Ethics: Concerned with the moral relationship between humans and the environment. It addresses issues like
conservation, animal rights, and climate change.
• Legal ethics – How law professionals should behave, balancing justice, duty, and client relationships.
APPLIED ETHICS
• Applied ethics is where theory meets practice, and it often leads to debates about how we should apply ethical principles in
complicated, real-world situations. It goes beyond just thinking about right and wrong and tries to find solutions to moral problems
people face daily.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY OF ETHICS?
ETHICS IN MORAL LIFE
ETHICS and People
• Ethics is about the “other”
• It shows concern to people rather one’s own desire and self interest
• It cares for the interest of people’s wellbeing and God with ultimate good.
• Ethics as source for group strength
• If the group believes that the actions of one is wrong because of the foundation of morality people have the guts to correct the
wrongdoing without any hesitations.
• Good people as well as good actions
• Ethics is also about goodness of individuals and what it means to live a good life.
• Virtue ethics is concerned with the moral character of human beings.
FOUR ETHICAL ISMS
Ethical Isms – various ways of making a moral judgement
• Subjectivism – moral judgment that is based on feelings, emotions, or attitudes.
• Moral judgment does not contain factual truths about goodness or badness.
Example: Lie is either bad or good, depending on the person’s feelings and attitudes.
• Moral Realism
• There is a real objective moral facts or truths in the universe.
• Moral statements provide factual information about these truths.
Example: Respect the rights is a universal moral truth.
• Emotivism – moral statement either bad or good is shown in gestures.
• Concern on expressing of those feeling in signs.
Example: If the act is good, gesture of approval, through thumb up gestures.
• Prescriptivism – believing that moral statements are just instructions and recommendation.
• How people ought to do. Norms and rules.
Example: Students must have a complete uniform inside the school.
SOME USEFUL RULES IN OUR LIVES
Etiquette- Standard of moral judgement bad or good normally dictated by socio-economic elite.
Legal- Standard of moral statement by which we judge legal right or wrong in democracy through representative of people.
Language- Standard by which we judge what is grammatically right or wrong evolved through the use.
Aesthetics- Standard by we judge good or bad art usually dictated by a small art specialist.
