CHM012

Chemistry for
Engineers Topic 2:
Chemical Bonding
Joanna Kristine E. Pancho, M.Sc., R.Ch.
Department of Chemistry
College of Science and Mathematics
MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology

joannakristine.pancho@g.msuiit.edu.ph Tel. No. | Page

 Questions to Consider
❖ What is meant by the term “chemical bond”?
❖ Why do atoms bond with each other to form compounds?
❖ How do atoms bond with each other to form compounds?

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 Types of Chemical Bond
⮚ Chemical bond – force of attraction that binds atom together in a given molecule

⮚ Types:
1. Covalent – between two non-metal atoms (ex. CH4)
2. Ionic – between a metal and a non-metal atoms (ex. KCl)
3. Metallic – between metal atoms

⮚ Molecules can be represented using:

✔ Chemical Formula ✔ Space-filling model: Indicates the relative

CH4 sizes of the atoms as well as their relative
orientation in the molecule

✔ Structural Formula ✔ Ball and stick method: A three-dimensional

model using spheres and rods

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 Ways of Gaining Stability
”Atoms interact to gain stability by changing the outermost
configuration to become isoelectronic to a noble gas.”

- G.N. Lewis (1916) -

1. Sharing electrons (Covalent bonding)

2. Transferring electrons (Ionic Bonding)

✔ Atoms that form covalent bonds are non-metals or elements that has high ionization energy or
ionization potential.
✔ Ionic bonds occurs between an atom that easily loses electrons (low ionization energy) and an atom
that has a high affinity for electrons

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 Lewis Symbol
⮚ G. N. Lewis developed a method to denote potential bonding electrons by using one dot for every
valence electron around the element symbol.

⮚ When forming compounds, atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are surrounded by
eight valence electrons (the octet rule).

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 Ionic Bond Formation
✔ Atoms tend to lose (metals) or gain (nonmetals) electrons to make them isoelectronic to the noble gases.

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 Energetics of Ionic Bonding – Born-Haber Cycle
✔ Many factors affect the energy of ionic bonding.
✔ Start with the metal and nonmetal elements: Na(s) and Cl2(g).
✔ Make gaseous atoms: Na(g) and Cl(g).
✔ Make ions: Na+(g) and Cl–(g).
✔ Combine the ions: NaCl(s).

We already discussed making ions (ionization energy and

electron affinity).
✔ It takes energy to convert the elements to atoms.
(endothermic)
✔ It takes energy to create a cation (endothermic).
✔ Energy is released by making the anion (exothermic).
✔ The formation of the solid releases a huge amount of energy
(exothermic).
✔ This makes the formation of salts from the elements
exothermic.
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 Lattice Energy
⮚ That huge, exothermic transition is
the reverse of the lattice energy, -
the energy required to completely
separate a mole of a solid ionic
compound into its gaseous ions.

⮚ The energy associated with

electrostatic interactions is governed
by Coulomb’s law:

⮚ Lattice energy increases with:

– increasing charge on the ions
– decreasing size of ions
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 Covalent Bond Formation
⮚ In covalent bonds, atoms share electrons.

⮚ There are several electrostatic interactions in these bonds:

✔ attractions between electrons and nuclei,
✔ repulsions between electrons, and
✔ repulsions between nuclei.

⮚ For a bond to form, the attractions must be greater than the repulsions.

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 Types of Covalent Bonds
1. Based on donor atom
a. Normal covalent bond – a bond formed when each atom donates an electron.

a. Dative or coordinate covalent bond – only one (1) atom donates the electron pair to form a bond.

+ H+

2. Based on electronegativity of the bonded atoms.

a. Non-polar covalent bond – when atoms bonded has almost the same electronegativities.
H – H (H2) , O = O (O2) , C – H (CH4)

a. Polar covalent bond – having different electronegativities.

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 Electronegativity
⮚ Electronegativity is the
ability of an atom in a
molecule to attract electrons
to itself.

⮚ On the periodic table,

electronegativity generally
increases as you go
✔ from left to right across
a period.
✔ from the bottom to the
top of a group.

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 Polar Covalent Bonds
✔ The electrons in a covalent bond are not
always shared equally.

✔ Fluorine pulls harder on the electrons it

shares with hydrogen than hydrogen
does.

✔ Therefore, the fluorine end of the

molecule has more electron density than
the hydrogen end.

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 Polar Covalent Bonds
⮚ When two atoms share electrons unequally, a polar covalent bond
results.
⮚ Electrons tend to spend more time around the more
electronegative atom. The result is a partial negative charge (not a
complete transfer of charge). It is represented by δ–. The other
atom is “more positive,” or δ+.
⮚ The greater the difference in electronegativity, the more polar
is the bond.

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 Points to Note

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 Lewis Structure
Basic concepts
⮚ Duet, octet, expanded octet
⮚ Covalency – the number of bonds formed by an atom in forming a molecule.

normal covalency – the number of electrons needed by an atom to have an octet of electrons.

Group No. IV V VI VII

Element Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine
Lewis
Symbol
Normal
covalency 4 3 2 1
* by 2nd period elements only.
*obeyed

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 Lewis Structure
Simple guidelines in Lewis Structure writing:
1. Determine the total number of valence electrons
e.g. SO2 : 6 x 3 = 18 e-
SO32- : (6 x 4) + 2 = 26 e-
NH4+ : (5 + 4) -1 = 8 e-

2. Determine the central atom.

⮚ the central atom must have the highest normal covalency.
⮚ if the same normal covalency, the less electronegative atom is the central atom.

3. Write the skeletal structure using single bonds to join two (2) atoms.

4. Count the number of electrons for each atoms:

⮚ 2nd period elements must have octet.
⮚ 3rd period and above can have expanded octet.
⮚ All outer atoms obey the octet rule.
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 Lewis Structure
5. Introduce multiple bond whenever the octet rule is not satisfied.

6. If the substance has a charge, enclose the Lewis Structure with a bracket [] and indicate
the charge. e.g. 1+, 2+, 3+, 3-, etc.

7. For an AXX molecule, where all atoms obey the octet rule, use Langmuir formula to determine the
number of covalent bonds formed.

example: NO2-

Total No. of e- : 5 + 2 (6) + 1 = 18 e-

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 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
✔ Boron tends to form compounds in which the boron
atom has fewer than eight electrons around it.
✔ It does not have a complete octet
✔ The Lewis structure of boron fluoride
✔ Boron has only 6 electrons around it
✔ Adding a double bond satisfies the octet rule

❖ In stable compounds such as H3NBF4, boron has an octet of electrons

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 Exceptions: Expanded Octet
✔Observed only in elements in Period 3 of the
periodic table and beyond
✔Consider the Lewis structure of sulfur
hexafluoride: 6 + 6 (7) = 48 electrons

✔When it is necessary to exceed the octet rule for

one of several third-row (or higher) elements,
assume that the extra electrons should be placed
on the central atom
✔Calculating the valence electrons present in the
triiodide ion (I3−)
• 3(7) + 1 = 22 valence electrons

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 Importance of Lewis Structure
1. Determination of formal charges of atoms.
2. Determination of geometry of molecules or ions.

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 Formal Charge
⮚ Formal Charge - it is an indication of the charge an atom would carry if it shared the electrons in a
covalent bond equally.

Assumptions:
1. There is equal sharing of electron pair in a given bond.
2. 100% covalent character
3. Polarity of the bond is NOT considered.
4. It does not represent the actual charge distribution.
5. It is dependent on the Lewis Structure.

G = Group no.
U = No. of unshared e-
C = No. of covalent bonds

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 Formal Charge
⮚ Guidelines in determining FC:
1. For atoms obeying the octet rule
a. In a given Lewis Structure, if an atom exhibits its normal covalency, then FC = 0
b. If the atom exceeded its normal covalency then its FC is positive (+)
c. If the atom has less no. of bonds compared to its normal covalency, then its FC is negative (-)

2. The sum of all the FC must be equal to the net charge of the ion. If there is no charge, then the sum is
equal to zero (molecule).

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 Example
⮚ Example: SO3 1-
No. of e- = 24 e-

1-
2+

[
⮚ Example: ClO4-
No. of e- = 32 e- -

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 Importance of Formal Charge

Formal Charge (-1) (+1)

Electronegativity

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 Resonance
Guidelines on determining important Contributing Structures, C.S.
1. C.S. must have the same atomic positions, they may only differ on the positions of e- (when writing C.S.
do not change the relative position of the atomic nuclei.)

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 Resonance
⮚ Some molecules or ions can be represented by several Lewis structures/valence bond
formulas.

Note: Localized bonds – refers to single bonds

Delocalized bonds – refers to multiple bonds

e.g. CO32-

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 Resonance

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 Resonance
4. Position of formal charges distribution
✔ Adjacent like charge is unfavorable (less important)
✔ Adjacent opposite charge is favorable (more important)

✔ Important
✔ Important
✔ Reasonable distribution of FC.
✔ Adjacent opposite charge
✔ Adjacent opposite charge

✔ Less important due to

adjacent like charge
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 Resonance
5. Electroneutrality principle
✔ A C.S. where all atoms have zero formal charge will be the most stable, therefore more important.

-1 -1 +1 -2

✔ Important ✔ Most important ✔ Less important

✔ Two atoms has ✔ Reasonable charge ✔ One atoms has
zero formal charge distribution zero formal charge
✔ Two atoms has
zero formal charge

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 Resonance
6. The greater the number of covalent bonds, the greater the importance of the C.S.

(4) (3) (2) (1)

increasing importance of contributing structure

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