H-SPACE 2024 April 25-26, 2024, Budapest, Hungary

Space Debris: Overview and Mitigation Strategies

Mohammed Vaseeq Hussain Khan Efstratios L. Ntantis

Abstract—The space industry has experienced exponential still functioning [1]. Forecasts depict scenarios of high
growth since humanity's inaugural foray into space over six demand, base-case demand, and low demand. In the base case
decades ago, heralding a new era of technological prowess and alone, an anticipated 27,000 active satellites will be in orbit by
scientific achievements. However, this progress has brought forth the end of 2030, almost a threefold increase from today. To
significant challenges, chief among them being the proliferation maintain that number at the assumed lifespan, 4,000 to 5,000
of space debris. Advancements in rocket technology have led to
satellites must be launched annually [2].
reduced launch costs, resulting in an extensive network of more
than 9,000 active satellites encircling the Earth. Yet, alongside The exponential rise in satellite launches can be primarily
these operational satellites, approximately 12,000 trackable and attributed to increased cost efficiency. The cost of space
an estimated 1 million non-trackable space debris objects exist, launch has been substantially reduced due to constantly
including defunct satellites, all hurtling through space at extreme
velocities. This debris poses grave threats to functioning satellites,
evolving technology. This expands opportunities to exploit
spacecraft, and astronauts, with frequent collisions exacerbating space for commercial users, the military, and space agencies
the issue by generating further debris. As nations and private [3]. The remarkably swift progression of space exploration is
entities intensify their investments in space exploration, the nothing short of fascinating, but it is accompanied by
impending deployment of mega-constellations raises concerns of dangerous by-products that are commonly overlooked, namely
triggering the Kessler Syndrome—a chain reaction of collisions space debris. As the number of satellites constantly increases,
rendering Low Earth Orbit impassable. This paper critically so does the probability of collisions between other satellites or
evaluates existing literature on space debris, scrutinizing its space debris. Maintaining sustainability in the Earth's orbit is
origins, associated risks, and the prevailing legal frameworks vital to allow safe interplanetary exploration and space
governing debris mitigation. It underscores the imperative of
international collaboration to safeguard the sustainability of our
operations. All spacefaring nations and organizations need to
celestial environment, particularly amidst the surge of planned acknowledge that Earth's orbits are the pathway to the
mega-constellations. Various active debris removal techniques, unknown beyond, and it must be kept open and safe if we wish
such as laser-based removal, net capture, harpooning, and to continue in our exploration. Mitigating space debris is
passive methods like Drag Augmented Sails, are investigated for imperative to achieve sustainability in Earth's orbit.
efficacy and feasibility within current technological constraints.
Moreover, regulatory measures are analyzed to underscore their
II. CURRENT LANDSCAPE
role in complementing technological innovations and fostering
international cooperation. A holistic approach integrating In the early days of space exploration, space debris was not
regulatory frameworks, collaborative efforts, and technological paid much attention, with nations prioritizing short-term
advancements is advocated to address the escalating threat of advantages over long-term shared goals. The prevailing belief
space debris and ensure the long-term viability of space was that the vast expanse of space could accommodate all
exploration endeavors. In summary, this paper offers a objects without reaching capacity. However, as the foray into
comprehensive examination of the space debris landscape, its
space deepens, acknowledging and addressing the issue
perils, and a spectrum of mitigation strategies geared toward
preserving the integrity of space exploration. regarding space debris is of utmost importance. By definition,
space debris is "all man-made objects, including fragments
Keywords—space sustainability, space pollution, space industry, and elements thereof, in Earth orbit or re-entering the
Kessler syndrome, debris removal atmosphere, that are non-functional" [4].
Space debris can generally be classified into three groups:
I. INTRODUCTION small objects smaller than 1cm, medium objects of 1-10 cm,
Humanity's first venture into the vast unknown of space and large debris greater than 10cm [1]. Small debris objects
began in 1957 when the Soviets launched the first artificial are challenging to track and numerous but relatively easy to
satellite, Sputnik 1. Over the past six decades, about 6,500 shield against. Medium Debris objects have a large
rockets (excluding failures) have been launched, placing about population, making keeping track of them all very demanding.
16,990 satellites in Earth's orbit. Of these 16,990 satellites, They are difficult and expensive to protect against. Large
roughly 11,500 are still orbiting in space, while just 9,000 are debris objects are relatively smaller in number and are

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regularly tracked by entities like the European Space Agency III. DANGERS OF SPACE DEBRIS
(ESA) and the Space Surveillance Network (SSN). Satellites In 1978, a NASA scientist named Donal J Kessler
cannot defend against these objects and must perform described a phenomenon involving a self-sustaining cascading
avoidance maneuvers. collision involving space debris. Essentially, two objects that
The problem of space debris is essentially one of pollution collide in space break up into smaller fragments, and these
since we actively pollute the orbital environment via our smaller fragments collide with other objects, thus forming
orbital activities. This issue has persisted since the very more debris. This cycle continues until Earth's orbit is filled
beginning, when we used to discard spent rocket stages, bolts, with impassable debris, consequently confining humans to
screws, and other elements when stage separation was Earth. This effect was dubbed "The Kessler Syndrome" [9].
occurring. Additionally, there have been cases where This theory has gained traction in recent years, mainly due
astronauts have lost tools and equipment during space walks to the growing interest in space operations in organizations,
[5]. Furthermore, non-operational satellites also contribute to such as plans for constellations from significant companies
the space debris ecosystem. like SpaceX, Amazon, and Apple. These constellations could
Space debris mostly populates regions with active act as catalysts for the scenario described in the Kessler
satellites, and these orbits are: Syndrome, raising concerns, mainly due to the lack of steps to
mitigate and remediate existing and new space debris.
- Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Up to 2000km above Earth's
surface For instance, the accidental collision of American and
Russian satellites, Iridium and Kosmos 2251, in 2009 and the
- Navigation Satellite Orbits: 19000-23000 km above deliberate destruction of the Chinese Fengyun-1C spacecraft
Earth's surface in 2007 alone have increased the large orbital debris
- Geostationary Orbit (GEO): Around 36000 km above population in LEO by approximately 25%, posing more
Earth's surface significant collision risks for spacecraft operating in low Earth
orbit [10]. Additionally, it is estimated that there are over 640
Objects in LEO typically experience some level of cases of explosions, collisions, break-ups, or anomalous
atmospheric drag due to their proximity to Earth. This means events that lead to fragmentation, and this number only
that as the object falls closer to Earth, the heat generated due accounts for the objects we can keep track of. The actual
to friction with air molecules will incinerate it. However, if the number is bound to be higher if we take smaller or
object is too large to be burnt, it is bought down at Point unidentified objects into account as well [1]. Furthermore,
Nemo, an inaccessible oceanic point between New Zealand over 11 non-deliberate fragmentations have occurred in the
and Antarctica. This is done to avoid the satellite potentially space environment over the past two decades, contributing to
causing harm to the surrounding population where it lands. It the increasing number of space debris in orbit [11].
is estimated that Point Nemo houses 264 retired spacecraft [6].
Most "space junk" is moving extremely fast and can reach
Satellites in orbits higher than LEO cannot be brought 18,000 miles per hour, dubbed hypervelocity, which is almost
down and must be 'pushed back' to a higher orbit, the seven times faster than a bullet. Due to the rate of speed and
graveyard orbit. This is situated some 300km above GEO, and volume of debris in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), current and future
while it poses no risks to the human population here on Earth, space-based services, explorations, and operations pose a
it does add to the existing pile of space debris [7]. safety risk to people and property in space and on Earth. For
Space debris can range in size from minuscule paint flecks instance, numerous space shuttle windows were damaged by
to massive metal chunks. Since the first satellite launch in what was found to be tiny flecks of paint [12].
1957, there has been more debris in orbit than operational Additionally, crewed spacecraft such as the International
satellites. Space Station (ISS) are actively facing this threat. The ISS can
According to information released by the Space Debris shield itself against particles up to 3mm in size using Whipple
Office of ESA (last updated on December 6, 2023), the total shields comprising multiple layers. The first layer breaks apart
mass of all space objects in Earth's orbit exceeds 11,500 tons. the debris object into fragments. The second layer breaks these
It is estimated that around 130 million pieces of small, fragments into even smaller ones until the fragments become
untraceable debris and over 1,000,000 medium-sized space too small to penetrate further layers [13].
debris objects exist [1]. However, almost 670,000 pieces of orbiting space debris
Previous research shows that at least five large debris 1-10cm big can destroy the onboard shielding system and
objects must be removed from orbit annually to stabilize the penetrate the ISS's body [14]. The only way to avoid these is
space debris situation. This conservative estimate presumes to perform avoidance maneuvers, which prove to be high
optimal conditions where no incident explosion occurs and economic burdens, especially considering spacecraft have
post-mission disposal achieves a success rate of over 90% [8]. limited propellants. Between 2010 and 2014, two European
meteorological satellites had to perform five avoidance
maneuvers to avoid fatal collisions with space debris [15]. The

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annual cost of losses due to space debris in 2020 alone was potentially sensitive information regarding the object's
roughly $100 million, projected to rise only from here on out designs, implicating foreign policies and intellectual property
[16]. Microwave Electrothermal Propulsion Systems (MEPS) rights [15].
present a promising, relatively cost-effective prospect for
Additionally, uncertain financial accountability further
satellite propulsion, offering a potential solution for precise
complicates the landscape for active debris removal, mainly
maneuvering to avoid collisions with space debris. By
because many debris are not traceable back to a specific object
effectively converting electrical energy into thrust, MEPS
or fragmentation level. This adds another layer of complexity
could facilitate the adjustment of spacecraft trajectories to
to the legal circumstances of debris removal, contributing to a
navigate safely amidst the hazards of space debris, potentially
sense of reluctance within the space community to undertake
minimizing the need for excessive propellant consumption
space debris removal options. This leads to the debris
[17].
population within our orbits simply rising.
IV. SCIENTIFIC THREATS DUE TO SPACE DEBRIS LEO, in particular, is now viewed as the World's largest
garbage dump. It is expensive to remove space debris from
The number of active space members globally is
LEO because the problem of space junk is vast—there are
constantly increasing, meaning that the number of spacecraft,
nearly 6,000 tons of materials in LEO alone [19]. To curb the
and subsequently the amount of space debris, is also growing.
escalation of space debris, all newly launched satellites in
This increase collectively causes light pollution, and though
LEO must incorporate a mechanism for controlled re-entry,
the interference caused by large, active satellites may not
ensuring their destruction within 25 years following the
disrupt astronomical observations much, only appearing as
cessation of operations [21].
light streaks in the sky, the cumulative effect of millions of
debris pieces has a much more significant impact. Spread-out Space junk is not one country's responsibility but the
debris clouds can cause noise by reflecting and scattering responsibility of every country with spacefaring ambitions.
incoming light waves, increasing the overall sky brightness to The problem of managing space debris is both an international
levels similar to urban centers. However, this increase in sky challenge and an opportunity to preserve the space
brightness is not limited to urban regions and will cover the environment for future space exploration missions [22].
entire globe. If the number of debris in orbit keeps increasing,
To this end, numerous voluntary standards and guidelines
it could become practically impossible to find Bortle One
have already been formulated, mirroring the national
skies except in highly remote locations during deep winter
legislation and documentation of space agencies:
nights [18].
- Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee
Additionally, growing space debris poses severe threats to
(IADC) Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines, 2021 [21].
our scientific endeavors, such as the ISS and Hubble
telescope, which can impact all the subsequent research we - The European Code of Conduct for Space Debris
can only perform in those environments. Suppose we reach the Mitigation [21] was written and approved by five
tipping point, and our orbits become unusable. In that case, we European agencies [23].
will lose the opportunity to continue using the existing
- Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines by the UN
infrastructure to learn more and lose the potential to send any
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space [24].
replacement [19].
- Recommendation of the International
Furthermore, the proliferation of space debris and
advancing the Kessler Syndrome could endanger access to Telecommunication Union ITU ITU-R S.1003
Lagrange points, vital for conducting various scientific "Protection of the geostationary satellite orbit as an
endeavors such as deep space observation or asteroid environment."
observation [20]. - Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines and Regulatory
Framework of the UAE Space Agency [25].
V. LEGAL REGULATIONS SURROUNDING SPACE DEBRIS - ISO 24113 "Space systems: Space debris mitigation
As of the time of this paper, there are no internationally requirements" [26]
enforced space laws to clean up debris in our orbits. Numerous
The IADC Space Debris Mitigation guidelines, a result of
legal and geopolitical challenges present themselves regarding
the collaboration of 13 spacefaring nations, have served as a
active debris removal.
base for all the documents above. According to
From a legal perspective, the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 recommendations from the IADC guidelines, every
and the Liability Convention of 1973 establish a robust organization must develop a Space Debris Mitigation Plan
framework regarding ownership rights over space objects. when developing a new spacecraft or mission. This document
These treaties specify that no nation can salvage or retrieve must include the following components:
space objects belonging to another country without explicit
1. Space Debris Mitigation Management Plan.
consent from the registered national owner. Security concerns
are also relevant since debris retrieval entails sharing

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 2. Plan to assess and mitigate risks related to space - Legal complexities involve ambiguity regarding
debris, applying relevant standards. ownership and access rights to manipulate/remove space
objects registered with other countries physically.
3. Disposal plan for spacecraft/orbital stages.
- Lack of consensus on target selection.
4. Measures highlighting any hazards that could
generate space debris. - Potential for unintentional further debris generation
during attempts at debris removal.
5. Justify choices when alternative options are available.
Despite these challenges, there is a growing awareness
6. Compliance matrix addressing the Guideline
within the space community regarding the urgency of space
recommendations.
debris mitigation. As a result, concentrated efforts are being
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) made to explore and implement various methods to reduce the
has been publishing a list of standards for space debris proliferation of space debris.
mitigation since 2010. In particular, the ISO 24113 document,
which outlines the space debris mitigation requirements, has A. Drag Augmented Sails (DAS)
had a third edition published in 2019. This edition has This method of space debris remediation offers a practical
enforced stricter requirements to guide countries and and effective manner for small satellites in LEO to operate
organizations in their space endeavor [27]. Most notably, sustainably. This involves including a compact sail that can be
stricter limitations on the ejection of slag from solid rocket installed onto the satellite. Once the satellite reaches the end of
motors, limiting the number of debris objects released by a its mission, the sail is deployed. This causes an increase in the
launch vehicle, and collision avoidance systems in satellites area-mass ratio of the satellite with a minimal increase in the
were made necessary. These standards will continually evolve satellite's mass, thereby causing an increase in drag. This
to reflect the fast-paced changes shaping the space industry. causes a reduction in the satellite's orbital speed and
ISO 24113 has a revised edition published in 2023, and all accelerates the satellite's re-entry into the atmosphere, where it
space industry members must operate while observing the set can burn up. A functional advantage of DAS is that it requires
standards [28]. no power or fuel. However, research is needed for the sail
A significant milestone in space regulation occurred when material, which should be capable of withstanding collisions
the Federal Communications Commission of the United States with orbiting space debris.
fined DISH Network for improperly disposing of their retired Research has found that a satellite operating 650-700km
satellite, EchoStar-7, to a designated graveyard orbit. The above the Earth's surface will de-orbit naturally within 25
FCC's imposition of a $150,000 fine underscores the years, provided it has a typical area-to-mass ratio (0.005 to
increasing importance placed on responsible space 0.015m2/kg) [31]. By incorporating a moderately sized drag
management and planning and the enforcement of regulatory augmentation sail (with an area-to-mass ratio of 0.1 m2/kg),
measures to mitigate the proliferation of space debris [29]. the maximum altitude range for satellite re-entry can be
extended beyond 800km. The most effective application of a
VI. SPACE DEBRIS MITIGATION drag-sail is within altitudes of up to 950km. However, beyond
Space debris mitigation can be categorized into short-term this threshold, the necessary drag area for de-orbiting becomes
and long-term risk reduction strategies. Short-term mitigation impractically large, particularly for heavier satellites. For
involves spacecraft executing Just-in-time collision avoidance instance, to facilitate the de-orbiting of a 1-ton satellite from
maneuvers to minimize the likelihood of impact and an altitude of 1000km within a 25-year timeframe, a drag sail
subsequent debris generation. However, this approach does measuring at least 20m by 20m would be required [32]. Three
not address the underlying long-term risk of collisions. Long- drag sails were designed and manufactured by Cranfield
term space debris risk reduction encompasses active debris University and are currently onboard three orbiting satellites
removal, space debris remediation measures, the deliberate de- [33].
orbiting of decommissioned satellites into the Earth's
atmosphere, or the relocation of debris or satellites to B. Laser-Based Systems
designated graveyard orbits. This is a prospective solution for creating a just-in-time
collision avoidance system. It involves heating a space debris
The space community is reluctant when it comes to
object by aiming a powerful ground-based or space-based
implementing active debris removal methods, and this
laser at it. This laser vaporizes the surface layer of the debris.
reluctance stems from four factors, as highlighted in [30]:
This forms plasma and an exhaust plume, which leaves the
- High costs of missions. It is estimated that for satellites surface of the debris at sufficient velocities to change the
intended for geostationary orbits, 5-10% of the mission object's trajectory. This method is one of the few suitable for
cost is attributed to debris protection and mitigation debris objects with dimensions less than 10cm in the LEO.
systems, and the percentage is even higher for satellites However, there is a risk of generating additional debris via this
in LEO [15]. method. Additionally, accurate target acquisition and tracking
technology is required to carry out these operations safely.

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However, international concerns about the potential tumbling rates since the risk of generating new debris is too
development of a "space weapon" restrict how freely countries high. However, experiments conducted by the ESA indicated
can research such technology [34]. that for capturing objects spinning up to 6deg/s, the generation
of new debris is minimal and internalized within the target
The Laser Ablative Debris Removal by Orbital Impulse
object [37]. Additionally, a harpoon hitting a space debris
Transfer (L'ARDOIT) project is based on the ablation effect. It
object can significantly alter its rotational parameters, so
involves an active spacecraft in LEO equipped with a 100ps
carefully choosing the point at which it is fired is crucial.
ultraviolet pulse laser that can affect objects up to 25km away
and an optics system capable of detecting objects at a distance The possibility of using a harpoon tether system was
of 600km [35]. experimentally explored in orbit as part of the
RemoveDEBRIS mission, in which a square aluminum
C. Net Capture Method honeycomb panel was successfully pierced from a distance of
The active space debris removal method involves 1.5m. However, as for the net, further investigations are
deploying a chaser satellite with a net installed. The net will required to assess the best methodology for disposing of the
have flying weights attached to each corner, called bullets, captured object [36].
which wrap around the target once they come in contact. The
chaser satellite tracks and follows a designated space debris VII. CONCLUSION
object and then launches a net to capture the target object. In conclusion, the space age, a mere 65 years old, has seen
This process has three key steps: net deployment, target humans populate Earth's orbital environment with numerous
capturing, and target de-orbiting. This method has various objects, jeopardizing the longevity of our cosmic endeavors.
inherent advantages associated with it. For instance, it allows The looming threat of the Kessler Syndrome and emerging
for the flexibility to capture debris of varying shapes or challenges like dust-induced light pollution interfering with
dimensions. Additionally, this method allows for a relatively the night sky underscore the situation's urgency. This paper
large distance to be maintained between the chaser satellite has delineated the intricate landscape of space debris and the
and the target, reducing the likelihood of a collision between mitigation guidelines outlined by several bodies while
the spacecraft and the debris. This solution can be applied only shedding light on select mitigation strategies. As humanity
within LEO, wherein the net can burn up along with the debris aspires to expand its celestial footprint, particularly with
upon atmospheric re-entry [34]. ambitions directed towards other celestial bodies, ensuring the
The LEO technology was successfully demonstrated in sustainability of Earth's orbits becomes paramount. The rapid
2018 via the in-orbit space debris removal mission evolution of the space industry offers immense opportunities
RemoveDEBRIS. The DebrisSat1 released a target Cubesat and advantages tied to our planet's orbits. Yet, to harness these
with inflatable boons reaching 1m in diameter. The target was benefits and pave the way for safe, extensive space
designed to represent a space debris object better. This target exploration, preserving and decluttering these orbits for
was caught with a 5-meter net made with high-strength fibers enduring use is essential. Ultimately, the journey to a
and deployed with concentric weights and a central cover. sustainable space environment demands joint global
After successfully capturing the target, motors and winches cooperation and concerted efforts from all stakeholders.
installed in the weights are used to close the net. However,
further investigation is required into methods for disposing of
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