Bihar Engineering University,Patna

Foundation Engineering
[Link] 7th Sem Examination PYQ-2023

Question 1 : Choose the correct aswers of the following

Answers :
(a) (i) 25 mm
(b) (i) 4
(c) (ii) Has a depth of embedment less than its width
(d) (iv) Plastic clayey soils
(e) (ii) 1.5 m below the base of the footing
(f) (iv) 1.3
(g) (iv) 25 mm
(h) (iv) all the above
(i) (iv) all the above
(j) (iv) all the above

Question 2 (a): What is raft foundation? Under what circumstances raft

foundation is adopted?
Answers : Raft Foundation and Its Applications
What is a Raft Foundation?
A raft foundation, also known as a mat foundation, is a large continuous slab that extends over
a significant portion or the entire footprint of a building. It supports multiple columns and
walls, distributing the structural loads evenly across a wide area of soil.
Circumstances for Adopting Raft Foundation
Raft foundations are used in the following situations:
1. Weak or Low Bearing Capacity Soil
o When the soil cannot support isolated footings due to weak strength, a raft
foundation helps distribute the load over a larger area.

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 2. Heavy Structural Loads
o For buildings with high column loads (e.g., multi-story buildings, industrial
structures), a raft foundation ensures uniform settlement and prevents
differential settlement.
3. Presence of Water Table Close to the Surface
o When the groundwater level is high, raft foundations prevent excessive
settlement and improve stability.
4. Structures on Expansive or Compressible Soil
o In areas with clayey or highly compressible soils (such as black cotton soil), raft
foundations minimize settlement variations and prevent cracking.
5. When Individual Footings Would Overlap
o In densely constructed areas where individual footings might overlap, a single
raft foundation is a practical solution.
6. Seismic Zones
o In earthquake-prone areas, raft foundations improve the overall stability of the
structure by acting as a single rigid unit, reducing differential movement.
Advantages of Raft Foundations
• Distributes load efficiently and minimizes differential settlement.
• Reduces excavation costs as compared to deep foundations.
• Provides greater stability in poor soil conditions.
• Reduces risk of shear failure in weak soils.

Question 2 (b): Explain the factors which affect the bearing capacity of soils.
Answers : Factors Affecting the Bearing Capacity of Soils
The bearing capacity of soil is its ability to support structural loads without excessive
settlement or failure. Several factors influence the bearing capacity of soils, including:
1. Type and Properties of Soil
• Cohesionless Soils (Sand & Gravel): The bearing capacity depends on internal friction
(ϕ) and particle interlocking.
• Cohesive Soils (Clay & Silt): The strength depends on cohesion (c) and water content.
2. Moisture Content & Groundwater Table
• Higher water content reduces effective stress and weakens soil strength.

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 • If the groundwater table is near the foundation level, it decreases the bearing capacity
by reducing friction between soil particles.
3. Depth of Foundation (D)
• Deeper foundations experience greater confining pressure, increasing the soil’s
resistance.
• Shallow foundations may be affected by surface weathering and moisture fluctuations.
4. Density & Compaction of Soil
• Well-compacted soil has a higher bearing capacity as it reduces settlement and
increases internal friction.
• Loose or disturbed soil has lower strength and is prone to compression.
5. Shear Strength of Soil
• Determined by cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction (ϕ).
• Higher shear strength leads to higher bearing capacity.
6. Load Characteristics
• Magnitude of Load: Heavier structures require stronger soil.
• Type of Load: Static loads (steady) are better tolerated than dynamic loads (varying,
e.g., machinery vibrations).
• Inclination of Load: A vertically applied load is ideal, while inclined loads reduce
effective soil strength.
7. Shape and Size of Footing
• Square and circular footings provide higher bearing capacity than rectangular or strip
footings.
• Larger foundations distribute load over a bigger area, improving stability.
8. Presence of Adjacent Structures
• Excavations or nearby buildings can cause stress interference, affecting soil stability.
• Deep foundations nearby may induce lateral or vertical pressure changes.
9. Seasonal & Climatic Effects
• Rainfall & Flooding: Increase moisture content, reducing bearing capacity.
• Frost Action: In cold regions, water in soil may freeze, causing expansion and reducing
load-bearing strength.
10. Soil Improvement Methods

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 • Techniques like soil compaction, grouting, and soil stabilization enhance bearing
capacity.
• Geotextiles or reinforcement in weak soils can improve load-bearing performance.

Question 3 (a): Explain the different classification of piles with neat sketch.
Answers : Classification of Piles
Piles are deep foundation elements used to transfer loads to deeper soil layers when surface
soil lacks sufficient strength. Piles are classified based on various factors, such as material,
function, and method of installation.

1. Classification Based on Material

(a) Timber Piles
• Made of strong wood like oak or pine.
• Used for temporary structures or in waterlogged areas.
• Vulnerable to decay unless treated with preservatives.
(b) Concrete Piles
• Precast Concrete Piles: Cast in a factory and transported to the site.
• Cast-in-Situ Piles: Concrete is poured directly into a drilled hole at the site.
• Highly durable and resistant to chemical attacks.
(c) Steel Piles
• Made of steel sections such as H-piles or pipe piles.
• Used in marine structures and deep foundations.
• Require corrosion protection in aggressive environments.
(d) Composite Piles
• Combination of two materials (e.g., timber in the lower portion and concrete in the
upper portion).
• Used where the upper part is exposed to air/water while the lower part is embedded
in soil.

2. Classification Based on Function

(a) End Bearing Piles

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 • Transfer loads to a strong soil layer or bedrock at the base.
• Acts as a column, carrying loads directly to firm strata.
(b) Friction Piles
• Transfer loads through skin friction between the pile surface and surrounding soil.
• Used when strong soil layers are too deep to reach with end-bearing piles.
(c) Combination Piles (End Bearing + Friction Piles)
• Carry load through both end bearing and skin friction.
• Used in sites where moderate-strength soil exists at depth.
(d) Tension or Uplift Piles
• Designed to resist uplift forces caused by wind, water pressure, or expansive soils.
• Used in transmission towers, chimneys, and bridges.
(e) Compaction Piles
• Displace loose granular soil to increase soil density and bearing capacity.
• Common in sandy soils where compaction improves foundation stability.

3. Classification Based on Method of Installation

(a) Driven Piles
• Installed by hammering or vibrating into the ground.
• Types: Timber, steel, and precast concrete piles.
• Causes noise and vibrations; used in large projects.
(b) Bored (Drilled) Piles
• A hole is drilled and then filled with concrete.
• Causes minimal vibrations; used near existing structures.
(c) Jacked Piles
• Pushed into the ground using hydraulic jacks.
• Suitable for areas where vibrations need to be avoided.

Neat Sketch of Piles

Below is a diagram illustrating different pile types:

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 | | |
| End | Friction |
| Bearing | Pile |
| Pile | |
|_____________|______________|
|| ||
______||_____________||______
| |
| Strong Soil or Bedrock |
|______________________________|
This sketch represents End Bearing Piles (supported by a strong layer) and Friction Piles
(carrying loads through side friction)

Question 3 (b): Discuss briefly the method of estimating the individual and
group capacity of piles?
Answers : 1. Individual Pile Capacity Estimation
The capacity of a single pile is determined based on two main components:
• End Bearing Capacity (Qb): The resistance at the pile tip, calculated using soil bearing
capacity theories like Terzaghi’s or Meyerhof’s formula.
• Skin Friction Capacity (Qs): The resistance along the pile shaft, estimated using the
adhesion factor (α) or friction factor (β) depending on soil type.
Total individual pile capacity is given by:
Qu=Qb+Qs
where Qu is the ultimate load-carrying capacity. The safe load is found by applying a factor of
safety (usually 2.5 to 3).
2. Group Capacity Estimation
When piles are used in a group, their combined capacity may differ due to interaction effects.
The group capacity is determined by:
• Sum of Individual Pile Capacities: If piles are spaced sufficiently apart (typically >3D,
where D is the pile diameter), the group capacity is roughly the sum of the individual
capacities.

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 • Block Failure Mechanism: If piles are closely spaced, the group may act as a single block
of soil-pile system, and the failure mechanism is analyzed using soil shear strength
principles.
The lower value between the sum of individual capacities and block failure governs the group
capacity. A reduction factor may also be applied for settlement considerations.
Summary
• Individual pile capacity is estimated using end bearing and skin friction.
• Group capacity is the lower of the sum of individual piles and block failure capacity.
• Safety factor is applied to get the allowable load.

Question 4 (a): Explain Terzaghi's analysis for determining the safe bearing
capacity of the soil.
Answers : Terzaghi's analysis, also known as Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory, is a method
used to determine the safe bearing capacity of soil by calculating the ultimate bearing capacity
of a foundation based on the soil's shear strength properties (cohesion and internal friction
angle) and the geometry of the footing, considering a failure mechanism where the soil
beneath the foundation is assumed to yield in a plastic manner, creating distinct shear failure
zones; this ultimate bearing capacity is then divided by a factor of safety to obtain the safe
bearing capacity.
Key points about Terzaghi's analysis:
• Assumptions:
• The foundation is considered shallow, meaning its width is greater than or
equal to its depth.
• The soil is homogeneous and isotropic (uniform properties throughout).
• The load is applied vertically and uniformly on the foundation.
• No sliding occurs between the foundation and the soil.
• Failure Mechanism:
Terzaghi's theory divides the soil beneath the foundation into three distinct shear failure
zones:
• Zone 1 (Passive Rankine Zone): Soil at the edges of the footing experiences a
passive Rankine state, pushing against the foundation.
• Zone 2 (Radial Shear Zone): A zone of radial shear stress occurs around the
footing.

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 • Zone 3 (Central Tension Crack): A central tension crack may develop under the
footing depending on soil properties.
• Equation:
The ultimate bearing capacity (qu) is calculated using the following equation, where c is the
soil cohesion, γ is the soil unit weight, B is the footing width, D is the depth of the foundation,
and Nc, Nq, and Nγ are bearing capacity factors depending on the internal friction angle of
the soil:
qu = cNc + qNq + 0.5 γB Nγ

• Calculating Safe Bearing Capacity: To determine the safe bearing capacity (qs),
the ultimate bearing capacity is divided by a factor of safety (FOS):
qs = qu / FOS
where FOS typically ranges from 2.5 to 3 depending on the type of soil and loading
conditions.
Limitations of Terzaghi's Analysis:
• Soil Heterogeneity:
The theory assumes homogeneous soil, which may not be accurate for real-world conditions.
• Foundation Shape:
The equation is primarily applicable to strip footings, and modifications are needed for other
shapes like square or circular footings.
• Depth Effect:
The theory is best suited for shallow foundations, and may not be accurate for deep
foundations.

Question 4 (b): Given Data:

• Footing Type:
o Strip footing: 1 m wide
o Square footing: 3 m × 3 m
• Soil Properties:
o Unit weight of soil (γ) = 1.8 t/m³ = 18 kN/m³
o Cohesion (c) = 2 t/m² = 20 kN/m²
o Angle of internal friction (φ) = 20°

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 o Bearing capacity factors:
▪ Nc=17.5
▪ Nq=7.5
▪ Nγ=5
Answers : Step 1: Terzaghi's Ultimate Bearing Capacity Formula
qu=cNc+qNq+0.5γBNγ
where:
• q =γDf is the overburden pressure at foundation depth.
• B is the width of the foundation.
Since the depth of the foundation Df is not given, we'll assume Df =1.5 m (common for shallow
foundations).
q = γDf = 18×1.5 = 27 kN/m²q
Step 2: Calculation for Strip Footing (B = 1 m)
Using the formula:
qu = (20×17.5) + (27×7.5) + (0.5×18×1×5)
qu = 350 + 202.5 + 45
qu = 597.5 kN/m²
Step 3: Calculation for Square Footing (B = 3 m)
qu = (20×17.5) + (27×7.5) + (0.5×18×3×5)
qu = 350 + 202.5 + 135
qu = 687.5 kN/m²
Step 4: Calculate Safe Bearing Capacity
Using Factor of Safety (FOS) = 3:
qs = qu / FOS
For strip footing:
qs = 597.53 / 3 =199.2 kN/m²
For square footing:
qs = 687.53 / 3 =229.2 kN/m²
Final Answers:

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 • Ultimate bearing capacity for strip footing: 597.5 kN/m²
• Ultimate bearing capacity for square footing: 687.5 kN/m²
• Safe bearing capacity for strip footing: 199.2 kN/m²
• Safe bearing capacity for square footing: 229.2 kN/m²

Questoon 5 (a): Explain the Rankine's theory of active earth pressure for
submerged backfill.
Answers : Rankine’s Theory of Active Earth Pressure for Submerged Backfill
Introduction to Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory
Rankine's theory provides a simplified method to calculate active and passive earth
pressures acting on a retaining wall. It assumes that the soil is homogeneous, isotropic, and
obeys the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
When the backfill is submerged, the presence of water reduces the effective stress, which
affects the active earth pressure exerted on the retaining structure.

1. Concept of Active Earth Pressure in Submerged Backfill

• Active Earth Pressure (PaP_aPa):
o When the wall moves away from the backfill, the soil expands, and the lateral
pressure reduces to its minimum value, known as active earth pressure.
o The total pressure in submerged conditions consists of:
1. Effective pressure due to submerged soil
2. Hydrostatic pressure due to water

2. Assumptions of Rankine’s Theory

1. The soil is cohesionless (or with uniform cohesion).
2. The backfill surface is horizontal (for simple cases).
3. The wall is smooth and vertical.
4. The failure plane is inclined at an angle (45° + φ/2) from the horizontal.
5. The soil mass is in a plastic state at failure.
3. Calculation of Active Earth Pressure for Submerged Soil
Total Active Earth Pressure (Pa)

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For submerged soil, the total pressure has two components:
1. Effective pressure due to submerged soil:

σ′ = γ′ z
where:
• γ′= submerged unit weight of soil = γ – γ w =
• γ = total unit weight of soil
• γw = unit weight of water (9.81 kN/m³)
• z = depth of soil
• Hydrostatic pressure due to water:

U=γwzu

The total lateral pressure at depth z is:

Σa = Ka γ′ z + γwz
where:
• Ka = Rankine’s active earth pressure coefficient
• Ka = 1 + sinϕ / 1 − sinϕ

4. Distribution of Active Earth Pressure

• The active pressure distribution increases linearly with depth.
• The total active force (Pa) per unit length of the wall is found by integrating over the
height H:
Pa= 1/ 2 Kaγ′ H^2 +1/2γw H^2
o The first term represents the effective stress component.
o The second term represents the hydrostatic pressure component.
o The resultant force acts at H/3 from the base.

5. Effect of Submersion on Earth Pressure

• Reduction in soil strength: The effective stress decreases due to water pressure.
• Increase in lateral thrust: Water pressure adds to the total force acting on the wall.

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 • Risk of instability: Retaining walls need drainage provisions (weep holes, filter drains)
to prevent excessive buildup of pore water pressure.

Question 5(b): Calculate the active earth pressure given that c = 20kN / (m ^2)
And unit weight of the soil being 20kN/m for a vertical cut of depth 3m. The
soil is cohesionless soil.
Answers : Given Data:
• Cohesion (ccc) = 0 (Since the soil is cohesionless)
• Unit weight of soil (γ) = 20 kN/m³
• Depth of vertical cut (HHH) = 3 m
• Angle of internal friction (ϕ) = Not provided (We assume ϕ is known)
Since cohesionless soil is given, the active earth pressure is calculated using Rankine’s
theory.

Step 1: Rankine's Active Earth Pressure Coefficient

For cohesionless soil, Rankine’s active earth pressure coefficient (KaK_aKa) is:

Ka=1+sinϕ / 1−sinϕ
Since ϕ is not given, if provided, we can compute Ka using the above formula.

Step 2: Formula for Active Earth Pressure

The lateral active pressure at any depth z is given by:

σa=Kaγz
The total active force (Pa) per unit length of the wall is:

Pa=1 / 2Kaγ H^2

Substituting values:

Pa = 1/2 Ka(20)(3)2
Pa=30KakN/m

The active earth pressure force per unit length depends on the value of ϕ. If you provide the
angle of internal friction (ϕ), I can calculate the exact value of Kaa and Pa

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Question 6 (a): Design a reinforced concrete rectangular combined footing
for two columns A and B located 3.6 m apart. The sizes of column are
400mmx 400mm and 600mm x 600mm and the loads on them are 1000 kN
and 1500kN respectively. The projection of the footing beyond the axis of the
column is limited to 590mm. The limiting bearing capacity of soil is
420kN/m². Use M15 concrete and Fe 415 steel.
Answers : Given Data:
• Columns:
o Column A: 400 mm × 400 mm with load 1000 kN
o Column B: 600 mm × 600 mm with load 1500 kN
• Column Spacing: 3.6 m
• Footing Projection Beyond Columns: 590 mm
• Bearing Capacity of Soil: 420 kN/m²
• Material Properties:
o Concrete: M15 (fck =15 MPa)
o Steel: Fe 415 (fy = 415 MPa)

Step 1: Determine the Required Footing Size

The total load on the footing:

P = PA + PB = 1000 + 1500 = 2500 kN

The required footing area:

A = P / qsafe =2500 / 420 = 5.95 m²

Footing Width
The total length of the footing:
L = Column Spacing + 2 × Projection
L = 6+2(0.59) = 4.78 m
The width (B) of the footing:

B = A / L =5.95 / 4.78 = 1.245 ≈1 .25

Thus, we assume footing size: 4.78 m × 1.25 m

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Step 2: Check Bearing Pressure
The actual bearing pressure:

q = P / A = 2500 / (4.78×1.25) = 418 kN/m²

Since q is less than the safe bearing capacity (420 kN/m²), the assumed size is acceptable.

Step 3: Locate the Centroid of the Footing

To balance the loads, the footing must be centrally placed under the resultant load.
Taking moments about Column A:
X = (PA + PB ) / (PB×d)
X = (1500 × 3.6) / (1000+1500)=5400 / 2500=2.16 m
Thus, the centroid of the footing should be 2.16 m from Column A.

Step 4: Thickness of the Footing (Depth)

To resist punching shear and bending, we determine the depth.
(a) Punching Shear Check
The critical perimeter for punching around Column A:
u = 4(0.4 +d) = 1.6+4du = 4 (0.4 + d) = 1.6 + 4d
Punching shear force:
Vu = PA – q × Acrit
Acrit =u × d
Shear stress:

τv=Vu / u × d
Since τv≤τc (from IS 456), we determine ddd to satisfy this.
(b) Bending Moment Check
Maximum bending moment occurs at the center:
M =qL^2 / 8
From IS 456, the effective depth ddd is selected to ensure:
M ≤ Rbdd^2
We assume d ≈ 500 mm and check for adequacy.

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Step 5: Reinforcement Design
Using Fe 415 steel and M15 concrete, reinforcement is provided along both directions.
Main Reinforcement (Bottom)
As = M / 0.87fyjd
We select suitable bars based on spacing and development length.
Distribution Reinforcement (Top)
• Lighter reinforcement to handle temperature and shrinkage stresses.

Final Footing Design:

• Footing Size: 4.78 m × 1.25 m
• Thickness: 500 mm (including cover)
• Main Steel: ϕ20 mm @ 150 mm c/c
• Top Steel: ϕ12 mm @ 200 mm c/c
• Concrete Cover: 50 mm

Question 6 (b): Explain the design aspect of trapezoidal combined footing.

Answers : Design Aspects of Trapezoidal Combined Footing
1. Introduction
A trapezoidal combined footing is used when two columns carry unequal loads and the
resultant of the loads does not lie at the center. This type of footing ensures that the soil
pressure is uniformly distributed by providing a larger footing area under the heavily loaded
column.

2. Situations Where Trapezoidal Footing is Used

• When two columns have different loads.
• When the property line restricts the use of equal projections beyond both columns.
• When a rectangular footing would result in an unequally distributed soil pressure.

3. Design Considerations

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The goal of trapezoidal combined footing is to maintain uniform soil pressure while keeping
the resultant load within the footing area.
The design involves:
1. Footing Shape and Dimensions
o The footing has two different widths:
▪ A narrower width under the lightly loaded column.
▪ A wider width under the heavily loaded column.
o The length of the footing is determined by ensuring the centroid of the
applied loads coincides with the centroid of the footing.
2. Area of Footing
o The total required area of the footing is determined using the safe bearing
capacity of soil:
A = P1 + P2 / qsafe
3. Location of Centroid
o The centroid of the footing must align with the resultant load:
X = P1 × d / P1 +P2
where:
▪ P1 and P2 are column loads.
▪ dis the distance between columns.
4. Shear and Bending Moment Calculations
o The footing must be thick enough to resist shear and bending stresses.
o Critical sections are:
▪ At the column face for punching shear.
▪ At mid-span for bending moment.
5. Reinforcement Design
o Main reinforcement is provided at the bottom to resist bending moments.
o Distribution reinforcement is provided at the top to prevent temperature and
shrinkage cracks.

4. Advantages of Trapezoidal Combined Footing

• Efficient use of materials, reducing unnecessary concrete and reinforcement.

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 • Ensures uniform soil pressure, preventing differential settlement.
• Ideal for constrained site conditions, such as near property lines.

Question 7 (a): State the design requirement of a foundation. Discuss brietly

the causes of settlement.
Answers : 1. Design Requirements of a Foundation
A foundation is the lowest part of a structure that transfers loads to the soil. A well-designed
foundation should meet the following requirements:
1.1. Strength and Stability
• The foundation should be capable of safely carrying and transmitting the loads of the
structure to the soil without failure.
• It must be able to resist shear failure and ensure overall stability.
1.2. Adequate Load Distribution
• It should distribute the loads evenly over a sufficient area of soil to avoid excessive
settlement.
• The soil bearing pressure should be within the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
1.3. Minimum Settlement
• The foundation should be designed to have minimum differential settlement to avoid
cracks and structural damage.
• It should maintain the serviceability of the structure.
1.4. Resistance to Ground Movements
• It should be able to withstand expansive soil movement, earthquakes, and vibrations
from nearby structures or traffic.
• Proper anchoring should be provided in unstable soils.
1.5. Durability
• The foundation should be protected against environmental effects such as frost
action, water table fluctuations, and chemical attacks.
• Waterproofing should be done to prevent foundation deterioration.
1.6. Economy and Constructability
• The foundation should be economically feasible and easy to construct using locally
available materials.
• The design should minimize excavation costs and construction time.

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2. Causes of Settlement of Foundations
Settlement occurs when the foundation sinks into the soil due to soil compression or
displacement. It can be classified into two types: uniform settlement and differential
settlement.
2.1. Causes of Settlement
1. Weak or Compressible Soil
o Loose, soft clay or organic soils compress over time, causing excessive
settlement.
o Peat and highly compressible silts are especially problematic.
2. Excessive Structural Loads
o If the applied loads exceed the safe bearing capacity of soil, excessive
settlement occurs.
o Uneven load distribution can cause differential settlement.
3. Fluctuations in the Water Table
o A lowering water table can cause soil shrinkage and lead to foundation
movement.
o High water tables in sandy soils can cause liquefaction during earthquakes.
4. Poor Compaction of Soil
o If the soil is not properly compacted before construction, voids may collapse
over time, causing settlement.
o This is common in fill soils or reclaimed land.
5. Vibrations from Construction or Traffic
o Vibrations from pile driving, heavy machinery, or road traffic can lead to soil
densification and settlement.
6. Tree Roots and Soil Shrinkage
o Trees absorb moisture from the soil, causing it to shrink and settle unevenly.
o Clayey soils are particularly prone to shrinkage due to drying and wetting
cycles.
7. Erosion of Soil Under Foundation
o Water seepage or poor drainage can wash away soil beneath foundations,
leading to loss of support and settlement.

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 o This is common near rivers, coastal areas, and poorly drained sites.
8. Mining, Excavation, or Underground Works
o Underground activities such as tunneling, mining, or sewer line installation
can cause voids beneath a foundation, leading to settlement.

Question 7 (b): Write down the procedure to conduct standard penetration

test.
Answers : The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is a widely used in-situ soil test to
determine the bearing capacity, relative density, and strength properties of soil. It is
conducted in boreholes during geotechnical investigations.

1. Equipment Required
• Drilling Rig – To create a borehole.
• Split-Spoon Sampler – A cylindrical tube used for soil sampling.
• Drop Hammer (63.5 kg) – Used for driving the sampler.
• Drill Rods – To lower the sampler into the borehole.
• Anvil and Guide Rod – Ensures the correct drop height of the hammer.
• Measuring Tape – To measure penetration depth.

2. Step-by-Step Procedure
Step 1: Preparation of Borehole
• A borehole is drilled using rotary or percussion drilling to the required depth.
• The borehole diameter is typically 100 mm to 150 mm.
Step 2: Lowering the Split-Spoon Sampler
• The split-spoon sampler is attached to drill rods and lowered to the testing depth.
Step 3: Driving the Sampler
• A 63.5 kg hammer is dropped from a height of 750 mm (75 cm).
• The hammer is repeatedly dropped, driving the sampler into the soil.
• The penetration is recorded in three stages of 150 mm each, for a total of 450 mm.
Step 4: Recording the Blow Count (N-Value)

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 • The number of blows required to drive the sampler for each 150 mm is recorded.
• The total number of blows for the last two 150 mm increments is the SPT "N" value.
Step 5: Collection of Soil Sample
• After penetration, the sampler is removed, and the soil sample is extracted for
classification and laboratory tests.
Step 6: Repeat the Test at Different Depths
• The test is conducted at regular depth intervals (typically 1.5m or 3m) depending on
the project requirements.

3. Interpretation of Results
• The SPT "N" value is used to determine:
o Relative density of granular soils.
o Consistency of cohesive soils.
o Bearing capacity of the soil.
o Liquefaction potential in seismic zones.

N-Value Soil Condition

0-4 Very Loose
Loose
11 - 30 Medium Dense
31 - 50 Dense
>50 Very Dense

4. Limitations of SPT
• Not suitable for very soft or very hard soils.
• Results can be affected by operator errors and equipment conditions.
• Provides approximate soil properties and should be used with other tests.

Question 8 (a): Write Short notes on forces acting on pile cap and under
reamed piles.
Answers : 1. Forces Acting on a Pile Cap
A pile cap is a thick reinforced concrete slab that rests on a group of piles, distributing the
superstructure loads into the piles. The following forces act on a pile cap:

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1.1. Vertical Loads (Axial Loads)
• These include dead loads (self-weight of structure) and live loads (occupants,
furniture, equipment, etc.).
• The pile cap transfers these loads to the piles, which then distribute them to the soil.
1.2. Lateral Loads
• Wind loads and seismic forces cause horizontal forces on the pile cap.
• These are transferred to the piles and resisted by pile group action and lateral soil
resistance.
1.3. Bending Moments and Shear Forces
• The pile cap experiences bending moments due to eccentric loads or unequal pile
reactions.
• Shear forces occur due to the load transfer mechanism from the structure to the
piles.
1.4. Uplift Forces
• In some cases (such as tall buildings or water-retaining structures), uplift forces occur
due to wind or buoyancy effects.
• Tension piles may be used to counteract these forces.
1.5. Differential Settlement Forces
• If piles settle unevenly, the pile cap may experience stress concentrations, leading to
cracking or failure.

2. Forces Acting on Under-Reamed Piles

Under-reamed piles are specially designed piles with bulb-like enlargements (under-reams)
at specific depths to increase bearing capacity and reduce settlement.
2.1. Axial Loads (Compressive and Tensile)
• Compressive Loads: The superstructure load is transferred to the pile, which then
distributes it to the soil through end bearing and skin friction.
• Tensile Loads (Uplift Forces): In structures like towers, chimneys, and transmission
lines, under-reamed piles resist uplift by mobilizing skin friction and bulb resistance.
2.2. Lateral Loads
• Structures in seismic zones, bridge piers, and retaining walls experience significant
lateral loads.
• The enlarged bulbs provide additional lateral resistance.

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2.3. Bending Moments
• Bending moments develop due to unequal soil pressure around the pile or lateral
loads from wind, waves, or seismic activity.
2.4. Negative Skin Friction
• In soft clay or expansive soils, the downward movement of surrounding soil exerts a
drag force on the pile, increasing the effective load.

Question 8 (b): Discuss briefly earth pressure at rest, Active earth pressure
and passive earth pressure with expression and neat sketch.
Answers : Earth pressure refers to the lateral force exerted by soil on retaining structures
such as walls, foundations, and sheet piles. It varies based on soil movement and
confinement conditions. The three main types are:
1. Earth Pressure at Rest (K0)
2. Active Earth Pressure (Ka)
3. Passive Earth Pressure (Kp)

1. Earth Pressure at Rest (K0)

• Occurs when soil is not allowed to move laterally (e.g., behind a rigid basement wall).
• The lateral pressure remains equal to the natural horizontal stress in the soil.
• It is determined using the coefficient of earth pressure at rest (K0K_0K0):
K0 = 1 − sinϕ
where:
• Φ = Angle of internal friction of the soil.
• K0 is typically 0.4 - 0.6 for granular soils and 0.6 - 0.9 for cohesive soils.
• Graphically, it is represented by a triangular pressure distribution acting on the
retaining wall.

2. Active Earth Pressure (Ka)

• Occurs when the retaining wall moves away from the backfill, allowing the soil to
expand.
• The soil mass undergoes shear failure, leading to minimum lateral pressure on the
wall.

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 • The active earth pressure coefficient (Ka) is given by:
Ka = 1 – sinϕ / 1 +sinϕ
• The active earth pressure at any depth z is:
Σa = Kaγz
where:
• γ = Unit weight of soil
• z= Depth below the surface
• Graphically, active pressure increases linearly from zero at the top to a maximum at
the bottom.

3. Passive Earth Pressure (Kp)

• Occurs when the wall moves toward the soil, compressing it.
• This leads to maximum lateral resistance by the soil.
• The passive earth pressure coefficient (Kp) is given by:
• The passive earth pressure at depth zzz is:

Σp = Kpγz
• Graphically, passive pressure also follows a triangular distribution but acts in the
opposite direction to active pressure.

Neat Sketch
A diagram illustrating all three earth pressure conditions is shown below:
markdown
CopyEdit
Earth Surface
-----------------------------------------------------
| | | |
| Active (Ka) | At Rest (K0) | Passive (Kp) |
| Wall moves away | No movement | Wall moves in |
| Low pressure | Intermediate | High pressure |
-----------------------------------------------------

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Question 9: Explain the concept of ground movement and its causes in the
context of construction activities such as excavation, tunnelling and
foundation installation.
Answers : 1. Introduction to Ground Movement
Ground movement refers to the displacement, settlement, or deformation of soil and rock
due to natural or man-made activities. In construction, ground movement can significantly
impact excavations, tunneling, and foundation installations, leading to potential structural
failures if not properly controlled.

2. Causes of Ground Movement in Construction

2.1. Excavation-Induced Ground Movement
Excavation removes soil, altering stress distribution and causing movement. The effects
include:
• Loss of lateral support: Retaining walls and adjacent buildings may shift.
• Ground settlement: Soil compresses due to unloading.
• Heave: The bottom of the excavation may rise due to stress relief.
• Water table changes: Lowering the water table can cause differential settlement.

🔹 Example: Deep excavations for basements in urban areas can affect nearby structures if
not properly supported.

2.2. Tunneling-Induced Ground Movement

Tunneling disturbs the surrounding soil and rock, leading to:
• Ground subsidence: The formation of a depression above the tunnel.
• Lateral displacement: Sideways soil movement, affecting nearby foundations.
• Cave-ins or collapses: Weak soil or improper support can cause tunnel failure.

🔹 Example: The London Underground construction required extensive ground monitoring

to prevent settlement in historical buildings.

2.3. Foundation Installation and Soil Disturbance

Foundation works alter stress distribution and cause movement due to:
• Pile driving and drilling: Creates vibrations that compact or loosen the soil.

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 • Differential settlement: Uneven sinking of a structure due to varying soil strength.
• Expansive soils: Clays swell or shrink due to moisture changes, affecting stability.

🔹 Example: High-rise buildings with deep foundations can cause settlement in nearby
structures if load transfer is not managed.

3. Effects of Ground Movement on Construction

• Structural damage (cracks, tilting, collapse risk).
• Service disruption (damage to underground utilities, pipelines, and roads).
• Safety hazards (worker risk in unstable excavations or tunnels).

4. Mitigation Measures
• Excavation Support Systems (Sheet piling, braced excavation, diaphragm walls).
• Ground Improvement (Grouting, compaction, soil stabilization).
• Monitoring and Risk Assessment (Use of sensors, ground movement analysis).

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