PHYSICS

LIGHT
Vacuum - Empty space
Solar Radiation - Light from the sun
Electromagnetic Wave - How energy travels through space, it can pass through the vacuum and certain materials
Electromagnetic Spectrum - How electromagnetic waves are arranged
Radio
Microwave
Infrared
Ultra violet
X-ray
Gamma ray
Visible Light - Light the human eye can see (white light)
Visible Spectrum - The different colors the human eye can see (different colors have different energy)
WAVES:
★ A disturbance that transfers energy without transferring the matter
Parts Of A Wave:
1. Crest: highest point
2. Trough: lowest point
3. Rest Position: no amplitude
4. Wavelength: Distance of one cycle (crest to crest or trough to trough)
5. Amplitude: Wave height from rest position to the top of the crest or bottom of the trough
6. Frequency: The rate of repetition of a wave, the amount of crests that pass a point per second
Key Points:
★ White light can disperse into constituent colors
★ Light always travels in a strait line
★ If light passes through a new material it will change directions
SOURCES OF LIGHT
Type of light Explanation

Luminous Objects that produce and emit light, they convert other
forms of energy into light energy

Non-Luminous Objects that do not produce light, reflects light from

other sources

Bioluminescence Ability of a plant or animal to produce and emit light

Incandescence Light caused by heating, it is extremely inefficient,

only 5% in converted into light, the other 95% in
converted into heat

Fluorescence Light emitted by an object exposed to electromagnetic

radiation, more efficient than incandescent

Phosphorescence Light produced by light: Material stores energy from

other sources and releases it over a long period of time

Chemiluminescence Light produced by a chemical reaction without a rise in

 temperature

Triboluminescence The effect of light emitted when something is broken

Electric Discharge Electric current passing through a gas and producing

light (Ex. Lightning)

Electroluminescence A material emitting light when an electric current is

passed through it, more efficient than both incandescent
and fluorescent light. 95% in turned into light and only
5% in turned into heat

OLED (Organic Light Emitting Display) Organic (carbon based) molecules that use an electrical
current to produce light

Plasma Display Each color is a tiny fluorescent light (RGB)

Liquid Crystal Display White light shines behind liquid crystals and the RGB
filters in front of the crystals give off color

WAVELENGTH, PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

Property Symbol Unit Symbol for Unit

Wavelength λ Metre m

Period T Seconds s

Frequency 𝑓 Hertz (c/s) Hz

Speed V Metre/Seconds m/s

Wave Speed: Distance traveled by a point of the wave in a given time (m/s)
Wave Equation: The speed of a wave can be calculated using V = 𝑓 x λ
THE RAY MODEL OF LIGHT
Properties of Light:
➔ Requires no medium
➔ Invisible, unless it interacts with something else
➔ Frequency and period do not change
➔ Slows down more in denser mediums
Behavior of Light:
Reflect - Light is redirected without being transmitted into the substance
Refract - Light is bent as it passes from one medium to another
Disperse - Light is broken up into its constituent colors
Ray Model of Light:
➔ Light is drawn as straight lines which show the direction that the light travels
➔ Ray diagrams are used to show the path of light
➔ A ray is a single unit of light drawn as a strait arrow, a beam is many rays moving in the same direction
Light beams can be ~
1. Parallel - Moving in the same direction, never intersecting
2. Diverging - Spreading away from each other
3. Converging - Moving towards each other
How Light Interacts With Materials:
Absorb - Light is stored by the substance
Transmit - Light passes through the material
Reflect - Light bounces off the substance
Transparent Material - Transmits light freely, absorbs and reflects very little light
Translucent Material - Transmits some light, but not enough to see through the material clearly
Opaque Material - Absorbs and reflects light, not not transmit
Shadows:
Umbra - The part of the shadow where all light is blocked
Penumbra - The region around the umbra where light is only partially blocked. Occurs when the light source is
larger than a single point
★ Umbra and penumbra depends on the relative sizes of the light source and object
Light Reflection:
Regular reflection
● The light rays strike a smooth surface
● All rays reflect in the same direction
● Remain parallel
Diffuse reflection
● The light rays strike a rough or uneven surface
● Rays are scattered in different directions
● Do not remain parallel
PLANE MIRRORS
Law of Reflection:
Angle of incidence (incoming ray) equals the angle of reflection (outgoing ray)
Types of Images:
1. Real image
➔ CAN be projected on a screen
➔ ALWAYS inverted on the SAME side of the mirror
➔ Made from actual light rays
2. Virtual Image
➔ CANNOT be visually projected on a screen
➔ ALWAYS upright and on the OTHER side of the mirror
➔ Formed by light coming from a not real source
➔ Lateral inversion (right is left, left is right)
Describing Images:
Size: Compared to the original object size (same size, smaller, larger)
Attitude: Which way the image is facing compared to the original object (Upright, inverted)
Location: Location of the image (in mirror, same side of the mirror (between what points?))
Type: Is the image real or virtual?
Plane Mirror Diagrams:
1. Draw a ray from the top and bottom of the object that strikes 90* to the mirror surface and extend it the
same distance into the mirror
2. Draw the image
3. Draw a ray from the top and bottom of the virtual image to the eye
4. From the top and bottom of original object, draw 2 lines that meet the rays traced from the virtual image in
the previous step
NOTE: Rays drawn inside the mirror should be drawn as a dotted line, and rays drawn outside the mirror should be
solid straight lines
PLANE MIRROR IMAGES ARE ALWAYS:
S - Same size
A - Upright
L - In mirror
T - Virtual
CURVED MIRRORS
What is a curved Mirror?
- A curved mirror is created when you make a part of the surface of a sphere reflective
- There are 2 types:
Concave (Converging) - Curves inwards like the inner part of a sphere
Convex (Diverging) - Curves outwards like the exterior of a circle or sphere
Terminology:
Centre of Curvature (C): The center of the sphere whose surface forms the curved mirror
Principle Axis (PA): The line going through the center of curvature and the center of the mirror. It intersects the
mirror at 90*
Vertex (V): The point where the principle axis intersects the mirror
Focal Point (F): When light rays reflect off any part of a smooth curve and pass through the same spot, halfway
between the vertex and curvature
Incident Ray: The ray moving towards the mirror
Reflected Ray: The ray reflected off of and away from the mirror
Virtual Ray: A ray that is drawn inside of the mirror (dotted line)
CONCAVE (CONVERGING) MIRRORS
Examples: Flashlights, telescope, cosmetic mirror, headlight of cars
- Center of the mirror bulges away from you (inwards)
- It causes parallel light rays approaching it to converge at the focal point
- The focus is on the same side as the object
Ray Diagram Rules
★ When locating an image, at least 2 lines but be drawn
RULES
1. A light ray produced parallel to the principal axis is reflected through the focus
2. A light wat that goes through the focus reflects parallel to the principal axis
3. A light ray to the vertex in reflected at the exact same angle (angle of incidence and angle of reflection)
4. A light ray that goes through the center of curvature reflects back on itself
CLAUSES
1. Object outside C
2. Object at C
3. Object between C & F
4. Object at F (no image produced)
5. Object between F & V
CONVEX (DIVERGING) MIRRORS
➔ Like concave mirrors, convex mirrors have a focus, center of curvature and vertex along the principle axis
➔ In a convex mirror the location of the focus and center of curvature are behind the mirror
➔ Diverging mirrors have a wide field of view, reflects from a wide area
Ray Diagram Rules
★ Same as for Concave (converging) mirrors
Images in Diverging Mirrors:
- Our brain interprets the location of the image as being behind the mirror
- A diverging (convex) mirror ALWAYS produces an image with these characteristics:
 S - Smaller
A - Upright
L - In mirror
T - Virtual
COLOR THEORY
White light - Made up of a mixture of the colors of the rainbow. You can see these colors by using a prism to split
the light. EX. Rainbows are formed when sunlight is “split up” by raindrops
Prism - A transparent glass/plastic object with flat polished sides
➔ As white light passes through the prism, the light separates into the colors of the rainbow (visible spectrum)
Colour Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

Wavelength 400 450 550 580 600 700

Frequency 7.5 x 10^14 6.4 x 10^14 5.7 x 10^14 5.4 x 10^14 5.0 x 10^14 4.3 x 10^14
Additive Colour Theory of Light:
- White light is composed of different wavelengths of light (colors)
- Red: Long, slow waves
- Blue: Short, fast waves
Primary Colors: Red, blue, green
Secondary Colors: Magenta, yellow, cyan
Blue + Red = Magenta
Blue + Green = Cyan
Red + Green = Yellow
Red + Green + Blue = White
Complimentary Colors:
- Made up of one primary color and one secondary color
- Combine to make white light
GREEN + MAGENTA
BLUE + YELLOW
RED + CYAN
Colors Produced by Filters:
● Filters can be used to block out different colors
● Filters only allow that color through it
● If you were to place a filter of a secondary color in front of a light source, it would only allow the two
colors that create that color through
Subtractive Theory of Light:
● Colors in the white light spectrum are absorbed, reflected and transmitted
● Absorbed colors and subtracted
● The color an object appears is the color it reflects
● Coloured matter selectively absorbs different wavelengths
When you see a white object, that is because all of the colors are being reflected and mixed together to create white,
but when you see black, it's because the object absorbs all the light and light is reflected.
Primary Subtractive Colors - Yellow, magenta, cyan
Secondary Subtractive Colors - Red, green blue

REFRACTION AND SNELL’S LAW

 ➔ When light refracts, it bends when passing from one medium to another
➔ When light enters a more dense medium it bends towards the normal and slows down, and vice versa
The Index of Refraction:
★ How much this happens depends on the refractive index of mediums and the angle of incidence
Index of refraction - The amount a transparent medium decreases the speed of light, the larger the refractive index
the more the speed of light will decrease
Solving the Index of Refraction Mathematically:
Index of refraction = n
Speed of light in the vacuum = c
Speed of light in the other medium = v
Refraction Equation: The index of refraction can be calculated using n = c/v
Dispersion: The refraction of white light into specific colors. The different colors of light travel at different speeds
(v) and have different “n” values which is why each color bends at different angles.
Rainbow: A rainbow is produced when light disperses inside thousands of raindrops
Total Internal Refraction:
Total internal refraction occurs when a light stays within a medium rather than passing from one medium to
another
★ Medium 2 must be less dense (n2 < n1)
★ The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle (i > C)
Fibre Optics: Works by total internal refraction
Mirages: An image of a distant object produced as light refracted through air or different densities
Critical Angle: At a certain angle of incidence the angle of refraction is 90* (travels at the interface of the two
mediums), this is the critical angle 🛇c
Snell's Law:
A formula that uses values for index of refraction to calculate the new angle a ray will take
➔ n1 = Medium 1
➔ n2 = Medium 2
➔ 🛇1 = Angle of incidence
➔ 🛇2 = Angle of refraction
EQUATION: n1sin🛇1 = n2sin🛇2 (make sure calculator is in DEG)
Math rules:
1. Dont round too early
2. When solving for an angle, round your answer to the nearest whole number
3. Use sig digs for n1 and n2
THE MAGNIFICATION EQUATION
Terminology:
do = distance from object to vertex, measure in cm
di = distance from image to vertex, measure in cm
ho = height of object, measured in mm, cm, or m
hi = height of image, measured in mm, cm, or m
M = size of image compared to object, no units
Sign Conventions:
do = Always positive
di = Real images are positive and virtual images are negative
ho + hi = Above the PA (upright) are positive and below the PA (inverted) are negative
M = positive when upright, negative when inverted
Equations:
M = hi/ho = -di/do ----> M = hi/ho ----> M = -di/do ----> hi/ho = -di/do
LENSES
- Curved transparent materials made of glass or hard plastic
- Smooth and regularly shaped so that when light strikes it, the light refracts in a predictable way
Two Types of Lenses:
1. Convex or converging lenses, thickest in the middle, similar to concave mirror
2. Concave or diverging lenses, thinnest in the middle, similar to convex mirrors

Principal Focus - The point where the light comes to focus and appears to diverge
★ Each lens has 2 focal points, F and F’ (secondary focus)
Principal Axis - Imaginary line drawn through optical center, perpendicular to both surfaces of the lenses
Axis of Symmetry - Imaginary line drawn through the optical center of the lens
Optical Centre (O) - a point on the principle axis of aliens through which light passes without changing direction
Focal Length - The distance between the axis of symmetry and principal focus
Rules for Drawing Ray Diagrams for Lenses:
CONVEX LENS
1. Ray parallel to the principal axis, passes through the principal focus
2. Ray traveling through the optical center is not refracted
➔ Image is formed where two line intersect
CONCAVE LENS
1. Ray parallel to the principal axis, appears to come from the principal focus (dotted line)
2. Ray traveling through the optical center is not refracted
➔ Image is formed where two line intersect
Clauses of Convex (converging) lenses:
1. Object at 2F’
2. Object between F’ and 2F’
3. Object beyond 2F’
4. Object at F’ (no image produced)
5. Between F and lens
Convex (converging) lenses:
★ No matter where the object is located, a convex (diverging) lens ALWAYS PRODUCES an image that is:
S - Smaller
A - Upright
L - Same side
T - Virtual

CHEMISTRY
MATTER
Matter - Anything with mass and volume
Pure Substances - One kind of matter (element or compound), unique and uniform throughout
Element - Cannot be broken down into simpler substances
Compounds - Made up of 2 or more atoms or elements combined together chemically in fixed ratios
Mixture - A combination of pure substances, compositions can vary from one sample to another
Homogeneous - Same throughout (solutions)
Heterogeneous - Composition differs and the different parts are visible.
Suspension: Cloudy mixture in which tiny particles of one substance are held in another substance
Mechanical Mixture: May contain several solids combined together (Ex. chocolate chip cookie)
Physical Properties:
★ Appearance and composition of a substance
Boiling point/condensation point = Temperature of boiling or condensation
Melting point/freesing point = Temperature of melting/freezing
Malleability = Ability to be stretched without breaking
Ductility = Ability to be stretched without breaking
Colour = Colour
State = Solid, liquid, gas
Solubility = Ability to dissolve in a liquid
Crystal formation = Crystalline appearance
Conductivity = Ability to conduct heat or electricity
Transparency = Transparent, translucent, opaque
Chemical Properties:
★ Ability of a substance to change into a new substance
Ability to Burn = Combustion (flame, heat, light)
Flash Point = Lowest temperature a material with ignite with air
Behavior in Air = Tendency to degrade, react, or tarnish
Reaction with Water = Tendency to corrode or dissolve
Reaction to Heating = Tendency to melt or decompose
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
1. Pure element - One one type of atom
2. Mixture of two elements - Two types of uncombined atoms
3. Pure compound - One type of compound
4. Mixture or two compounds - Two types of uncombined compounds
5. Mixture of a compound and element - Compound and element
6. Diatomic molecule - Pure substance of two of the same atom bonded together
Physical Change - Changes form, but not chemical property
Chemical Change - Chemical reaction, new products are formed
ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
Atomic Theory:
- The study of atoms and how they combine to form matter
- All matter is made up of atoms
- Each elements is unique
- Atoms are the smallest part of an elements
- Can vary in mass, volume, and reactivity

Subatomic particles:
 Particle Charge Location Size

Neutron Neutral Nucleus Large

Proton Positive Nucleus Large

Electron Negative Orbiting the nucleus Small

3 Types of elements:
1. Metals (left of staircase)
2. Non-Metals (right of staircase and Hydrogen)
3. Metalloids (Along the staircase)
Atomic Number - Indicates the number of protons
Atomic Mass - Mass of an atom, measured in A.M. units (U)
Mass Number - Protons + neutrons
Standard Atomic Notation = Mass #
SYMBOL
Atomic #
Changes in Subatomic Particles:
● If neutrons change, different isotope
● If protons change, new element
● If electrons change, ion
Isotope - Different number of electrons than protons, can differ in mass
Bohr-Rutherford Diagrams:
● Show protons and neutrons in nucleus
● Shells: Shell 1 (2), shell 2+3 (8), shell four and five (18)
Lewis Dot Diagrams: Symbol with dots around it (valence electrons)
FORMING IONIC COMPOUNDS
Valence Electrons - # of electrons in the outer shell
Ion Charge - Charge it will gain when turned into an ion
Anion - Negatively charged
Cation - Positively charged
Compounds:
- Chemical bond forms between the atoms if their valence electrons make a new arrangement with less
energy
- Valence shell like the closest noble gas
- 2 types of compounds: Ionic and molecular/covalent
Forming Ionic Compounds:
- Oppositely charged ions
- Made up of metal (cation) and non-metal (anion)
- Electrons are transferred

Properties:
- At room temperature, hard, brittle, solids, can be crushed
- Form crystals that have al alternating arrangement of ions
- Very high melting points
Electrolytes - The freed ions when a compound breaks down in water
Writing Formulas for Binary Compounds:
- Metal first
- Cross multiply ion charges
- Simplify if possible
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds:
- Metal first
- End non metal with “ide”
MULTIVALENT IONS
Valence = Ionic charge
➔ Atoms of many metals can form more than one type of ion
Multivalent elements - An element that can form an ion in more than one way
Chemical Formula:
- Metal first
- Cross multiply ion charges
- Can simplify
Naming:
- Metal first
- End non metal with “ide”
- If metal is multivalent indicate its charge as roman numerals in brackets between the two elements
POLYATOMIC IONS
Monatomic Ions - One type of ion
Polyatomic Ions - Multiple types of ions
➔ The act as a group of atoms as a whole, covalent bond (share electrons)
➔ A singular charge
Ex. Chlorite

-1
O
C Cl -1
O 2

O
Chemical Formula:
- Metal first
- Cross multiply
- Can only simplify the charges, not the subscripts of the # of elements
- If you cross multiply and there are 2 subscripts for one polyatomic ion, put the polyatomic ion in brackets
and write the charge outside
Naming:
- Name the metal first and add the name of the polyatomic ion
- If the polyatomic ion is first, change non-metal to “ide”
MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
- Two non-metals or metalloids
- Different than ionic compounds
- Covalent bond between atoms (shared)
- Octet rule (8 electrons in complete shell)

★ Names use prefixes, unlike ionic compounds

 ★ Prefixes and subscripts tell you how many of that element there are
Prefix mono di tri tetra penta hexa hepta octa nona deca

# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
★ Turn “ao” or “oo” into “o”
Formulas:
- Start with element to the left of the periodic table
- Symbol of each element in the same or as in the name
- Change second element to “ide”
- Use the prefix to determine the subscripts
- DO NOT CROSS MULTIPLY
Naming:
- Write name of the elements in the same order as in the formula
- Use the subscripts to determine the prefixes above
- If necessary, ONLY use mono for the second element
IUPAC Names (International system) - Multivalent non-metals:
1. Write the symbol of each elements in the same order
2. Write the valences (similar to ionic charges) and cross multiply
3. The roman numeral in breakers indicates the valence of the first element
Characteristics:
- Variety of melting points
- Don’t conduct electricity
Forming Molecular Compounds:
1. Write the symbols with the element closer to the left of the periodic table
2. Draw the lewis structure to determine how the elements need to share
3. Circle the two electrons where the covalent bond is happening
4. Write the formula (single double or triple bond)
Diatomic Molecules:
★ Elements that commonly form with two of the same element
★ All elements are STP except bromine and iodine which form as slightly higher temperatures
★ Name is just the element and the state
★ Formula is the element with the subscript 2
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Bromine
Iodine
Nitrogen
Cl(h)lorine
Molecules with Common Names:
Water = H2O
Ammonia = NH3
Ammonium = NH4
Hydrogen Peroxide = H2O2
Methane = CH4
Ozone = O3
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
What are they?
● One or more substance changes to produce more substances
● Each starting substance is called a reactant and each new substance is called a product
Chemical Equations:
1. Word Equation - Names are used to represent each chemical
2. Chemical Equation - Chemical formulas are used to represent each chemical
“+” are use to represent the two chemicals that react together
“--->” means “produces” (put in between the reactants and products)
★ “→” shows a change that cannot be undone “⇔” shows a change that can be undone
- Chemical equations are alway read from left to right, with reactants on the left of the arrow
States:
A chemical equation provides the chemical formulas or the reactants and products and their state symbols
State Symbol Meaning

(s) Solid

(l) Liquid

(g) Gas

(aq) Aqueous (dissolved in water/solution)

NOTE:
❖ A coefficient is an integer that is placed in front of the symbol of an element or a chemical formula. They
show the ratios of different substances that are present in the chemical reaction.
Reactant - A pure substance that undergoes a chemical change
Product - A pure substance that is formed in a chemical change
Chemical Reaction - A representation of what happens to the reactants and products during a chemical change
Word Equation - A representation of a chemical reaction using names of each reactant and products
Chemical/skeleton Equation - A representation of a chemical reaction using formulas of each reactant and product
★ The subscripts in a chemical equation show the amount of that atom there are
Law of Conservation Mass:
In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products is always the same as the total mass of the reactants
- Matter is never created or destroyed, only rearranged
- Matter cannot be lost
Balancing Chemical equations:
- Chemical equation where coefficients in front of the formulas are used to that there is the same number of
elements on each side of the reaction
1. Write a skeleton equation
2. Figure out how many of each element the is on each side of the equation
3. Use coefficients to balance, by making it so there are the same amount of each element on both sides
4. If there is a polyatomic ion stays together, it can be treated as a single unit
5. When finished, double check by counting the atoms again
Tips:
★ NEVER change the subscripts, ONLY add coefficients!!!
- You can only correctly balance an equation if your chemical formulas are correct!
- You can never change the chemical formula
- Balance Hydrogen and oxygen last since they often appear in more than one substance
 - If a polyatomic ion stays together, it can be balanced as a single unit
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1. Synthesis (combination)
➔ Two substances (usually elements) combine and form a compound
Reactant + Reactant ----> 1 Product
A + B = AB
2. Decomposition
➔ Occur when a compound breaks up into elements or a few simpler compounds
Reactant ----> Product + Product
AB ----> A + B
3. Single Displacement
➔ Occur when one element replaces another in a compound
Element + Compound ----> Product + Product
If A is metal: A + BC ----> AC + B (A replaces B)
If A is non-metal: A + BC = BA + C (A replaces C)
❖ NOTE: The Cation goes first (Metal)
4. Double Displacement
➔ Occur when a metal replaces a metal in a compound, and a non-metal replaces a non-metal in a compound
Compound + Compound ----> Product + Product
AB + CD ----> AD + CB
❖ NOTE: The Cation goes first (Metal)
5. Combustion
➔ Occur when a hydrocarbon reacts with a oxygen gas
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen ----> CO2 + H2O + Energy
❖ NOTE: Always forms carbon dioxide and water vapour as products
❖ Incomplete burning may result in undesirable by-products like carbon monoxide
ACIDS AND BASES
Acids:
- Any substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration when dissolved in water
- All acids are aqueous (dissolved in water)
Hydrogen Ion = H+
Properties
1. Tastes sour
2. Are corrosive (reacts with metals to produce hydrogen gas)
3. Release hydrogen ions (H+) in solution
Base:
- Any compound that increases the number of hydroxide ions when dissolved in water
- All bases are aqueous (dissolved in water)
Hydroxide ions = OH-
Properties
1. Tastes bitter
2. Feels slippery
3. Are corrosive (break down proteins)
4. Release hydrogen ions (OH-) in solution
pH Scale:
★ Measures the strength of an acid or base
★ The pH of a solution depends on the relative concentration of the hydrogen ions
★ Runs from 0 to 14
 - A pH equal to 7 is neutral (E.g. water)
- pH values from 0-7 are acidic, the closer the pH to 7, the weaker the acid
- pH values from 7 - 14 are basic/alkaline solutions, a pH closer to 7 is weaker
- One unit on a pH scale represents a 10 times change in how acidic or basic the solution in
Acid-Base Indicators:
❖ Changes in response to the hydrogen ion concentration
Common Indicators:
1. Litmus paper
- Blue litmus paper is used to test for acidity (turns red)
- Red litmus paper is used to test for basicity (turns blue)
2. Phenolphthalein
➔ Colourless liquid
- Changes colour in presence of a base {darker pink ---> more basic (closer to 14)}
3. Universal indicator
- Changes colour over all pH values
- Can be a paper or liquid
4. Red Cabbage Juice
- Indicator made by boiling red cabbage
- Neutral = purple
Identifying Acids:
There are two ways for recognize an acid
1. If the chemical formula starts with H
Eg. HF - Hydrofluoric Acid
2. If the chemical formula ends with COOH (the formula for a carboxyl polyatomic ion)
Eg. CH3COOH - Acetic Acid
Naming Acids:
BINARY OR “HYDRO” ACIDS:
- Made up of 2 elements: Hydrogen + non-metal
a) Start with the word “hydro” (for the hydrogen)
b) Change the second elements name so it ended with “ic”
c) End the name with “acid”
Eg. HCl(aq) is Hydrochloric acid
“OXY” ACIDS:
❖ DO NOT start with Hydro
❖ Hydrogen + Polyatomic ion
a) Start with the full name of the Polyatomic ion (you have to recognize it!)
b) Change the ending:
ate = ic ite = ous
 c) End with the word “Acid”
Eg. HNO3 is Nitric Acid (nitrate was the polyatomic ion)
Naming Bases:
1. Metallic ion + hydroxide (OH)
2. Ammonium ion (NH4) + hydroxide (OH)
Neutralization Reactions:
❖ Special type of double replacement reaction
- Occurs when an acid and base react to form water and salt
- H+ and OH- ions generate water
- Metals and non-metal ion combine (metal first)
Eg. HCL + NaOH ----> NaCl + H2O
H2SO4 + 2NH4OH ----> (NH4)2SO4 + 2H2O
NOTES, IMPORTANT
❖ For Chemical reactions, diatomic elements always appear in 2s
❖ Always cross multiply for compounds in chemical reactions
❖ For balancing equations, after you cross multiply charges for compounds, the subscript of the charge is the
number of that compound

BIOLOGY
Cells
Eukaryotic Cells: Contains Nucleus and other membrane bound organelles
Ex. Fungi, Protozoa (unicellular), plan and animal cells
Prokaryotic Cells: Small and simple structure, no membrane bound organelles, materials float in cytoplasm, no
nucleus, has nucleoid, most are unicellular
Ex. Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
Why are they Tiny?
● Body contains 60 trillion cells
● Take in nutrients and suppose of waste through the cell membrane
● As they grow larger, the volume grows faster than the membrane surface area
● They divide when the cell becomes too large
FUNCTIONS: Intake of nutrients, Movement, Growth, Response to stimuli, Reproduction, Exchange of gases,
Waste removal
Cell Parts and Their Functions Flashcards | Quizlet
Parts of a Cell Quiz
Quiz: Cell Organelles and Their Functions
Parts of a Cell Quiz | Attempts: 76743 - Trivia & Questions
Free Anatomy Quiz - The anatomy of the cell - Quiz 1

TRANSPORT OF MOLECULES IN A CELL

Solute: The substance that is to be dissolved
Solvent: Responsible for dissolving the solute
Solution: Solute and solvent after combining
Concentration: Mass of solute dissolved in the solvent
Semi-Permeable (selectively-permeable): A membrane that allows only some substances through
Passive Transport: Movement of molecules across a semi-permeable membrane WITH the gradient, does not
require energy. Typically only occurs until the number of molecules are equal. 3 Types:
1. Diffusion: Solute molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area with low concentration
 ● Drived by random motion
● Equilibrium is reached when there is an even distribution of solute molecules
2. Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of molecules across a semipermeable membrane with a protein
● 2 methods: Pore and Carrier proteins
● Proteins travel in the plasma membrane

3. Osmosis: Diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane

● Permeable to solvents (water), but not to large molecules
● High (water) to low (water)
● Water is the solvent, glucose/starch/salts are the solutes
Active transport: Movement of molecules across a semi-permeable membrane AGAINST a concentration gradient
with a protein, Requires energy. 2 Types:
1. Against the concentration gradient: Sodium-potassium pump
2. Endocytosis: Bringing bulk chemicals into a cell
- The opposite is called exocytosis, bringing bulk chemicals out of a cell
- Endocytosis involves the pinching of a portion of the cell membrane around the material to be transported.
The pinched-in portion eventually breaks free from the membrane and forms a vesicle in the cytoplasm
ECF: Extracellular Fluid. Surrounds all living cells
Types of Environments in The ECF:
1. Hypertonic Environment: High (solute), low (water)
- Water moves out of the cell (low concentration) into the area of high concentration in order to balance the
concentration
- Therefore the cell shrinks
2. Isotonic Environment: (water) = (solute)
3. Hypotonic Environment: High (water), low (solute)
- Water moves into the cell (high concentration) from the area of low concentration in order to balance the
concentration in the cell
- Turgor pressure, so therefore the cell swells as the water moves in

THE CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS

★ Organisms grow through cell division
★ Organisms repair themselves through cell division
★ Cell reproduce through cell division
Growth:
- Must produce many more cells
- Human start with a singular cell and end up with 50-70 trillion cells
Repair:
- Once we stop growing we continue to use cell division
- Dead or damaged cells are replaced
- Every second we shed millions of cells in our intestines and from the surface of our skin
 - On average every cell gets replaced every 7 years (except nerve and cardiac)
Asexual Reproduction:
★ Producing offspring from only one parents
★ Offspring is genetically identical to the parent
Eg. Single celled organisms and some multicellular organisms
Sexual Reproduction:
- Produces offspring by fusion of sex cells from 2 parents
- Offspring gets half of their genetic info from each parent
Eg. Most multicellular organisms
Chromosomes and DNA:
- Almost everything in a cell is controlled by DNA
- DNA molecules are strung together by chromosomes
The Cell Cycle
1. Interphase: Cells go through a series of phases which allows the cell to grow, duplicate DNA and prepares
for mitosis
G1: Cells grow (if it's not big enough the daughter cells will die)
S: Cells Replicate DNA (each daughter cell will have a complete copy)
G2: Cells get ready for mitosis
★ During Interphase cells still carry out normal functions
2. Mitosis: Cell divides
- Happens at the end of interphase
PURPOSE: For one parent cell to produce 2 genetically identical daughter cells
★ Mitosis takes around 80 minutes
★ After mitosis and cytokinesis is done, the cell either becomes quiescent or enters interphase again
NOTE: Mitosis is considered the division of the genome/nucleus. The physical division of the cell is called
Cytokinesis (not part of mitosis) It follows mitosis

INTERPHASE

PROPHASE MIT

METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE
Prophase:
- Chromatin inside the nucleus condenses into chromosomes
- There are two copies of each chromosome (duplicated in the S phase)
- Each copy is called sister chromatids
- The chromatids are held together by a centromere

DOUB
LE
STRAN
DED
Centro
Siste
Metaphase:
- The chromatids move line up along the center of the cell by the spindle fibres (attached to the centromere)

Anaphase:
- The centromere breaks
- Sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides/poles of the cell by the spindle fibres

Telophase:
- chromosomes/chromatids begin to unwind back to chromatin
- Nuclear membrane begins to reform to make 2 new nuclei in the same parent cell
★ THE CELL HAS NOT PHYSICALLY DIVIDED YET

Cytokinesis:
- NOT part of mitosis, the division of cytoplasm to create two new daughter cells
- In animal cells, cytokinesis happens when the plasma membrane pinches until two new cells are formed
- In plant cells a cell plate forms between the two nuclei which separates them
COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE
Microscope Flashcards | Quizlet
➔ 1mm = 1000 um
➔ 1m = 1000000 um

SPECIALIZED PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Regeneration: The process whereby a body part is replaced or regrown
★ The human liver is the only human organ that can naturally regenerate
★ Human fingertips can regenerate, but they are limited. New fingertips have the same pattern as the original
Extracellular Matrix: A powder made from pig's bladder used to stimulate a severed adult fingertip to regrow
Body parts CAN be grown in a lab
The Process of Cell specialization:
- Organisms contain the same DNA, but are not alike
- Develop differently for different functions
Ex. Lung, skin, brain (animal) xylem, phloem in the root (plant)
Stem Cell: Unspecialised cell that either form specialized cells when in proper conditions or stay unspecialized and
divide
- Used to treat injuries, diseases and regenerate organs
- Can become cells such as nerve, blood and muscle cells
2 TYPES:
1. Embryonic - Able to undergo differentiation, found in the embryos
2. Adult: When specialized cells divide and further specialization occurs leaving cells with a limited ability to
create a variety of cells. Involved in the replacement of multiple types of damaged tissue
Potency definitions ~
Potency: The differentiation potential (potential to creates different cells) of the stem cell
Pluripotent: Embryonic stem cells originate as inner mass cells within a blastocyst. Stem cells can become any
tissue except placenta.
Totipotent (omnipotent): Morula’s cells are totipotent which means they can differentiate into embryonic and
extraembryonic cell types. These cells can complete viable organisms. They are formed by a fusion of an egg and
sperm. The first few divisions of the fertilized egg are totipotent
Pluripotent: The descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into basically every cell
Vitro Fertilization: Creates embryos. After 5 days of fertilization the egg contains around 40 cells which transfer to
a Petri dish
Fibroblasts: Unspecialised skin cells
Stem cells are used in the treat of:
- Cancer
- Parkinson's disease
- Alsheimers
 - Stroke
- Heart disease
- Diabetes
- Arthritis
Meristematic Cells: Plant stem cells found in the growing tips of rolls and stems and also inside a layer of the stem
called the cambium
Hierarchy of an Animal: looking at an animal from its simplest level or organization to most complex
Atoms < Molecules < Cells < Tissue < Organs < Organ System < Organism
Tissues: Group of similar cells that share the same specialization, structure and function
Organs: Combination of types of tissue working together to perform a specific function
Organ System: One or more organ and structure that work together to perform a major body function
There are 4 types of animal tissues and 4 types of plant tissues:
ANIMAL
1. Epithelial Tissues - Protects the organism from dehydration and also provides a resistance to friction. Thin
sheets of tightly packed cells on surfaces like the skin and the lining of organs
2. Connective Tissues - Provides support and insulation and holds other tissues together. Held together by a
matrix
Tendon: A tough band of fibrous tissue that can withstand tension and usually connects to a muscle or bone
Ligaments: Fibrous tissue that connects bone to bone
Red Blood Cells: Contain Hemoglobin (absorbs and released O2)
White Blood Cells: Protect the body from bacteria and viruses, fights infection
Platelets: Cells that help in the process of blood clotting
3. Muscle Tissues - Allow for the body to move, made of long thin fibres that contain specialized proteins that
can expand and contract. 3 Types:
Skeletal Muscle: Moves body parts (legs and arms), Voluntary muscle group (can be controlled), chiefly attached to
the skeleton and it is a large multinucleate column shaped cells
Smooth Muscle: Found in the walls of tubes like blood vessels, glandular ducts and the digestive system,
involuntary (cannot control), small mononuclear stand like cells
Cardiac Muscle: Found in the heart, Small striated and branched
4. Nervous Tissues - Provides sensory sensation, communicates with the brain and allows coordination of
body functions. Capable of conducting electricity. Consists of neurons that transmit impulses and cells in
the brain and spinal cord

PLANT
★ All 4 types are grown from meristematic cells called meristematic tissue
1. Epidermal Tissues - On the top and bottom of a leaf, clear and thin
Stomate: The opening or pore formed by guard cells, allows carbon dioxide. Water vapour and oxygen in and out of
the cell, bottom of the leaf
2. Vascular Tissues - Role in transporting water and nutrients throughout the plant. 2 Types:
Xylem: Movement of water and minerals from the roots to the stem to the leaves where its used for photosynthesis
Phloem: Transports sugar produced during photosynthesis from the leaves around the plant
3. Ground Tissues - Most of the plant, in the roots, involved in food and water storage
Mesophyll: Specialized ground tissue where photosynthesis and gas exchange occurs
4. Meristematic Tissues - In the roots, capable of specialization into any other plant tissue

ANIMAL ORGANS
Organ: Organized group of issues that perform a specific function
Ex. Stomach, liver and intestines are all involved in digestion of food and absorption of nutrients
- Most organs are made up of multiple types of tissue
Ex. The heart is made up of muscle, connective, nervous and epithelial tissues
Skin: The largest organ in the body, protects the inner cells, DEFENCE, releases heat and excrete bodily wastes,
made up of 2 layers of tissue:
1. Epidermis: The outer protective layer made up of epithelial tissue, prevents viruses and bacteria from
entering the body, produced vitamin D (essential for bone development) when the skin is exposed to UV
rays
2. Dermis: Inner layer of the skin, made up of connective (support and structure), nervous, and muscle tissue.
- Blood and blood vessels are connective tissue
- Fat is a type of connective tissue at the base of the dermis, insulation
- Muscle tissue produces goosebumps
- Nerves sense pain, pressure, heat, and cold, send information to the brain
- Where the two layers meet is where the fingerprint forms

Lungs: Respiration, allow you to breathe oxygen and exhale CO2 (cells need oxygen), connective and epithelial
tissue. Lungs are coated with two sacs of connective tissue separated by a thin layer of fluid which protect the lungs
and and reduced friction
Nose/mouth → pharynx → trachea → bronchus → bronchiole → alveoli → capillaries
trachea: Flexible tubes ringed with cartilage
Alveoli: tiny air sacs made of a thin layer of epithelial tissue, surrounded by capillaries, each lung contains around
150 million alveoli. CO2 travels from the bloodstream across the alveoli into the air of the alveoli
 Sinu

Inspiration: Decreasing the pressure in our lungs

1. The diaphragm contracts and moves down
2. The intercostals muscles contract and the rib cage moves up and out, this increases the volume and
decreases the pressure because air rushes into the lungs
Expiration: Relaxation
1. Diaphragm muscles and the intercostals muscles relax
2. The volume decreases and the pressure increases, the pressure makes the air leave the lungs
Heart: Muscular pump that supplies and delivers blood to the whole body
❖ An adult heart is about 300g and the size of a fist
❖ In an average life the heart beats around 3.5 billion times
❖ Divided into 4 chambers: The left and right atria, the left and right ventricles
STRUCTURE:
Each side contains:
Atrium (atria): Receives blood from the veins and pumps it into the ventricles
Ventricle: Pumps blood to distant tissues
Valves: Prevent blood from flowing backwards
★ DIAGRAM SHOWN LATER
DIGESTION
- Ingestion: The taking in of nutrients
- Digestion: The breakdown of complex organic molecules into smaller chemical and physical parts
- Absorption: Taking up of digested materials into the cells of the digestive tract
- Egestion: The removal of waste from the body
Mouth: Ingestion and Digestion, teeth break down food, glands
produce mucus saliva and enzymes break it down

Esophagus: Food travels down, muscular tube connecting your mouth

and stomach. Lined with smooth muscle tissue which relaxes and
contracts to swallow food (peristalsis)

Stomach: Digestion, contracts and relaxes muscles to churn and break

down food. Hydraulic acids and enzymes and secreted to break down
fibrous tissue. Mucus protects stomach from gastric juices

Small Intestine: Most digestion happens in the duodenum, small

projections and small intestine are called villi
Larg
e Large intestine: Absorption (water) and egestion, cellulose is the main
intest component of feces, waste builds up and the large intestine voids it
ine
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
THE PIPES
1. Arteries: Large thick walled elastic vessels, carry blood away from the heart, oxygenated, gradually
become smaller as you travel away from the heart. Very small thin aries are arterioles which lead to
capillaries
2. Capillaries: Thin, hair-like structures composed of single cells, blood cells slowly roll through, with
enough time for materials to be exchanged between capillary, cell, and tissues. Waste, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutriels, hormones etc.
- Large beds of capillaries supply tissues and organs to each cell
3. Veins: Capillaries drain into larger vessels called venules which become bigger and drain into veins, large
and floppy vessels, carry blood back to the heart, deoxygenated, Inferior Vena Cava and Superior Vena
Cava

The fluid: blood tissue with a variety of cells and functions, red and white blood cells (leukocytes) and platelets
(pieces of cells), includes plasma
Plasma: The fluid where the cells are suspended, water, dissolved ions, nutrients, hormones, proteins, clotting
agents etc.

The Pump: The heart is a pump, muscular organ slightly to the left of the chest, about the size of your fist, between
your lungs protected by the ribcage
PARTS OF THE HEART:
Pericardium: Protective layer surrounding the heart
Nervous Tissue: Involved in the beating of the heart
Connective Tissue: Creating the blood vessels that supply the heart with its own blood
4 CHAMBERS OF THE HEART
1. Deoxygenated blood flows into the heart from Vena Cavas
2. Enters right atrium
3. Flows to the Right Ventricle which contracts and ejects blood into the lungs
4. Blood returns from the lungs from pulmonary vein (oxygenized)
5. Enters left atrium
6. Travels to left ventricle
7. Ejected out of to the body through the Aorta

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Parts: Nose, mouth, trachea, bronchi, lungs
Purpose - To bring oxygen into the body and allow carbon dioxide out, works with the circulatory system
SUGAR + OXYGEN → WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE + ENERGY
Path: Mouth/nose → Pharynx (throat) → Trachea (windpipe) → two bronchi (singular bronchus) → Lungs

Bronchioles: each bronchus branches into smaller and smaller parts ending in Alveoli (singular alveolus)
Nasal Passages: Filter, warm and moisten air, has hairs to remove foreign particles
❖ Some epithelial cells lining the trachea and bronchi produce mucus, have cilia and trap bacteria and dirt
particles
Gas exchange: Main purpose of respiratory system, happens in the alveoli of the lungs, each alveolus is surrounded
by capillaries, DIFFUSION
 ★ Each alveolus is surrounded by capillary network, very large surface area, thin cells calls (capillaries too),
Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse through two thin walls
Breathing: Muscles move the diaphragm (large sheet of muscle under the ribs) + ribs
Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes and pushes up, rib cage contracts = lung volume decreases, changes pressure in
lungs and pushes air out of the lungs
Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, rib cage expands = lung volume increases, changes pressure in lungs and air is
pulled into the lungs
Control of Breathing: Involuntary, can temporarily override (holding your breath), controlled by part of the brain
that detects the concentration of carbon dioxide, as CO2 in blood increases, sensors in circulatory system message
the brain, the brain send message to diaphragm to contract and muscles of rib cage expand
Lung Diseases:
➔ Tuberculosis (TB)
➔ Pneumonia
➔ Pleurisy
➔ Cancer
➔ Emphysema
➔ Bronchitis from infection (like cold SARS)

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Parts: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder

HUMAN DIGESTIVE TRACT

- One LONG tube with an opening at each end
- Includes all of the above
 - Lines with epithelial tissue
- Mucus protects digestive tube from enzymes and allows material to pass through
- Layers of muscle tissue and nerves
Villi: Small finger like projections on the inside of the epithelial lining on the intestines
Microvilli: On each Villi, increases the surface area of the intestine walls, more efficient absorptions (diffusion)
STEPS
1. Mouth: Breaks down food mechanically (teeth and tongue) and chemically (enzymes), saliva is produced
by epithelial cells in the mouth which breaks up and softens food to be swallowed
2. Esophagus: Muscular tube, connects mouth and stomach, smooth muscle tissue which contracts and
relaxes without thought the movement is controlled by nerve tissue, contractions move food along
3. Stomach: Hold and churns food (physical), lining contains cells that produce digestive enzymes and acids
(chemical), smooth muscle tissue contacts to mix, richly supplied with nerves, lining replaced every 3 days

4. Intestine: between stomach and anus, cells secrete mucus, smooth muscle tissue

5. Small intestine: narrower and long (6-7 m), most digestion, goblet cells release mucus, nutrients diffuse
through the walls of small intestines into bloodstream
6. Large intestine (colon): Wider and shorter (1.5-3 m) lining absorbs water from indigestible food, other
matter is excreted as feces through anus
Accessory Organs: Liver, pancreas, gallbladder supply digestive enzymes to aid in digestion
Liver: Produces bile (breaks down fats)
Pancreas: Produces insulin (regulates blood sugar)
Gallbladder: concentrates bile produced by liver
Digestive System Diseases: Colitis, Diabetes, Crohns