Chapter 3

Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and

Geographic Information System in
Mineral Exploration

Chapter Outline
3.1 Introduction 48 3.4.2 Components of Geographic Information System 60
3.2 Photogeology 48 3.4.3 Capabilities 61
3.2.1 Classification of Aerial Photographs 49 3.4.4 Data Input 61
[Link] Oblique Photographs 49 3.4.5 Projection and Registration 62
[Link] Vertical Photographs 49 3.4.6 Topology Building 63
[Link] Film Emulsion 49 3.4.7 Overlay Data Analysis and Modeling 63
[Link] Scale 49 [Link] Digital Evaluation Model, Digital Terrain
3.2.2 Parallax 50 Model, Terrain Evaluation Model, and
3.2.3 Photographic Resolution 50 Triangulated Irregular Network Model 64
3.2.4 Problems of Aerial Photography 51 [Link] Mineral Exploration Model 64
3.2.5 Photographic Interpretation 51 3.4.8 Geographic Information System Application in
3.2.6 Application in Mineral Exploration 51 Mineral Exploration 64
3.3 Remote Sensing 51 3.5 Global Positioning System 65
3.3.1 Definition and Concept 51 3.5.1 Space Segment 65
3.3.2 Energy Sources and Radiation 52 3.5.2 Ground Control Segment 65
[Link] Electromagnetic Energy 52 3.5.3 User Segment 65
[Link] Electromagnetic Radiation 52 3.5.4 Signals 66
[Link] Electromagnetic Spectrum 52 3.5.5 Types of Global Positioning System 66
[Link] Spectral Reflectance/Response Pattern 53 [Link] Handheld Global Positioning System 66
[Link] Data Acquisition 53 [Link] Differential Code Phase Global Positioning
3.3.3 Remote Sensing System 53 System 66
[Link] Platform 53 [Link] Carrier Phase Tracking Global Positioning
[Link] Sensors 55 System 66
[Link] Sensor Resolution 56 [Link] Electronic Total Station 67
3.3.4 Characteristics of Digital Images 56 3.5.6 Global Positioning System Applications 67
[Link] Pixel Parameters 56 3.6 Software in Remote Sensing Geographical Information
[Link] Mosaics 57 System 67
3.3.5 Digital Image Processing 57 3.6.1 ArcGIS 67
[Link] Image Restoration 57 3.6.2 AutoCAD 68
[Link] Image Enhancement 57 3.6.3 IDRISI 68
[Link] Information Extraction 57 3.6.4 Integrated Land and Water Information System 68
3.3.6 Interpretation 57 3.6.5 MapInfo 68
3.3.7 Remote Sensing Application in Natural Resources 58 3.6.6 Micro Station 68
3.4 Geographic Information System 59 References 68
3.4.1 Definition 59

Mineral Exploration. [Link] 47

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
48 Mineral Exploration

To see a World in a Grain of Sand Geoscientists had always been fascinated by the bird’s
eye view of Earth’s surface. It helped them to understand
And a Heaven in a Wild Flower,
and overview its geomorphology, lithology, vegetation, and
Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand structures. Geomorphology represents all facets of
landform-related aspects. Lithology refers to the funda-
And Eternity in an hour.
mental and broad distinction between soils and igneous,
William Blake. sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Vegetation focuses
upon plant cover and the underlying soils and rocks on
which it grows. Geological structures identify the kind of
3.1 INTRODUCTION deformation the rocks had undergone such as fractures,
shears, folds, faults, and lineaments. These attributes
Shepherds, hunters, traders, and travelers traditionally
contributed several dimensions to the geological events
walked through vast areas of land in ancient days and
generated during millions of years. This understanding
discovered many deposits because of their natural inquisi-
guided geoscientists to search for minerals and fuels.
tiveness. The copper, zinc, lead, gold, and silver deposits of
Data collection in remote sensing technology records
the princely states of India, the Early Dynastic Period of
information about an object, area, or phenomenon under
Egypt (3100 BC), Turkey, Israel, Iran, Iraq, Cyprus, and
investigation without coming in direct physical contact.
Saudi Arabia were discovered more than 3000 years ago.
There are two types of information collection system:
The Broken Hill zinc-lead-silver deposit was an accidental
discovery in NSW, Australia, in 1883 by shepherds looking 1. Still photographs snapped from space flights or airborne
for tin in gossans. The Sudbury Basin, known for its large cameras; and
NieCueplatinum-group element resources, was reported 2. Continuous digital recording by multispectral electronic
by a blacksmith in 1883 during construction of the first scanners or sensors from airplanes or satellites.
transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railway. The Bushveld
Igneous Complex, the world’s largest chromium and plat-
3.2 PHOTOGEOLOGY
inum group of resources, was discovered in 1897 on a
routine geological mapping. The Sukinda chromite deposit, Photogeology is the simplest approach to remote sensing
the largest chromium resource in India, was a chance dis- techniques and their applications. It is the derivation of
covery by a tribal villager working for Tata Steel in the geological information from the interpretation of aerial
early 1940s. Centuries ago explorers traversed the lands by photographs. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon (known by the
walking or by riding on camels, elephants, and horses pseudonym Nadar, a French photographer) was the first to
looking for geological studies. This involved physically suggest the use of aerial photographs taken from a captive
touching/examining rocks and minerals. It was always a balloon in 1858 for the preparation of topographic and
difficult mission to approach remote hazardous terrain and cadastral maps. Albert Heim (1898) made a balloon flight
often imposed restrictions on precise locations and required over the Alps. He expressed that the structures were more
detailed mapping. clearly defined in the aerial view. Wilbur Wright took the
This physical approach was replaced by remote sensing first photograph from an airplane in 1909 and opened the
techniques over a century ago. Since 1920 use of aerial door to photogeology. World War I (1914e18) had a
photographic interpretation in the field of Earth sciences tremendous influence on the development of aerial
became a fast and effective tool for the exploration of photography and its adaptation to common reconnaissance
natural resources. The science further advanced with the and the needs of surveillance. The science of photointer-
launching of the Landsat-1 satellite in 1972. This made pretation was born. Many of its basic techniques were
remotely sensed high-resolution digital imagery of the developed during the 1920s and expertise improved during
electromagnetic spectrum available for interpretation and World War II (1940e45). Development continued through
use in the commercial exploration of minerals, oil, and gas the 1940s and 1960s approaching its highest capabilities.
in the shortest possible time. The first known use of the Growth finally assimilated into the newly developing
term “geographical information system” (GIS) was by geological remote sensing.
Roger Tomlinson in 1968. The use of GIS in mineral The camera has come a long way through the process of
exploration was the application aspects. The system allows evolution since it was first invented in the early 1800s. It
integration of of dissimilar digital datasets into a single and used direct sunlight that penetrates through a pinhole
unified database. The recommended approach was to forming a conical shape in reverse to the object on the
compile all types of available geoscientific data within the opposite wall of a dark room. This was modified and the
GIS envelope in the context of an exploration model to pinhole was replaced by a lens. The image was recorded on
produce a mineral potential map. a glass plate in the box. The first black and white (B&W)
 Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration Chapter | 3 49

photograph was reported in 1814. The crucial starting point effect of parallax. The principal point/plumb point/nadir or
in the history of the camera began in 1837 with a permanent geometric center has no image displacement. It is the point
photograph using visible light or rays. The first color on the photograph that lies on the optical axis of the camera
photograph was produced on a glass plate in 1907. In the and is determined by joining the fiducial marks recorded on
early 1940s commercially successful color photographs the photograph (Fig. 3.1).
were produced on film. The quality of photographs was Flight lines are the paths that an aircraft takes to ensure
improved by introducing wide angle lenses and filters. The complete coverage of the area to be photographed. The
digital single lens reflex camera was first produced in 1981 flight lines are arranged to give a succession of overlapping
and is the most recent addition to the world of high- photographs (Fig. 3.1) to minimize distortion. The photo-
resolution cameras, which provide more features than any graphs overlap within and between the flight lines. The
other camera ever produced. Digital cameras hold photo- overlaps in these two directions are called forward overlap
graphs on a memory card, which allows one camera to hold (end lap) and side lap. The forward overlap along the flight
over 100 photographs. Digital cameras have become line between two adjacent photographs (stereo pairs) is
increasingly popular over the last few years and are being about 60% to provide complete coverage and a stereoscopic
continuously modified to be smaller (mounted on a cellular view of the area. The forward overlaps between the first,
phone) and faster with 12.4 million pixels, like that second, and third adjacent photographs are 60% and 30%,
mounted in NASA’s space shuttle in 2008. respectively. The side lap between flight lines is usually
Aerial photography started with cameras fitted on about 30% to ensure that no areas are left uncovered. A
hydrogen-filled balloons, pigeons, kites, parachutes, nadir line is a line traced on the ground directly beneath an
helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft, and the space shuttle. The aircraft while taking photographs of the ground from above.
camera takes photographs of the ground from a higher This line connects the image center of the successive ver-
horizon without any ground-based support. The cameras tical photographs. The nadir line is rarely in straight line
may be handheld or firmly mounted on a stand or board. format due to changes in flight travel course, and needs
The images taken may be triggered remotely or automati- necessary correction. The title strip of each photograph
cally. Aerial photographs are usually taken between mid- frame includes flight, line, and photograph number, date
morning and mid-afternoon when the sun is high with and time of the exposure, bubble balance, sun elevation,
minimal shadow effect. flight height, and focal length of the camera.

3.2.1 Classification of Aerial Photographs [Link] Film Emulsion

Aerial photographs are classified on the basis of camera Aerial photos are coated with unique film emulsion and can
axis, i.e., oblique and vertical, type of film emulsion, and be grouped as:
scale. 1. Panchromatic black and while (B&W).
2. Infrared black and white (IR).
[Link] Oblique Photographs 3. Color (true).
4. IR color or false-color composite (FCC).
Photographs can be snapped at either a high or low angle
oblique camera position to the objects. The high angle A true-color image of an object is the same color as it
oblique photographs include the horizon. The oblique appears to human eyesda green tree appears green and
photographs are handy to obtain permanent records of blue water appears blue. True color for B&W images
inaccessible mountain cliffs, canyons, gorges, steep angle perceive lightness of the object as the original depiction. A
quarry faces, dam sites, and similar features. These pho- false-color IR image of an object depicts complementary
tographs can be studied to identify stratigraphy, rock color colors that differ from original colors as appears to human
and texture, erosion, fold, fault, and linear structures. The eyes: vegetation, forest, and agricultural land depict red in
information is valuable during mineral search and while lieu of original green color.
attaining corrective measures of structural failures.
[Link] Scale
[Link] Vertical Photographs
There are four broad groups of scale to distinguish aerial
Vertical photographs are taken by a camera pointing photographs: small, medium, large, and very large. A large-
vertically downward, and the axis of the camera/lens is scale map indicates that the representative fraction (RF) is
perpendicular to the ground. Aerial photographs show a large, i.e., the RF’s denominator is small. 1:10,000 and
perspective view due to the effect of distortion on account 1:2500 maps are large scale. Small-scale maps have a small
of image motion, displacement, change in topography, and RF. 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 maps are small scale.
50 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 3.1 Schematic typical photograph coverage over flat terrain showing forward overlap and side lap, nadir, flight line, principal point, and
fiducial mark.

1. Small scale:
1:50,000e1:250,000: reconnaissance 3.2.2 Parallax

2. Medium scale: 1:10,000e1:50,000: prospecting
3. Large scale: 1:2000e1:10,000: detail exploration Parallax is an apparent displacement or difference of
4. Very large scale: [Link] mine exploration orientation of an object viewed at two different locations
during vertical aerial photography. The objects at a higher
The rule of thumb is “the larger the scale of map, the height lie closer to the camera and appear relatively larger
larger the objects with more detail features and better than similar objects at a lower elevation. The tops of the
resolution.” objects are always displaced relative to their bases. Parallax
Scale is the ratio between a distance of two points on the can be measured by the angle of inclination between those
aerial photograph and the distance of the same points on the two lines. Nearby objects have larger parallax than distant
ground. The unit of scale is expressed as an equivalent objects when observed from different positions. This dif-
(1 mm ¼ 1000 mm) or dimensionless fraction (1/1000) or ference in parallax gives a three-dimensional effect when
dimensional ratio (1:1000). In a vertical aerial photograph stereo pairs are viewed stereoscopically.
the scale is a function of the focal length (f) of the camera
and the flying height above the average ground level (H0 ) of
the aircraft. The aircraft flies at a nearly constant height.
3.2.3 Photographic Resolution
The scale will be constant as and when the plane flies over a The resolution of aerial photographs depends on various
flat terrain. In the case of flying over undulating moun- factors such as:
tainous terrain the scale will vary rapidly across the adja-
1. The effect of scale is closely related to ground distance
cent photographs. Therefore the scale of aerial photography
from the camera, i.e., the closer the distance, the higher
is a function of terrain elevation.
the resolution.
Scale (S) ¼ f/H0 2. Correct exposure time will give higher resolution while
using slow and fast film.
where H0 is the difference between the terrain elevation 3. Higher resolving power of the camera lens will give bet-
(h) and height of the aircraft above a datum (H), usually ter results.
the mean sea level value available from the altimeter in 4. Movement of the camera lens during exposure must be
the aircraft. minimized.
Following Figure 3.1, 5. Vibration of the camera and aircraft should be minimal
Focal length (f) ¼ 50 cm. for better resolution.
Aircraft height above datum (H) ¼ 5500 m. 6. Resolution will also change depending on atmospheric
Terrain height (h) ¼ 50 m. conditions at the time of filming and quality of film
Scale (S) ¼ 50 cm/(5500e500) m ¼ 50 cm/500,000 cm processing.
¼ 1/10,000 or 1:10,000. 7. Precise film processing.
 Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration Chapter | 3 51

3.2.4 Problems of Aerial Photography

There are a few inherent problems particularly related to
aircraft movement. An aircraft usually deviates from the
line of flight, altitude, and tilting of wings resulting in
drifting of photographs, change of scale between adjacent
frame, distortions, and resolution of photographs.

3.2.5 Photographic Interpretation

The mirror stereoscope, color additive viewer, and elec-
tronic image analyzer are widely used equipment for aerial
photographic interpretation.
A set of two photographs (23  23 cm), shot from two
successive points, is viewed using the stereoscope. A three-
dimensional (3D) mental model is perceived when the two FIGURE 3.2 A typical aerial view of the Colorado River in the back-
images merge into each other. This enables a viewer to see ground from a height of 7000 feet from Southern Rim, Grand Canyon,
a two-dimensional (2D) image that is actually two separate Natural Wonders of the World, Arizona.
images printed side by side with common overlapping areas
in three dimensions. The features in the photographs are
3.3 REMOTE SENSING
verified with field observations.
Modern instruments are the color additive viewer and 3.3.1 Definition and Concept
the electronic image analyzer. In the case of the color ad-
ditive viewer, multispectral photographs are taken simul- Remote sensing is an emerging expertise that has under-
taneously using three or four cameras in a narrow spectral gone phenomenal development over aerial photography
band of 0.4e0.5 (blue), 0.5e0.6 (green), 0.6e0.7 (red), and and interpretation. It is a comprehensive process of col-
0.7e0.9 (IR) mm. An FCC is generated by superimposition lecting information about an object, area, and phenomenon
of multispectral photographs. The human eye will differ- without coming in direct contact or touching itself. The
entiate and interpret color composite more so than gray information is acquired by a remotely placed sensor far
tones. The electronic image analyzer scans B&W aerial away from the source object. Remote sensing implies data
photographs and produces close circuit video digital images acquisition by electromagnetic radiation from sensors
for interpretation. flying on aerial or space platforms and interpretation of
physical attributes of ground objects (Campbell, 2007). The
fundamental difference between photogeology and remote
3.2.6 Application in Mineral Exploration sensing is the same as between photographs and images.
Systematic evaluation, interpretation, and identification of Photographic data are the reflection of natural light recor-
key parameters from aerial photogeology have applications ded on a light-sensitive emulsion-coated base film (nega-
for society in general and mineral exploration in particular. tive) and printed on light-sensitive emulsion-coated paper
The key information and applications include: (positive/paper print) for interpretation. Image data are the
reflected and emitted multispectral electromagnetic energy
1. Topography, surface erosion, land distribution, drainage recorded directly in digital form on a magnetic tape or disk.
system, and land-use pattern that support urban and The soft copy is processed and interpreted. The remote
agricultural planning. sensing data captivate the maximum capability, liberty, and
2. Soil and rock types (host environment), texture, struc- flexibility for manipulation of multispectral responses over
tures (fold closure, faults, shears, and lineaments), and photogeology.
surface signatures (weathering profile, gossans, and The remote sensing technique involves each type of
old mining/smelting remnants) contribute to conceptu- object reflecting or emitting a certain intensity of energy as
alize the existence of near-surface/deep-seated deposits and when in contact with a different range of wavelengths
as possible exploration targets (Fig. 3.2). of the electromagnetic spectrum, depending on the physi-
3. Vegetation with prolific/scanty growth, anomalous cochemical attributes of the object. The multispectral im-
colors, and toxic effects along with drainage pattern ages in green, red, and near-IR bands can distinguish
guide planning geochemical sampling. between different types of objects like water, soil, rocks,
4. Approach is more significant for mineral deposits surface weathering, and vegetation (Lillesand and Kiefer,
occurring at remote inaccessible areas. 2003; Gupta, 2003; Evans, 2006).
52 Mineral Exploration

3.3.2 Energy Sources and Radiation

TABLE 3.1 Various Rays/Energies and Their
[Link] Electromagnetic Energy Characteristic Wave Lengths
Visible light, one of the many forms of electromagnetic Ray Wavelength Ray Wavelength
energy (EME), with wavelength (l) varying between 0.4 Gamma <0.03 nm Photographic 0.7e3 mm
and 0.7 mm, is sensed by the human eye. The human brain ray IR
receives color impulses of visible objects from the eyes via X-ray 0.03e3 nm NIR (magenta, 0.7e1.3 mm
three separate light receptors in the retina. These receptors cyan, and
respond to blue, green, and red light, and are known as yellow)
additive primaries or primary colors. The receptor systems Ultraviolet 3 nm MIR 1.3e3.0 mm
stimulate equally to white visual effects if these three colors ray e0.4 mm
overlap. A relative mixing of three primary colors reflected Visible 0.4e0.7 mm FIR (thermal 7e17 mm
from the object changes to a full range of rainbow colors, ray and emissive)
i.e., violet, indigo, brown, green, yellow, orange, and red.
Blue 0.4e0.5 mm TIR (forest fire) 3.0
The eyes perceive “a bowl of fruits” as visible light by e15.0 mm
synthesizing.
Green 0.5e0.6 mm Microwave 0.3e300 cm
The other wavelengths ranging between 0.7 and 300 mm
are longer than visible ray, and known as IR. IR is divided Red 0.6e0.7 mm Television/ra- 1.5 km
dio waves
into various components with respect to increasing wave-
length. These are near IR (NIR l 0.7e1.1 mm), middle IR Infrared 0.7e300 mm Electromag- 0.74
(MIR l 1.1e3.0 mm), far IR (FIR l 7e17 mm), and thermal netic radiation e300 mm
IR (TIR l 3.0e5.0 mm). Color NIR beams generate three 1 nm ¼ 109 m, 1 mm ¼ 106 m. FIR, Far infrared; MIR, mid-infrared;
supplementary colors, namely, cyan, magenta, and yellow. NIR, near infrared; TIR, thermal infrared.
There are two principal types of energy (EME), namely,
light energy as reflected and heat energy as emitted from
the object after partial absorption. Data acquisition in gamma radiation, X-ray radiation, ultraviolet radiation,
remote sensing technology works on this concept of visible radiation, IR radiation, terahertz radiation, micro-
transmitting rays/energy at various wavelengths and wave radiation, and radio waves. A small and variable
receiving the relative reflectance and emitted energy to window of frequencies is sensed by the eyes of various
distinguish the characteristic attributes of objects under organisms. This is known as the visible spectrum (l
investigation. 0.4e0.7 mm) or light. Electromagnetic radiation carries
The ultraviolet ray (l 3 nme0.4 mm) transmits heat energy and momentum that may be imparted to matter with
energy that burns human skin and affects the eyes. The which it interacts.
transmission of IR energy at l 8e14 mm emits less than A black body is an inclusive part of electromagnetic
200 C and is suitable for a thermal spring. Similarly, IR radiation, and is an idealized theoretical radiator that ab-
energy at l 3e5 mm emits more than 200 C and is suitable sorbs 100% of all electromagnetic radiation that hits it
for volcanic study. Microwaves with 0.8e100 cm wave- (Box 3.1).
length can penetrate into cloud and even the subsurface. Electromagnetic radiation propagation travels the path
Various rays/energies and their characteristic wavelengths length twice between the source, object, and sensor through
can be found in Table 3.1. the total thickness of the atmosphere. The compositional
nature of the atmosphere affects the propagating energy by
[Link] Electromagnetic Radiation partial absorption and scattering. Atmospheric absorption
results in the effective loss of energy to atmospheric con-
Electromagnetic radiation is a phenomenon that takes the
stituents. The most efficient atmospheric absorptions are
form of self-propagating energy waves as it travels through
water vapor, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and ozone.
space (vacuum or matter). It consists of both electric and
The unpredictable diffusion of radiation by particles within
magnetic field components. The energy waves oscillate
the atmosphere is called atmospheric scattering. Atmo-
in phase perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to
spheric windows are the ranges of wavelength in which the
the direction of energy propagation. It is observed that
atmosphere is particularly transmissive.
the longer the wavelength involved, the lower would be the
frequency as well as the energy. Electromagnetic radiation
[Link] Electromagnetic Spectrum
is classified into several types according to the frequency of
its wave. These types include (in order of decreasing fre- The electromagnetic spectrum is a collective term
quency and increasing wavelength) cosmic radiation, referring to the entire range and scope of frequencies of
 Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration Chapter | 3 53

feature or a response pattern can be diagnostic in identi-

BOX 3.1 Black Body fying an object.
A black body is a perfect theoretical radiator that absorbs
100% of all electromagnetic radiation that hits it. No elec-
[Link] Data Acquisition
tromagnetic radiation passes through it and none is reflected.
The object appears completely black when it is cold because Data detection and acquisition are performed either
no light (visible electromagnetic radiation) is reflected or photographically or electronically. The process of photog-
transmitted. There is no material in nature that completely raphy relies on chemical reaction on light-sensitive film.
absorbs all incoming radiation. However, graphitic carbon The electronic process administers electromagnetic signals
absorbs 97% incoming radiation, and is the perfect emitter of
to the objects. The electromagnetic signals are fed back to
radiation. A black body emits a temperature-dependent
the sensors with a broader spectral range of sensitivity and
spectrum (thermal radiation) of light, and is termed black-
body radiation. A black body emits the maximum amount
are capable of storing and transmitting as and when
of energy possible at a particular temperature. required. Most of the data acquisition in remote sensing is
synonymous with multispectral satellite imagery as detailed
in Table 3.2. These images received from satellites are
readily available to exploration agencies at a cost.
electromagnetic radiation. The behavior of radiation de-
pends on its wavelength and is inversely proportional to
frequency and wavelength, i.e., higher frequencies have
3.3.3 Remote Sensing System
shorter wavelengths and vice versa. The electromagnetic For better understanding and utility a model remote sensing
spectrum of an object is the characteristic distribution of system comprises the following components:
electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that
particular object. The complete range of the electromag- [Link] Platform
netic spectrum is elaborated in Fig. 3.3.
Platforms are vehicles or carriers that carry the remote
sensor. Typical platforms for remote sensing data acquisi-
[Link] Spectral Reflectance/Response Pattern
tion are terrestrial (ladders and trucks for ground in-
The difference between the intensity of electromagnetic vestigations), aerial (kites, balloons, helicopters, and
radiation reflected or emitted by an object at different aircraft for low-altitude remote sensing), and space-borne
wavelengths is called spectral response or signature. The (manned or unmanned rockets and satellites from high
curve generated by the intensity of energy versus wave- altitude). The key factor for the selection of a platform is
length is called the spectral response curve. A single altitude, which determines the best possible ground

FIGURE 3.3 A complete possible range of electromagnetic spectrum with increasing frequency.
54 Mineral Exploration

TABLE 3.2 Salient Features and Chronological Development of Major Landsat Type Earth-Resources Satellite
Platforms Over Four Decades

Satellite Country Year Nature Altitude (km) Sensor

Landsat-1 USA-NASA 1972 Sun Sys 919 MSS, RBV
Landsat-2 USA-NASA 1975 Sun Sys 919 MSS, RBV
Landsat-3 USA-NASA 1978 Sun Sys 919 MSS, RBV
Landsat-4 USA-NASA 1982 Sun Sys 705 MSS, TM
Landsat-5 USA-NASA 1984 Sun Sys 705 MSS, TM
SPOT-1 France 1986 Sun Sys 832 HRV
IRS-1A India 1988 Sun Sys 904 LISS-1
IRS-1B India 1991 Sun Sys 904 LISS-2
Landsat-6 USA (EOSAT) 1993 Sun Sys 705 ETM
SPOT-3 France 1993 Sun Sys e HRV
IRS-1C India 1995 Sun Sys 817 LISS -3
IRS-1D India 1997 Sun Sys 817 LISS -3
SPOT-4 France 1998 Sun Sys 832 HRV IR
IRS P7 India, ISRO 2007 Sun Sys e LISS-4
Landsat-7 USA-NASA 1999 Sun Sys 705 ETMþ
Terra USAeJapan 1999 Sun Sys 713 ASTER, etc.
RADARSAT-2 Canada 2008 Sun Sys 798 SAR
Landsat-8 USA-USGS 2013 Sun Sys 705 TIRS
SPOT-7 France 2014 Sun Sys 660 HRV IR

Cartosat-2E India, ISRO 2017 Sun Sys 505 IRS

IRS, Indian Remote Sensing Satellite system; NASA, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA); SPOT, Satellites Pour l’Observation de la
Terre (France).

resolution and which is also dependent on the instantaneous national economy in the areas of agriculture, water re-
field of view (IFOV) of the sensor on board the platform. sources, forestry and ecology, geology, water sheds, marine
The first Landsat-1 satellite was launched in July 1972 fisheries, coastal management, weather forecasting, natural
by NASA, USA. This was originally named Earth Re- calamities, and disaster management. IRS satellites are the
sources Technology Satellite and provided multispectral mainstay of the National Natural Resources Management
imagery for the study of renewable and nonrenewable re- System, for which the Department of Space is the nodal
sources. Landsat-4 (1982) incorporated Thematic Mapper, agency, providing operational remote sensing data services.
which scanned in seven bands, two of which (5 and 7) were Data from the IRS satellites are received and disseminated
specifically opted for geological purposes. A great variety by several countries all over the world. New applications in
of satellites were built for monitoring various environ- the areas of urban sprawl, infrastructure planning, and other
mental conditions on land and at sea. Satellites can view large-scale applications for mapping have been identified
Earth in vertical, side, or limb modes. The new method- with the advent of high-resolution satellites. The salient
ology of Earth science is based on satellite data that allows features of some important Landsat-type Earth resources
a whole Earth approach to study the environment. The satellite platforms of the 20th century are given in
remotely sensed satellite data and images of Earth have four Table 6.2.
important advantages compared to ground observations, The path of a celestial body or an artificial satellite as it
such as synoptic view, repetitive coverage, multispectral revolves usually in an elliptical path around another body is
capability, and low-cost data. called an orbit. Earth satellites make one complete revo-
India began development of an indigenous Indian lution in 12 h. There are two types of orbit, i.e., polar and
Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite program to support the equatorial orbits.
 Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration Chapter | 3 55

FIGURE 3.4 Diagram showing the typical elliptical orientation path of Earth’s satellites, known as polar and equatorial orbits.

In the case of a polar orbit the satellite travels over both Earth’s surface in visible or infrared wavelengths and for
North and South Poles at about 850 km altitude above other remote sensing satellites, e.g., those carrying ocean
Earth at an angle of 80 and 105 degrees from the equatorial and atmospheric remote sensing instruments that require
plane (Fig. 3.4). North to south rotation is called sunlight.
descending and south to north rotation is called ascending. A geostationary orbit is a geosynchronous orbit directly
The satellites take about 100 min for a complete revolution above Earth’s equatorial orbit (0 degree latitude and
in polar orbit. They can see a small portion at a time 36,000 km altitude) and stays over the same spot with a
covering the whole globe at high resolution. The polar orbit period equal to Earth’s rotational period. Geostationary
is essentially sun synchronous and geostationary. A satellite objects appear motionless in the sky from Earth’s surface,
in such an orbit can observe all points on Earth during a making the geostationary orbit of great interest for
12-h day. This type of orbit is useful for spacecraft that communication purposes and weather forecasting. It ob-
perform mapping or surveillance. serves an evolving system with lower spatial resolution.
In the case of an equatorial orbit the satellite flies along The satellites in geostationary condition differ in location
the line of Earth’s equator (Fig. 3.4). A satellite must be by longitude only, due to the constant 0 degree latitude and
launched from a place on Earth close to the equator to circularity of geostationary orbits.
achieve equatorial orbit. Equatorial orbits are useful for
satellites observing tropical weather patterns because they [Link] Sensors
can monitor cloud conditions around the globe.
Sensors are devices like photographic cameras, scanners,
A sun-synchronous orbit (heliosynchronous or dawn-to-
and radiometers mounted on suitable platforms to detect
dusk orbit) is a geocentric orbit that combines altitude and
and record the intensities of electromagnetic radiation in
inclination in such a way that an object on that orbit as-
various spectral channels. Sensors are of two types: passive
cends or descends over any given point of Earth’s surface at
and active.
the same local mean solar time. The surface illumination
angle will be nearly the same every time. This consistent Passive sensors are designed to record data using an
available naturally occurring energy source reflected,
lighting is a useful characteristic for satellites that image
56 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 3.5 Schematic diagram showing the position of a data collecting device with respect to Sun and Earth to designate it as a passive or active
sensor.

emitted, and transmitted by parts of the electromagnetic 4. Temporal resolution involves repetitive coverage over
spectrum. They rely on the solar illumination side of Earth an area by the sensor and is equal to the time interval
or natural thermal radiation for their source of energy between successive observations. Repeated coverage
(Fig. 3.5). The detection of reflected solar energy can only will identify changes in the objects under study.
proceed when the target is illuminated by the Sun. This
An ideal remote sensing system should fulfill the
restricts visible light sensors on satellites from being used
following criteria:
during a nighttime pass. Examples of passive sensors are
Landsat Multispectral Scanner, Landsat Thematic Scanner 1. Uniform energy source of all wavelengths at a constant
using additional wavelengths to produce superior spectral high level of output, irrespective of time and place.
and spatial resolution, the airborne scanning system SPOT 2. Clean atmosphere between the source, target, and
with stereoscopic capabilities, and the space shuttle. receiver for to and fro energy radiation.
Active sensors use their own illumination as source of 3. Sensitive super-sensor for acquisition of data.
energy and can make observations on both the sunlit as 4. Real-time data processing and interpretation system.
well as the dark side of Earth regardless of the time of day
Multidisciplinary users having adequate knowledge,
or season (Fig. 3.5). The sensor emits radiation that is
skill, and experience of remote sensing geographical in-
directed toward the target to be investigated. The radiation
formation system (RS-GIS) data acquisition and analysis
reflected from the target object is received and recorded by
and can extract their own information.
the sensor. An active system requires the generation of a
fairly large amount of energy to adequately illuminate the
targets. Some examples of active sensors are a Synthetic 3.3.4 Characteristics of Digital Images
Aperture Radar (SAR) and laser fluorosensor.
[Link] Pixel Parameters
[Link] Sensor Resolution In digital imaging, a pixel (picture element) is the smallest
item of information in an image. Each pixel is represented
Remote sensing sensors have four types of resolution,
by a number equivalent to average radiance or brightness
namely, spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal:
of that very small area. Pixels are normally arranged in a
1. Spatial resolution includes the geometric properties of 2D grid (x, y) and are often represented using dots or
the ground covered under the IFOV of the sensor. squares. The “z” value represents the grayscale value of
IFOV is defined as the maximum angle of view in 256 different brightness levels between 0 (black) and 255
which a sensor can effectively detect electromagnetic (white). Each pixel is a sample of an original image, where
energy (imaging). more samples provide more accurate representations of the
2. Spectral resolution is the span of the wavelength over original object. Pixel size determines the spatial resolu-
which a spectral channel operates by the sensor. It is tion. The intensity of each pixel is variable in a color
defined by the bandwidth of the electromagnetic radia- system, and each pixel has typically three or four com-
tion of the channels. ponents such as red/green/blue or cyan/magenta/yellow
3. Radiometric resolution is the degree of intensities of ra- and black. An image is built up of a series of rows and
diation the sensor is able to distinguish. columns of pixels.
 Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration Chapter | 3 57

[Link] Mosaics
Each image has a uniform scale and resolution for a scan
path with forward and side overlap. A mosaic is a set of
images arranged to facilitate a bird’s eye view of an entire
area. This is done by cutting and merging each overlapping
scene image.

3.3.5 Digital Image Processing

Multispectral satellite sensor data are collected and stored
in digital form on computer compatible magnetic tapes at a
ground station for processing. The mineral exploration data
are upgraded to image restoration, enhancement, and in-
formation extraction.

[Link] Image Restoration

Image restoration is correcting defects/defiance in images
during data collection and subsequent transfer to a ground
station. The process involves replacing lost data (pixel and
line), filtering of atmospheric and other noises, and
geometrical correction.

[Link] Image Enhancement

Image enhancement is the procedure of improving the
FIGURE 3.6 False-color composite image of aeromagnetic and satellite
quality and information content of original data before data over Rajpura-Dariba sulfide belt, Rajasthan, India.
processing. Common practices include contrast enhance-
ment, spatial filtering, density slicing, and FCC. Contrast
enhancement or stretching is performed by linear trans- prepared by dividing the gray level of a pixel in one band
formation expanding the original range of gray level. by that in another to recognize ferruginous and limonitic
Spatial filtering improves the naturally occurring linear capping (gossans) useful for identifying sulfide deposits.
features like fault, shear zones, and lineaments. Density Multispectral classification generates small groups of pixels
slicing converts the continuous gray tone range into a series of different reflectance, and is marked by different colors or
of density intervals marked by a separate color or symbol to symbols to represent the same kind of surface signature.
represent different features. Principal component analysis is a commonly used method
FCC is commonly used in remote sensing compared to to improve the spread of reflectance by redistributing it. It is
true colors because of the absence of a pure blue color used to enhance or distinguish the difference in geological
band because further scattering is dominant in the blue features (Fig. 3.7), e.g., elevation, land cover, lineaments,
wavelength. The FCC is standardized because it gives rock types, vegetation index, turbidity index, forest fire,
maximum identical information of the objects on Earth flood, and archaeological features.
and satisfies all users. In standard FCC, vegetation looks
red (Fig. 3.6) because vegetation is very reflective in NIR 3.3.6 Interpretation
and the color applied is red. Water bodies look dark if they
Remote sensing data interpretation or extraction of infor-
are clear or deep because IR is an absorption band for
mation from processed satellite images is usually done by
water. Water bodies give shades of blue depending on
photogeological or spectral approaches. Each frame of
their turbidity or shallowness because such water bodies
Earth cover image has its own spectral reflectance charac-
reflect in the green wavelength and the color applied is
teristics. The characteristics (“signature”) are unique and
blue.
make it possible to distinguish the objects of interest from
their intermixed background. The final process is
[Link] Information Extraction
completed by the analysis of the data or images using im-
Information extraction is carried out online by ratioing, age interpretation techniques. The techniques of remote
multispectral classification, and principal component anal- sensing and image interpretation yield valuable information
ysis to enhance specific geological features. The ratio is on Earth resources.
58 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 3.7 Principal component image of Rajpura-Dariba sulfide belt, Rajasthan, India.

3.3.7 Remote Sensing Application in moves to the prospecting stage using photogeology
Natural Resources (1:25,000 or 1:50,000), supplemented by aerial
geophysics to identify anomalies representing possible
Multispectral remote sensing techniques have significant target(s) for systematic drilling. At this juncture the-
potential for multipurpose applications in all branches of matic map generation is useful for prioritization of
Earth science, such as geomorphology, structure, litho exploration targets. The prospecting activities lead to
mapping, and stratigraphic studies. Many applications are detailed exploration by detail mapping (1:10,000,
closely related to mineral exploration and resource esti- 1:5000, 1:2,000), ground geochemistry, geophysics,
mation, and form a concept-based synoptic overview to and close space diamond or reverse circulation drilling
locate and delineate mineral-bearing provinces, including to estimate the reserves and resources. The environ-
hydrocarbon and water at reduced time and cost. Remote mental baseline maps generated at the initiation of
sensing applications play a significant role at all the exploration can be useful and compared with the mine
sequential stages of exploration, starting from reconnais- closure plan for environmental restoration of the
sance, large area prospecting, prospecting, detailed explo- ecosystem.
ration, active mining, and geoenvironment to mine closure 2. The remote sensing study of geomorphology reveals
(Taranik, 2009). The applications are: various types of land forms (tectonic, volcanic, fluvial,
1. The most powerful data sources at the reconnaissance or coastal and deltaic, aeolian, and glacial). The salient
preliminary stage of mineral search are satellite-based guides are predominantly surface indications like sus-
images at small scale (1:50,000 or 1:250,000). The tained weathering and erosion (residual and supergene
objective is to identify metallogenic provinces out of enrichment), oxidation (gossans), remnants of ancient
an extremely large license area. The targets can be mining/smelting activities, drainage pattern (stream
checked by limited test drilling. The explorer then sediment sampling), placer deposits (diamond, gold,
 Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration Chapter | 3 59

ilmenite, and monazite) formed as a result of mechani- Many of the surface features responsible for subsurface
cal concentration of fluvial, aeolian, alluvial, eluvial, water conditions can be mapped by remote sensing
and marine processes. A long continuous belt of placer leading to regional and local groundwater maps. The
deposits around the east and west coast of India, regional groundwater survey can be interpreted from a
Indonesia, and Australia are identified from remote second-order indirect indicator, namely, landforms,
sensing data. rock types, soil moisture, rock fractures, drainage char-
3. The aerial and space base acquired data provide a acteristics, and vegetation. The local exploration indica-
completely new dimension to mineral exploration by tors are obtained from first-order direct signatures of
integration of structural (rings, folds, faults, shear recharge and discharge zone, soil moisture, and anoma-
zones, and lineaments) data into a composite aerial lous vegetations.
view. These structures in many cases are the governing 7. Hydrocarbons (oil and gas pools) exist kilometers
factors in localization of economic mineral deposits. below the surface and are confined to suitable stratig-
The identification of rings, shear zones, and lineaments raphy and/or structural traps. Hydrocarbon exploration
using RADARSAT images help to find areas with the by multispectral remote sensing data acquisition de-
probability of diamond pipe and base-metal mineraliza- pends on second-order indirect evidence like striking
tion. The final structure layer is prepared using visual circular drainage anomalies, geobotanical and tonal
interpretation and software processing. anomalies due to seepage of underlying hydrocarbons,
4. The remote sensing data generate broad-scale litho regional lineaments in oil-bearing regions, and films
maps, including mineral assemblages and formation of of oil slicks on ocean and sea water surfaces.
a stratigraphic succession model. Mineral deposits
A remote sensing data interpreter has to rely on direct or
have a certain affinity to particular groups of host rocks,
indirect clues such as general stratigraphic setting, alter-
e.g., base metals with dolomite, calc-silicate and black
ation and oxidation zones, favorable host rock assemblages,
schist, phosphorites with dolomite, iron with banded he-
rings/folds/faults/shears/lineaments, morphology, drainage
matite quartzite, and coal with shale and sandstone.
patterns, and effect on vegetation to guide the exploration
Similarly, some minerals are closely related to a certain
rapidly. Alteration and structure along with other infor-
stratigraphic age group, e.g., gold with Archean green
mation layers, i.e., geo maps, geophysics, and geochem-
schist horizon (>2500 Ma), coal with Permo-
istry, are used to produce the primary exploration model in
Carboniferous (248e360 Ma), and hydrocarbon with
GIS. The best results are achieved by giving higher weights
Cretaceous (65e144 Ma) ages. Some mineral deposits
to the remote sensing layers. The quality of results is
are preferentially confined to the genetic aspects of
evaluated by field checking. Remote sensing interpretations
rock types, e.g., >60% of zinc-lead deposits is related
are highly reliable in mineral exploration.
to Proterozoic SEDEX type. The interpretation of
To conclude, mineral potential mapping is a systematic
remote sensing data serves as a useful guide during
plan to collect, manage, and integrate various geospatial
mineral exploration by identification of these critical
data from different sources and scales during multistage
features.
activity. GIS can describe, analyze, and interact to make
5. The dense vegetation masking the surface at remote
predictions with models and provides support for decision
locations may make mineral exploration difficult. Infor-
makers.
mation collected from remote sensing platforms can
reveal the reality below the ground. The relative geobo-
tanical abnormalities in vast areas can be easily 3.4 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
detected and mapped from aerial view. Two types of SYSTEM
anomalies are common in the growth of vegetation.
The morphological features include changes in the co-
3.4.1 Definition
lor of leaves and flowers, and dwarfing due to the toxic GIS is composed of three critical words.
effect of metals in the soil. Taxonomic differences refer Geographic refers to a known location of a primary
to relative abundance or absence of certain species. database comprising observations of features, activities, or
6. The groundwater search requires identification of aqui- events defined in space as points, lines, or areas, and assay
fers located a few meters to hundreds of meters from the value, in terms of geographic coordinates (latitude, longi-
surface. Surface features can be mapped by remote tude, and elevation). The measuring units are either in de-
sensing leading to regional/local groundwater maps. grees/minutes/seconds or the Universal Transverse
Electromagnetic radiation and microwave can barely Mercator (UTM) system. The various types of data are
penetrate a few meters into the ground. This causes lim- captured under a database management system (DBMS) or
itation of data acquisition and use of remote sensing as a a relational database management system (RDBMS) in
direct guide for deep-seated groundwater exploration. different layers.
60 Mineral Exploration

Information means that the data are processed within maneuvering, and displaying the data or geographical in-
GIS using high-speed powerful software tools for analysis formation. Efficient, quality software must be user-friendly,
of spatial data to yield useful knowledge, to make maps compatible, well documented, and cost effective. There is
into dynamic objects and models, or as output when much commercial software available, which can be tailor-
required by the user. made for specific uses. Some of the popular names are
System implies a group of interacting, interrelated, or ArcInfo, ArcView, MapInfo, etc.
interdependent functions to reach the objectives of different The data, or more precisely georeferenced data, are the
users. most significant component of the GIS system. Data can be
The sequence of activities in the GIS function is: purchased from a commercial data provider or collected in-
house and compiled to custom specification. The key
1. Data collection: measurement aspects of geographic
functionality of GIS is integration of spatial and tabular
phenomena and processes.
data stored in standard formats of DBMS, RDBMS, and
2. Storing: measurement stored in a digital database to
Structured Query Language (SQL).
emphasize spatial themes, entities, and relationships.
The right method is significant for successful operation
3. Retrieving: operate to create more measurements and
of GIS technology. A well-designed implementation plan
discover new relationships by integrating.
with decision support and business rules is unique to each
4. Transformation: convert new representations to conform
organization.
to uniform frameworks of entities and relationships.
GIS technology cannot be useful without competent
5. Processing: a system for capture, storage, retrieval,
people. Specialists design the total system for a wide range
analysis, and display.
of end users. The users belong to multidisciplines,
6. Modeling: a system to store and maneuver geographic
e.g., computer science, agriculture, forest, town planning,
information.
industry, geology, etc. Each one can share a common
7. Display: maps and reports.
database and generate results as required by them. The
GIS is a knowledge-based organized assemblage of identification of specialists and end users is significant for
hardware, software, geographic data, and professionals proper implementation of GIS technology.
that capture, store, update, maneuver, analyze, and display GIS is generally considered to be expensive and diffi-
all forms of geographically referenced information cult to use. However, with the advent of new technology
(Bonham-Carter et al., 1995; Sarkar, 2003). like graphical user interface and powerful and affordable
hardware and software it is gaining ground and included in
3.4.2 Components of Geographic the mainstream.
A complete flow diagram of the GIS system is given in
Information System
Fig. 3.8.
The main components of GIS involve five subsystems:
1. Hardware.
2. Software.
3. Geographic reference database.
4. Method.
5. People: professionals (multiusers from the same
database).
The hardware component of GIS is the main input/
output system and consists of computers or a central pro-
cessing unit (CPU) for the storage of data and software. A
high-capacity disk drive of the CPU is the storage unit for
data and programs. The digitizer and scanner are attached
for converting maps and documents into digital form. The
output units consist of a monitor for online display a
plotter, and a printer to see results as hard copy prints of
maps, images, and other documents. The temporary and
permanent storage devices are pen drive, compact disk,
magnetic tape, and external disk.
The software is the key subsystem that includes the FIGURE 3.8 A typical functional aspect of geographical information
programs and interface for driving the hardware. It is system interfacing between major components from data collection to
responsible for total data management, storing, analyzing, multiuser end results.
 Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration Chapter | 3 61

3.4.3 Capabilities
GIS has the capability of multiuser, multipurpose functions:
1. GIS is the high-tech equivalent of a quick and efficient
map generator. It accesses and stores data in digital
format and enables complex analysis and modeling.
2. It is capable of conducting the location analysis of
various attributes stored at different layers, linking
them to explain the causes and effects that yield results.
The presence of surface weathering, topography, lithol-
ogy, and structures at individual layers supported by
geobotanical, geochemical, and geophysical evidences
can lead to the discovery of massive hidden sulfide de-
posits/water bodies/oil and gas reservoirs.
3. It responds on query and displays results after satisfying
certain spatial conditions. A well/drill site can be
planned within a preset distance from a township by
satisfying spatial conditions of possible aquifers, town-
ship, and existing pipeline.
4. It is capable of performing temporal analyses at time in-
tervals over many years to derive relationships between
changing land-use practices and future requirements.
5. It can evaluate different scenarios by applying sensi-
tivity analysis and forecasting the best one. It can
continuously monitor and revise decisions with chang-
ing assumptions and additional inputs.

3.4.4 Data Input

DBMS, RDBMS, and SQL software with error-checking
FIGURE 3.9 Data model of real-world phenomena and features having
facilities incorporate or import data from outside sources, spatial dimension (e.g., geological map of Rajpura-Dariba base metal belt)
and update and alter them if necessary. The data can be usually incorporated into geographical information system (GIS)
directly entered into the GIS platform manually or created applications.
outside in standard ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange) files. GIS is also capable of
importing data files that are created in other formats. GIS digitizers, Global Positioning System (GPS), air photo-
must provide the capability to export data to other systems graphs, and satellite imagery.
in a common format (e.g., ASCII). Maneuvering the data- 2. The second data type is often referred to as an attribute
base to answer specific data-related questions is organized or point data such as soil profile. Attributes are pieces of
through a process known as database analysis. GIS must data that are connected or related to the points, lines,
provide ways to modify, refine, revise, and update the and polygons mapped in GIS. This attribute data can
database. be analyzed to determine patterns of importance. The
Two types of data are incorporated into GIS attribute data are entered directly into a database where
applications: they are associated with element data. GIS uses one of
the two primary types of spatial data, i.e., vector and
1. The first type consists of real-world phenomena and raster, to represent the location component of the
features that have some kind of spatial dimension geographic information.
such as a geological map (Fig. 3.9). These data ele-
ments are depicted mathematically in GIS as points, The vector data model is directional and represented
lines, or polygons that are referenced geographically by points, lines, and areas. Points are zero-dimensional
or geocoded to some type of coordinate system. objects (nodes) and represented by a single coordinate
They are entered into GIS by devices like scanners, (x, y), e.g., sample, mine, house, city location. Lines are
62 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 3.10 Data model by transformation of geographical phenom-

FIGURE 3.11 Data model by conversion of geological information of
ena of Rajpura-Dariba base metal belt into vector mode.
Rajpura-Dariba base metal belt to raster mode for geographical informa-
tion system (GIS) applications in mineral exploration.

one-dimensional objects (line) and represented by a set of

points or pair(s) of coordinates, e.g., roads, streams, faults, resolution with precision and detailed information. How-
shears, lineaments, and drill hole paths. Polygons (2D areas ever, the data storage space will be enormous. On the
representing dolomite or orebody) are bounded by a closed contrary larger the cell size lesser data space will be
loop, joined by a set of line segments. 3D objects are required with approximate or less accurate information. In
embodied (x, y, z), where z is elevation, e.g., hills. The the case of a very coarse grid, several data types may occur
vector data model is particularly useful for representing in each cell, will be treated as homogeneous, and will
discrete objects e.g., sample point, roads, streams, faults, generate inaccurate results during data analysis.
and rock boundaries in the form of points, lines, and Merits and demerits between vector and raster data are
polygons, and stored as set of coordinates. The data in modified after David (1997) and given in Table 3.3.
vector format are geometrically more precise and compact
(Fig. 3.10).
The surface is divided into regular grids of cells rep-
3.4.5 Projection and Registration
resented by rows and columns or pixels of identical size One often comes across maps of the same area containing
and shape in the raster data model (Fig. 3.11). The location different features (geology, geochemistry, and geophysics)
of geographic objects or conditions is defined by the co- and in different scale. GIS has the capability to maneuver
ordinates of the cell position. Each cell indicates the type of the geocoded map information from different sources to
object, class, category, measurement, condition, or an common scale so that it can fit and register. Projection is
interpreted value that is found at that location over the a fundamental component of mapmaking in GIS. It is a
entire cell. The smaller the cell size, the higher is the mathematical function of transferring information from
 Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration Chapter | 3 63

TABLE 3.3 Salient Advantages and Disadvantages of Vector and Raster Data Models

Vector Data Model Raster Data Model

Advantages
Data storage at original georeferenced coordinates at higher Geographic location of each cell is identified by its position in
spatial resolution, maintain and form without generalization the cell matrix. Best resolution at smallest cell size
Graphic output is more accurate and realistic like cartographic Data structure is simple and compact, storage in flat ASCII
representation format for easy-to-use program and quick analysis
Most data, e.g., hard copy maps, are in vector form and no data Retrieval, updating, and generation of data. Grid-cell systems
conversion is required compatible with raster-based output devicesdplotters and
graphic terminals
Efficient encoding of topology and operations by network Topology can be completely described with network linkage
analysis
Data are less voluminous and technology is less expensive Discrete data enable integrating two data types. Computational
efficiency in overlay analysis
Disadvantages
Location of each vertex needs to be stored unambiguously Cell size decides resolution. The smaller the cell size, the more
complex the data structure and the more expensive is the
technology
Vector data conversion to topological structure is processing Difficult to adequately represent linear features depending on
intensive and requires extensive data cleaning the cell resolution. Network linkages are difficult to establish
Algorithms for analysis functions are complex, inherently Processing of associated attribute data is complex with a large
limiting functionality for large data volume of data
Elevation data are not effectively represented in vector form. Most input data are in vector form and need conversion from
Often require sizeable data generalization or interpolation of vector to raster by escalating processing, generalization, and un-
data layers suitable cell size
Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is not possible Most output maps from grid-cell systems do not conform to
high-quality cartographic needs

a 3D surface to fit in a 2D medium. The digital data may exist in topology: connectivity, area definition, and conti-
have to undergo other transformations like projection and guity. Storing connectivity makes coverage useful for
coordinate conversions to integrate them into a GIS before modeling and tracing in linear networks. Storing informa-
they can be analyzed. This process inevitably distorts at tion about area definition and contiguity makes it possible
least one of the following properties: shape, area, distance, to merge adjacent polygons and to combine geographical
or direction. Different projections are used for different features from different coverages with overlay operations.
types of map for specific uses. GIS has the processing
power to transform digital information gathered from
3.4.7 Overlay Data Analysis and Modeling
sources (digitized data, aerial photographs, satellite, and
GPS) with different projections to a common frame. Overlay analysis or spatial data analysis is a function in
GIS applications to spatially analyze and interpolate mul-
tiple types of data streaming from a range of sources. Each
3.4.6 Topology Building
type of data pertaining to the same area or similar objects is
Topology defines the mathematical representation of the registered in vector or raster mode in individual files. New
spatial relationship between geographical features. It de- information can be created by overlaying or stacking
scribes the relationships between connecting or adjacent (Fig. 3.12) of the related layers with common georeferences
coverage attributes. Topological relationships are built from and analyzing through the GIS function. There are several
simple elements into complex elements such as points different spatial overlays and manipulation operations to
(simplest elements), arcs (sets of connected points), and arrive at a specific model, which can be used on features of
areas (sets of connected arcs). Three types of relationship the user’s interest.
64 Mineral Exploration

[Link] Mineral Exploration Model

Overlay analysis is useful in mineral exploration for iden-
tifying targets. The example in Fig. 3.9 contains conceptual
data from a range of source maps of Rajpura-Dariba base
metal belt, Rajasthan, India. The files contain hydrology,
elevation, surface signature, geology, and geochemistry.
All source data have been geocoded and registered on a
cell-by-cell basis from a series of land data files in indi-
vidual layers. The analyst module of GIS manipulates and
overlays simultaneously the information derived from
various data files. The analyst uses the system to interrelate
the geocoded source data files. The interpreted result is
expected to define the target area for exploration of possible
sulfide deposits. The example is a concept-based model
attempting to generate thematic maps. The addition of
remote sensing electromagnetic data and surface
geophysics will certainly strengthen the model to forecast
exploration targets.

3.4.8 Geographic Information System

FIGURE 3.12 Concept of overlay analysis and integration of multilayer
data of Rajpura-Dariba base metal belt for identifying drill targets: an Application in Mineral Exploration
example of geographical information system (GIS) application in mineral
The applications of GIS in mineral exploration are widely
exploration.
used internationally. The GIS platform allows establishing
a mineral deposit database for a region or country by
integration of all available geoscientific data (even dis-
[Link] Digital Evaluation Model, Digital
similar) into a digital single and unified database. The
Terrain Model, Terrain Evaluation Model, and
recommended approach is to compile all of the available
Triangulated Irregular Network Model geoscientific data within GIS in the context of an explo-
The digital evaluation model (DEM) is a 3D representa- ration model. It will produce a brief report and mineral
tion of a surface topography using a raster or vector data potential maps of a province, region, district, belt, deposit,
structure. Any digital representation of a continuous surface and block. Careful consideration must be given to devel-
of relief over space is known as DEM. It describes the oping the model so that all of the relevant aspects of the
elevation of any point in a given area in digital format. The deposit being sought are represented. The model is
digital terrain model or terrain evaluation model ex- important in deciding the logical weight to apply by a
hibits 3D spatial distribution of terrain attributes. It is a geologist having adequate knowledge of the model and the
topographic map in digital format, consisting not only of a deposit related to each of these aspects. The final map in-
DEM but also types of land use, settlements, drainage, road dicates the ranks and priority for exploration targets in the
networks and related features. The triangulated irregular study area.
network is a 3D surface model derived from irregularly An extension of the GIS database is incorporation of
spaced points and break line features. The basic unit is a exploration data consisting of deposit name, location,
triangle consisting of three lines connecting three nodes. infrastructure available, parks and reserve forests, historic
Each triangle will have three neighbors except the outer and current exploration details, drill hole location, summary
periphery. Each node has an x, y coordinate and a z value logs, drill sample assay value, geochemistry, electromag-
or surface value. These models are created by digitizing netic and gravity images, mineral occurrences, reserve and
contour maps along with point, line, and polygon data of resource detail, and lease status like reconnaissance permit/
related objects followed by vector-to-raster conversion and prospecting license/mining lease. This mineral resource
interpolation to derive the desired results. These are useful information system acts as an exploration guide to new
for road and rail line and dam site planning, reservoir ca- targets and decision bases for free areas. It will be in SQL
pacity estimation, identifying ridge lines and valleys, visi- base system so that investors can design their objectives
bility studies, and cut and filling problems. and search online for desired results.
 Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration Chapter | 3 65

3.5 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM complete rotation around Earth in 12 h. The orbits are so
arranged that at least six satellites are always within line of
GPS is a universal satellite-based navigation system sight from almost anywhere on Earth’s surface.
developed, replaced, monitored, and maintained by the US
Department of Defense originally for military applications.
Its official name was Navigation Satellite Timing and 3.5.2 Ground Control Segment
Ranging. The first global positioning space vehicle was The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by the ground
launched in 1978. Total network satellite launching was control segment located at various monitoring stations of
completed in 1994 and the system became fully operational respective participative countries. In the event of any de-
in 1995. Since then the system has been available for viation of the space vehicle from its designed orbit the
civilian use and works worldwide under any weather con- ground control station transmits the tracking information to
ditions, 24 h a day without paying any routine subscription the master control station. The master control station in turn
or setup charges. The total number of satellites in the uploads orbital and clock data to each GPS satellite regu-
constellation today is 60 (16 for civilian use and the larly with a navigational update using ground antennas.
remaining for military use and spares). A GPS satellite These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the
weighs about 1000 kg. Precision for civilian use is in the satellites within a few nanoseconds of each other.
centimeter scale and that for military purposes is in the
millimeter scale. GPS consists of three major segments
(Fig. 3.13). These are space segment, ground control 3.5.3 User Segment
segment, and user segment. The user segment uses various types of receivers to
compute the coordinates (X, Y), elevation (Z), velocity, and
time estimates. GPS receivers are composed of an antenna
3.5.1 Space Segment tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites,
The space segment originally comprised 24 orbiting satel- receiver-processors, and a highly stable atomic clock. The
lites (21 active and 3 spares), in six circular orbital planes receiver computes its position and time by making simul-
with four satellites in each plane. The orbital planes are taneous measurements to a number of satellites. A 2D
centered on Earth and have 55 degrees inclination relative position, i.e., latitude and longitude, can be computed by
to Earth’s equatorial plane. The planes are equally spaced, the signals of three satellites. Signals from at least four
separated 60 degrees apart along the equator from a refer- satellites are required for determination of 3D location,
ence point to the orbit’s intersection. The satellites are including elevation and clock bias. The receiver displays
orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km. Each information comprised of a number of visible satellites,
satellite makes two complete orbits each day, i.e., a location, and speed to the user. The location works on both

FIGURE 3.13 Conceptual overview of constellation of Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites in space, ground control, and user segments.
66 Mineral Exploration

longitude and latitude, i.e., degrees/minutes/seconds, and

UTM in a metric grid system. There are 60 zones to cover
the entire Earth’s surface. The receivers can include an
input for differential corrections and relay position data to a
computer. They can interface with other devices using
different methods, including a serial connection, USB, or
Bluetooth.

3.5.4 Signals
GPS satellites transmit low-power time-coded radio signals
of 1575.42 MHz frequency in the UHF band. Signals travel
by line of sight through semitransparent medium, but not
through solids, metals, and electromagnetic fields, and are
recorded by ground GPS receivers. The sources of error and
interference of signal transmission include ionosphere and
troposphere delay, signal multipath, clock, orbital, number
of visible satellites, satellite geometry and shading, and
international degradation of signals.

3.5.5 Types of Global Positioning System

The types of GPS receiver can be broadly classified on the
basis of accuracy required and associated cost of the unit.

[Link] Handheld Global Positioning System

The handheld GPS is the simplest, cheapest, and easiest
unit, consisting of a single receiver (Fig. 3.14). The tech-
nology is simple and reasonably accurate. The location
position, computed from the signals, can be distorted by
10e30 m. Most mobile cell phones provide the name of
locations and road maps, and show directions to destina-
tions with precise distances in meters while traveling by
receiving signals from local antenna.

[Link] Differential Code Phase Global

Positioning System FIGURE 3.14 Hand-held Geographical Positioning System (GARMIN
GPS measurements are prone to multiple errors on account GPSMAP 64s) capable of measuring 3D coordinate system and trace the
traverse path, rock contacts, structural features, and many more. Courtesy
of uncertainties in satellite ephemeris, atmospheric condi- Prof. Sayad Rahaman.
tion, quality of receiver, and multipath situation. The dif-
ferential GPS works on simultaneous measurements by
receivers at a reference station with precisely known loca- (real-time Differential Global Positioning System [DGPS])
tion, clock time, and number of roving receivers moving to compute a much more accurate position. The receiver
from point to point. The positional introduced noises position can also be corrected at a later time during pro-
measured at the base station are used to compensate cessing by GPS software. The use of DGPS can greatly
instantly the position measured by the rovers to attain increase positional accuracy within 1 m.
greater accuracy. The base station may be a ground base
facility or a geosynchronous satellite. In either case, the [Link] Carrier Phase Tracking Global
base station is known with precise location value. This Positioning System
known value can be compared with the signals received
from GPS satellites and thus can find the international Carrier phase tracking GPS signals have resulted in the
error introduced by each GPS signal. The correction can be development of land surveying, geological mapping, and as
immediately transmitted to the mobile GPS receivers a guide to reach the target destination. The positions can be
 Photogeology, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration Chapter | 3 67

measured up to a distance of 30 km from a reference territory, and to coordinate the movement of troops
location without any intermediate point. A small handheld and supplies. GPS helps in missile and projectile guid-
unit allows positions and traverse routes to be downloaded ance for accurate targeting of various military weapons.
to GIS software for geological mapping. A small unit can GPS satellites also carry a set of nuclear detonation de-
store more than 300 sample positions and tens of routes. tectors consisting of an optical, X-ray, and electromag-
netic pulse sensor. This forms a major portion of the US
[Link] Electronic Total Station Nuclear Detonation Detection System.
An electronic total station (ETS) is an electronic/optical
instrument used in modern all-purpose surveying. The total 3.6 SOFTWARE IN REMOTE SENSING
station is an electronic theodolite (total station theodolite) GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
integrated with an electronic distance meter to read slope SYSTEM
distances from the instrument to a particular spatial entity.
Some models include internal electronic data storage to RS-GIS technology captures basic electromagnetic radi-
record surveyed points (xdnorthing, ydeasting, and zd ance data of 3D georeferenced satellite images in
elevation), distance and horizontal and vertical angles. The WGS84 UTM 36N and 37N coordinates. These coordinates
data can be downloaded from the total station to a com- and attributes include multidisciplinary activities by mul-
puter. The application software is used to process results tiend users. The data input is in RDBMS/DBMS format for
and generate maps of the surveyed area. combined procession by commercial software to generate
A total station is used to record the absolute location, 2D/3D models and hard copies.
geological contacts (maps), results of geological, The software modules represent total interface system,
geochemical, and geophysical surveys, borehole program, and are responsible for generating, storing, analyzing,
and even underground working layouts and stopes. The maneuvering, and displaying results. The strength of the
recorded data are downloaded onto a computer, processed software is to maintain user friendliness, compatibilities,
and compared to the designed layout. Control survey sta- documentation, and to be cost effective. Mineral explora-
tions at regular intervals are installed underground to tion and mining companies use RS-GIS to identify pro-
facilitate survey by ETS. spective areas for exploration, 3D orebody models, mining,
infrastructure layout, and environmental management.
Exploration and mining continues with estimation of re-
3.5.6 Global Positioning System serves and resources with precision. The progress of GIS
Applications into three dimensions is a revolutionary change for the
utility of technology in mineral exploration.
GPS systems are versatile and widely used for military and
Available commercial GIS software is listed without
civilian purposes, including mineral exploration. The
any discrimination of superiority.
common uses are:
1. GPS systems operate both for airborne, and ground
base.
3.6.1 ArcGIS
2. Applications in ground-based mineral exploration ArcGIS is a group of GIS software developed by the
include vehicle and route tracking, instant and precise Environmental Systems Research Institutes. It has two
location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) on land and main modules: ArcInfo (Arc and Info) and MapInfo (Map
sea during field traverses, geological mapping, and and Info). Arc/Map means graphical entities and Info
checking litho contacts, structures, surface samples, means attributes.
and borehole collar location. GPS provides precise ArcGIS is a high-performance, dynamic software fam-
time references, including the scientific study of earth- ily that produces significantly better-looking accurate maps
quakes and as a required time synchronization method in the shortest time. It provides a review and responds to
for cellular network protocols. errors. It can preview documents, estimate rendering time,
3. Civilian uses are land surveying, land-use pattern, forest save to a map service definition format, and combine layers
mapping, drainage, helping farmers harvest their fields, (referencing feature or raster data) into a single layer
and a time synchronization method for cellular network package comprising both layer file and data. It has the fa-
protocols. The areas of interests are weather forecasting, cility to share layers with itself and global groups via online
aviation, and road/rail/shipping transport. ArcGIS or email. The main components of ArcGIS are
4. The military applications of GPS have many purposes ArcInfo, ArcView, and ArcReader.
like reconnaissance and route map creation, navigation ArcInfo is a comprehensive GIS within the ArcGIS
of soldiers to locate them in darkness or in unfamiliar family. It also adds advanced geoprocessing and data
68 Mineral Exploration

conversion functionality. ArcInfo builds and manages a 3.6.5 MapInfo

complete intelligent GIS, including maps, data, metadata,
geo-datasets, and workflow models. The key features MapInfo, developed by MapInfo Corporation, is a natural
include advanced spatial analysis, extensive database, resources solution for mineral exploration, mining, engi-
multiuser editing, and high-end cartography in an explo- neering, infrastructure, and environment. MapInfo Vertical
ration program. Mapper module has a wide range of analysis tools to reveal
ArcView is a fully featured GIS for visualizing, trends in datasets. It has unique prediction capabilities to
analyzing, and creating data with a geographic component. specify a test location and identify areas with statistically
It consists of address, postcode, GPS location, city, local similar attributes. The software executes 3D orebody
government area, etc. ArcView visualizes, explores, and modeling and estimation by all standard interpolation
analyses data, revealing patterns, relationships, and trends. principles from existing point files or tables, regardless of
ArcReader is a simple desktop mapping application. It data type. It performs triangulated irregular network with
allows the viewing, exploring, and printing of maps, and smoothing, inverse-weighted distance function, natural
possesses interactive mapping capabilities by accessing a neighbor and rectangular (bilinear) interpolation, kriging,
wide variety of dynamic geographic information and and custom point estimation. The advance module includes
viewing high-quality maps. modeling options by overlaying multiple layers and
applying a mathematical function, calculating steepness of
slopes or the direction the slopes are facing in a grid,
3.6.2 AutoCAD showing cross-sections, and displaying a 3D perspective
AutoCAD Map, patented by Autodesk, is a powerful view of the terrain with optional overlay of imagery and
drafting tool used widely for engineering drawings with natural neighbor analysis.
accuracy and 3D viewing. It works on 2D and 3D coor-
dinate systems. It is user-friendly and available at a 3.6.6 Micro Station
reasonable cost. It is extensively used by geologists for the
preparation of maps, subsurface plans, and sections for Micro Station, developed by Bentley Systems, is an easy to
estimation of resources and reserves by conventional access, powerful, and interoperable 3D CAD software
methods. platform for design, construction, operation, and dynamic
viewing.

3.6.3 IDRISI
REFERENCES
IDRISI is an integrated GIS and image processing software
Bonham-Carter, G.F., Reddy, R.K.T., Galley, A.G., 1995. Knowledge-
solution developed by Clark Labs. It provides many mod-
driven modeling of volcanic massive sulfide potential with a
ules for the analysis and display of digital spatial infor- geographic information system. In: Mineral Deposit Modeling,
mation. Land Change Modular provides land cover change Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 40, pp. 735e749.
analysis and prediction with tools to analyze, measure, and Campbell, J.B., 2007. Introduction to Remote Sensing. The Guilford Press,
project the impacts of changes on habitat and biodiversity. New York, p. 626.
It involves a set of feasible alternatives for multiple criteria David, J.B., 1997. An Introduction to Geographic Information Systems,
group decision-making problems. The GIS Primer, p. 115. [Link]/basis/primer/The_
GIS_Primer_Buckley.pdf.
Evans, A.M. (Ed.), 2006. Introduction to Mineral Exploration. Blackwell
3.6.4 Integrated Land and Water Science, p. 396.
Information System Gupta, R.P., 2003. Remote Sensing Geology, Springer, p. 655.
Lillesand, T.M., Kiefer, R.W., 2003. Remote Sensing and Image Inter-
Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS) is pretation. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 722
developed by the International Institute for Aerospace Sarkar, B.C., 2003. Geographical Information System and its Role in Geo-
Survey and Earth Sciences in the Netherlands. It is RS-GIS Environmental Issues, p. 141. ENIS Monograph No. 10, India.
software for both vector and raster processing. The main Taranik, D., 2009. Remote sensing for mineral exploration. In: Irish Assn.
features include digitizing, editing, analysis, and display of For Econ. Geol. and Joly Geol. Soc. Trinity College, Dublin, p. 75.
data, as well as production of quality maps.