Warsash School of Maritime

Science and Engineering

DEC405 Ocean Navigation

Meteorology exam questions

FH/DGD December 2019

This document contains all the questions that could appear in part 1b) of the DEC405
exam. Model answers are contained at the end.

1.01

a) What meteorological parameters are obtained using a Mason’s Hygrometer?

b) With the aid of an annotated diagram, describe a Mason’s hygrometer and explain
how it is used to obtain the parameters outlined in a).

1.02

a) With the aid of an annotated diagram, explain the formation of advection fog.
b) If caught in advection fog, when or under what circumstances could a competent
OOW expect visibility to improve?

1.03

a) With the aid of an annotated diagram, explain the formation of frontal fog.
b) If caught in frontal fog, when or under what circumstances could a competent OOW
expect visibility to improve?

1.04

a) With the aid of an annotated diagram, explain the formation of radiation fog.
b) If caught in radiation fog, when or under what circumstances could a competent
OOW expect visibility to improve?

1.05

With the aid of an annotated diagram, explain the formation of frontal (stratiform) cloud.

1.06

With the aid of an annotated diagram, explain the formation of convection (cumuliform)
cloud.

1.07

With the aid of an annotated cross-sectional diagram, describe the formation and
structure of a warm front. Your diagram should include the location of the cold and warm
air, cloud types and significant weather and should indicate the horizontal and vertical
scale of the front.

1.08

With the aid of an annotated cross-sectional diagram, describe the formation and
structure of a cold front. Your diagram should include the location of the cold and warm
air, cloud types and significant weather and should indicate the horizontal and vertical
scale of the front.
1.09

With the aid of suitable diagram, describe the formation of a sea breeze. Your answer
should include the following:
i. the cause of the sea breeze
ii. the local mean time when the sea breeze will be experienced
iii. the factors that favour the development of the sea breeze
iv. how the prevailing wind is modified

1.10

With the aid of suitable diagram, describe the formation of a land breeze.
i. the cause of the land breeze
ii. the local mean time when the land breeze will be experienced
iii. the factors that favour the development of the land breeze
iv. how the prevailing wind is modified

1.11

With the aid of an annotated diagram, explain the formation of katabatic winds.

1.12

With the aid of diagrams, explain how a polar frontal depression is formed.

1.13

Produce a plan view diagram of a polar frontal depression in the Northern Hemisphere.
Your diagram should include:
a) arrows indicating wind directions at various locations
b) areas of extensive cloud and precipitation
c) the direction in which this weather system is likely to move.

1.14

Produce a plan view diagram of a polar frontal depression in the Southern Hemisphere.
Your diagram should include:
a) arrows indicating wind directions at various locations
b) areas of extensive cloud and precipitation
c) the direction in which this weather system is likely to move.

1.15

a) Describe the meteorological observations that an OOW should make regularly.

b) How frequently should these observations be taken whilst on watch?
c) What are the signs of an approaching polar frontal depression?

1.16

a) If operating at latitudes less than 40, list the signs of an approaching TRS.
b) With the aid of an annotated diagram, describe the actions an OOW would expect
the Master to take to avoid an approaching TRS in the Northern Hemisphere.
1.17

a) If operating at latitudes of less than 40, list the signs of an approaching TRS.
c) With the aid of an annotated diagram, describe the actions an OOW would expect
the Master to take to avoid an approaching TRS in the Southern Hemisphere.

1.18

You will get one set of met log entries from the following selection

Analyse the following log entries and state:

a) The meteorological implications.
b) The actions to be implemented.

August 12

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

08:00 SE f4 29°C 28°C 1017 hPa Partly cloudy 26° 13' N 086° 43' W
Stopped for repairs.
12:00 NE f6 28°C 28°C 1013 hPa Cloudy. Showers.
16:00 NExE f8 27°C 28°C 1009 hPa Overcast. Rain. Repairs completed

September 15

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

04:00 ENE f4 29°C 29°C 1013 hPa Partly cloudy 13° 46' N 077° 55' W
Stopped for repairs.
08:00 NNE f6 28°C 29°C 1009 hPa Cloudy. Showers.
12:00 NExN f8 27°C 29°C 1005 hPa Overcast. Rain. Repairs completed

August 17

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

08:00 SSE f4 30°C 28°C 1019 hPa Partly cloudy 27° 37' N 065° 23' W
Stopped for repairs.
12:00 NE f6 29°C 28°C 1015 hPa Cloudy. Showers.
16:00 NExE f8 28°C 27°C 1011 hPa Overcast. Rain. Repairs completed

May 11

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

08:00 WSW f4 29°C 27°C 1007 hPa Partly cloudy 18° 01' N 067° 03' E
Stopped for repairs.
12:00 NNE f6 28°C 27°C 1003 hPa Cloudy. Showers.
16:00 NExN f8 27°C 27°C 999 hPa Overcast. Rain. Repairs completed
Oct 11

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

08:00 WSW f4 29°C 27°C 1007 hPa Partly cloudy 15° 54' N 089° 18' E
Stopped for repairs.
12:00 ENE f6 28°C 27°C 1003 hPa Cloudy. Showers.
16:00 ExN f8 27°C 27°C 999 hPa Overcast. Rain. Repairs completed

August 17

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

08:00 SSE f4 29°C 27°C 1013 hPa Partly cloudy 29° 37' N 137° 29' E
Stopped for repairs.
12:00 ExS f6 28°C 27°C 1009 hPa Cloudy. Showers.
16:00 ESE f8 27°C 27°C 1005 hPa Overcast. Rain. Repairs completed

September 22

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

08:00 NNW f4 29°C 27°C 1006 hPa Partly cloudy 21° 07' N 110° 03' W
Stopped for repairs.
12:00 ENE f6 28°C 27°C 1002 hPa Cloudy. Showers.
16:00 ExN f8 27°C 27°C 998 hPa Overcast. Rain. Repairs completed

January 02

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

08:00 NNE 4 29°C 27°C 1014 hPa Partly cloudy 19° 42' S 050° 48' E
Stopped for repairs.
12:00 S f6 28°C 27°C 1010 hPa Cloudy. Showers.
16:00 SxE f8 27°C 27°C 1006 hPa Overcast. Rain. Repairs completed

January 15

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

08:00 SW f4 29°C 29°C 1007 hPa Partly cloudy 15° 27' S 115° 47' E
Stopped for repairs.
12:00 ExS f6 28°C 29°C 1003 hPa Cloudy. Showers.
16:00 E f8 27°C 29°C 999 hPa Overcast. Rain. Repairs completed

February 14

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

08:00 ESE f4 29°C 29°C 1014 hPa Partly cloudy 15° 27' S 161° 47' E
Stopped for repairs.
12:00 ENE f6 28°C 29°C 1010 hPa Cloudy. Showers.
16:00 NExE f8 27°C 29°C 1006 hPa Overcast. Rain. Repairs completed
1.19

Describe:
a) The meteorological conditions likely to lead to both fresh and seawater ice
accretion on vessels.
b) The effects of ice accretion on vessels.
c) The steps which may be taken to minimize the effects of ice accretion on vessels.

1.20
Describe the probable life cycle of icebergs in the North Atlantic Ocean, and show their
source regions, probable tracks and mean maximum limit on the attached chartlet.
1.21

Compare the process of freezing of seawater in the Baltic Sea, salinity 5 ppt, and the
Atlantic Ocean, salinity 35 ppt.
1.22

a) Describe the precautions required when observing the radar display in circumstances
when wave clutter is present and ice floes may be present.
b) State the precautions to be taken in circumstances when fast ice is present adjacent to
the land when using radar to fix the vessel’s position and when using Parallel Indexing to
monitor the vessel’s cross track error.
c) State the points to be highlighted when briefing the lookout circumstances when wave
foam patches are present and ice floes may be present.
1.23
Indicate on the attached chartlet, the pressure and wind zones of the Atlantic Ocean.
1.24
Indicate on the attached chartlets, the pressure distribution and prevailing winds over the
Indian Ocean in January and July.

January
July
1.25
Indicate on the attached chartlet, the pressure and wind zones of the Pacific Ocean.
 ANSWERS
1.01

a) Dewpoint temperature and relative humidity

b) A Mason’s hygrometer is a white, louvered, marine screen containing 2 liquid in

glass thermometers.
The screen is white to reflect radiation from the sun and other sources. It is louvered to
permit free flow of air while sheltering the thermometers from radiant heat, rain and
spray and should be hung on the windward side before taking measurements.
One thermometer measures air temperature, the dry bulb thermometer.
The other thermometer has a wick over the bulb leading to a reservoir of distilled water,
the wet bulb thermometer.
Evaporation from the wick draws latent heat from the wet bulb thermometer reducing its
temperature by an amount which is proportional to the amount of evaporation taking
place. The difference between the dry and wet bulb thermometers is called the Wet Bulb
Depression. The depression is directly proportional to the rate of evaporation. Rate of
evaporation is directly proportional to temperature and inversely proportional to relative
humidity.
The Wet Bulb Depression is used together with the dry bulb temperature and an
appropriate set of tables or formulae to obtain dew point temperature and relative
humidity.

1.02
a) i) Air advected over a surface at a temperature lower than its dew point temperature.
Air in contact with surface cooled by conduction below dew point temperature.
When RH reaches 100%, condensation occurs in surface layer.
Visibility reduced by the presence of water droplets in atmosphere. This is advection fog.

Diagram to indicate water surface at a lower temperature than the dew point
temperature of the air and show air moving horizontally. Air cooled below dew point
temperature by conduction causing condensation. Fog is the presence of water droplets.

a) ii) For advection fog to clear, the dew point temperature must drop below the
temperature of the water surface. This will occur on passage of a cold front because the
polar air mass behind the front will have a significantly lower dew point temperature than
the tropical air mass ahead of the cold front.
This will also occur if the water temperature rises above the dew point temperature e.g.
moving out of a cold water current into a warm water current (e.g from Labrador current
to Gulf Stream) or if the wind direction changes which will replace warm air/high dew
point temperature with cold air/low dew point temperature.
1.03

a) Mixing of two unsaturated air masses at a frontal zone results reduces the
temperature of the warm air to its dew point temperature and condensation takes place.
Water droplets visible as frontal fog.
In addition, evaporation of precipitation may saturate air resulting in condensation.

Suitable diagram of saturation vapour curve showing:

 mixing of two unsaturated air masses at different temperatures will result in

saturation
 adding water vapour by evaporation will increase dew point temperature to
saturate the air mass.
b) Frontal fog is formed in the surface frontal boundary and will therefore clear once
the vessel is no longer in the vicinity of that boundary. However, once the vessel is in the
warm sector, if the dew point temperature is above the sea surface temperature, there is
a high likelihood of advection fog.

1.04
a) Ground surface cools by the loss of thermal radiation (clear skies, light winds).
Air in contact with the ground is cooled by conduction.
If the air is cooled to its dew point temperature and below, condensation takes place.
Visibility is reduced by the presence of water droplets in the atmosphere, this is radiation
fog if the visibility is reduced below 1000m.
Requires 2-5 kts of wind to prevent the water droplets settling out as dew and remaining
in suspension in the atmosphere.
If radiation fog forms over a ground surface that slopes towards the coast, it may move
over adjacent water.
Diagram:

b) Radiation fog will usually clear by the mixing in of unsaturated air. Once it moves
over adjacent waters, the input of heat from below will reduce the RH below 100% and
the water droplets will evaporate.
1.05

Warm air mass and cold air mass converge creating a front.
Warm air is less dense so it rises over cold air.
Rising air cools adiabatically at the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) until it reaches its
dew point temperature.
Further cooling at the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) produces condensation.
The water droplets are visible as stratiform (frontal) cloud.

Cold front

Warm front

Cold
Warm
Cold

1.06

Surface is heated by insolation.

Air in contact is heated by conduction increasing the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR).
Density of heated air decreases.
Heated air rises.
Rising air cools adiabatically at the DALR until it reaches its dew point temperature.
Further cooling at the SALR produces condensation.
The water droplets are visible as cumuliform cloud.
Ascent will continue as long as the temperature of the ascending parcel is higher than that
of the surrounding air.
Ascent may be limited by the presence of a mid-level inversion (e.g. subsidence inversion)
or will continue to the tropopause (permanent temperature inversion).
1.07

A warm front forms between converging air masses of different temperatures and hence
densities. Warm air will replace cold air as it passes through a location. The less dense
warm air rises over the cold air. As the air expands and cools to its dew point
temperature, condensation leads to the formation of stratiform cloud. The frontal slope is
typically 1:120.

Ns
1.08
A cold front forms between converging air masses of different temperatures and hence
densities. Cold air will replace warm air as it passes through a location. The more dense
cold air undercuts the less dense warm air and forces it to rise. As the air expands and
cools to its dew point temperature, condensation leads to the formation of stratiform
cloud. If conditional instability is released, cumuliform cloud in the form of cumulonimbus
clouds may also be present. The frontal slope is typically 1:80.

Ns
1.09

During the day the surface temperature of land rises faster than that of the adjacent
sea due to the lower specific heat, and shallower penetration of solar insolation.
The air in contact with the land is heated by conduction and its density decreases.
Air rises above the land and is replaced by air flowing from the sea as the Sea
Breeze, replacing the prevailing offshore wind.
This air is heated in turn and rises.
Above the surface a seaward movement occurs at an altitude above approximately
1000m.
This air cools once removed from the source of heating, its density increases and it
descends, completing the convection cycle.
Onset is likely once land temperature exceed water temperature by at least 2o C.
The intensity of the effect reaches a maximum in mid afternoon.
Wind speed is typically approximately 13 kts.
The horizontal extent of the effect can be approximately 30 miles on either side of
the coast.
If initial surface offshore wind is too strong (geostrophic wind > 15kts), sea breeze is
unlikely to develop.

Air heated
Density decreases Seaward movement
Air rises
Insolation Cooling air descends

Sea Breeze
Land temperature increases
faster than sea temperature
1.10
During the night the land cools by reradiation to space.
The temperature of the land falls below that of the sea because radiation is taking
place from a shallow layer of a substance of low specific heat.
The air in contact with the land is cooled by conduction and its density increases
relative to the air over the sea.
The dense air from the land flows seaward as a Land Breeze, replacing the prevailing
onshore wind.
The intensity of the Land Breeze is less than that of the Sea Breeze, and the area
affected less extensive.

Air cooled
Density increases
Air descends
Reradiation

Land Breeze
Land temperature decreases
faster than sea temperature

1.11

Katabatic winds occur at night under clear skies on sloping ground due to radiative cooling
of the ground surface. The air in contact with the ground is cooled by conduction, its
density increases and will flow down the slope due to gravity. Katabatic winds can occur
during the day in areas where the slope is ice covered e.g. Greenland escarpment,
Antarctica.
Air cooled
by conduction
Density increased

Radiation

Katabatic
Land cooled
wind
by radiation
1.12

The cold air flows southwestward to the north of the polar front.
The warm air flows northeastward to the south of the polar front.
The cold air undercuts the warm air along the polar front.
A jet stream flows eastward in the upper part of the warm air mass.
Development of a depression commences with a reduction in pressure at a point on the
polar front, possibly due to a local acceleration of the jet stream removing air from the
area.
Convergence of surface air toward the embryonic depression introduces a wave in the
polar front causing warm and cold fronts to form, with a warm sector between them.
Closed isobars on the synoptic chart indicate falling pressure at the centre of the
depression.
The depression moves eastward along the polar front, growing more extensive as the
pressure at the centre falls.
A cyclonic wind pattern develops around the depression.
Air does not cross the fronts, warm air overrides cold air at the warm front and cold air
undercuts warm air at the cold front.
Ascending warm air at both fronts cools adiabatically and clouds form followed by
precipitation.
As the depression progresses the cold front overtakes the warm front progressively from
the centre.
This lifts the warm sector above the surface in the process of occlusion.
Occlusion progresses outward from the centre until the whole warm sector is above the
surface and the depression fills.
1.13

1.14
1.15

a) Wind direction and force, sea state, swell direction and height, atmospheric
pressure, air temperature.
b) Generally every watch i.e. four hourly.
In the tropics or when expecting or experiencing foul weather: hourly
c) Cloud rapidly invading the sky: Cs, As, Ns (thickening and cloud base lowering),
swell appearing with height increasing, pressure falling, wind freshening, wind
direction changing, onset of moderate continuous rain.

1.16
a) Larger than expected swell waves
Extensive cirrus
Wind force increasing
Wind direction probably changing
Pressure decreasing, > 5hPa below seasonal average confirms presence of TRS.
b) Avoidance is the Master’s responsibility.
First action on observing these signs is to call the Master.
If a vessel finds herself in the Dangerous Quadrant, place the wind on the
Starboard bow and make all practicable speed, altering course as the wind veers.
If the vessel is close to the path or in the Navigable Semi Circle, place the wind on
the Starboard quarter and make all practicable speed, altering course as the wind
backs.

Recurvature

Dangerous
Quadrant

Navigable Semicircle
1.17

a) Larger than expected swell waves

Extensive cirrus
Wind force increasing
Wind direction probably changing
Pressure decreasing, > 5hPa below seasonal average confirms presence of TRS.
b) Avoidance is the Master’s responsibility.
First action on observing these signs is to call the Master.
If a vessel finds herself in the Dangerous Quadrant, place the wind on the Port bow
and make all practicable speed, altering course as the wind veers.
If the vessel is close to the path or in the Navigable Semi Circle, place the wind on
the Port quarter and make all practicable speed, altering course as the wind backs.

Navigable Semicircle

Dangerous
Quadrant

Recurvature
1.18
a)

Date

Time Wind Air Sea Pressure Weather Remarks

08:00 Normal for area

Position.
Stopped for repairs.
12:00 Vessel is under influence of TRS
16:00 Changes due to TRS
Repairs completed

Date, Hemisphere, Tropics, Season = TRS Season.

Latitude > 5°, sufficient Coriolis Force for TRS formation.

08:00
Sea Temperature ##°C.
Unstable air with high humidity.
All other parameters approximately normal for area and season.
TRS possible because Sea Temperature >26°C and Latitude >5°.

12:00
Pressure decreased by # hPa.
Wind direction changed, veered / backed # points.
Wind speed increased.
Cloud cover increased.
Precipitation increased.
TRS probable because Pressure decreased > 3 hPa

16:00
Pressure decreased by # hPa overall.
Wind veered / backed # points.
Wind force increased.
Cloud cover increased.
Precipitation increased.
TRS confirmed because pressure decreased > 5 hPa.

Vessel stopped, all changes true.

1. Where?
Buys Ballot’s Law. Face wind; NH Right, SH Left; by 90 + Angle of Indraft.
Pressure decreased # hPa, Angle of Indraft # points.
Wind f8, Distance < 200 NM.

2. Advance or Rear?
Pressure decreasing / rising, Advance/Rear.

3. Left / On / Right of Path?

Wind: Backing / Steady / Veering, Left / On / Right of Path.

4. Quadrant?
Advance, Right / Left, Northern / Southern Hemisphere, = Dangerous Quadrant.
Left / Right, Northern / Southern Hemisphere = Navigable Semicircle.
b)

Action

Dangerous Quadrant Northern / Southern Hemisphere:

Steer with wind on Starboard / Port Bow.

On Path,
Northern / Southern Hemisphere:
Steer with wind on Starboard / Port Quarter.

Navigable Semicircle Northern / Southern Hemisphere:

Steer with wind on Starboard / Port Quarter.

Rear,
Steer with wind on Starboard / Port Bow.

All cases:
Maximum speed.
Alter course to maintain relative wind direction as wind changes.
Report storm and then conditions hourly in accordance with SOLAS.
Monitor changes to confirm results of action, or reassess situation and change action.

Alternatively.
Slow change of wind direction implies that vessel is on the Path, change of wind direction
due to changing angle of indraft.
Manoeuvre off the Path into Navigable Semicircle
Steer with wind on Starboard / Port Quarter.
Maximum speed.
Alter course to maintain relative wind direction as wind changes.
Report storm and then conditions hourly in accordance with SOLAS.
Monitor changes to confirm results of action, or reassess situation and change action.

1.19

a)
Fresh.
Air temperature <0°C
Precipitation

Salt.
Air temperature <-2°C
Wind > F6, causing spray.

b)
Fresh.
Ice accumulation on aerials, communications, GPS, radar.
Communications aerials fracture due to weight.
GPS signal attenuation.
Radar stops turning, will not start.

Salt.
Loading asymmetric deck cargo of ice.
Draught increases, list and trim toward weight, freeboard decreases.
G rises, GM, GZ, range of stability decrease.
Angle of loll, capsize.

c)
Fresh.
Clear carefully.
Keep radars running.

Salt.
Reduce speed.
Alter course.
Clear.
Move weights down.
Ballast, discharge high, load low.
Reduce free surface.
Shelter.
Divert to higher temperatures.

1.20

Source region is the ice cap and glaciers of Greenland.

Icebergs are calved from the glaciers on the east and west coasts.
Initially held by sea ice.
Released when sea ice melts in Spring.

East coast bergs are carried southward by the East Greenland Current.
They are melting, and very few reach the south tip of Greenland.
Those that do may be carried northward or westward.

West coast bergs are carried northward by the West Greenland Current.
They are likely to be held over the winter by sea ice in Baffin Bay.
The melting of the sea ice in Spring releases them.
They are carried southward by the Canada and Labrador currents.
They are melting, and relatively few reach the shipping lanes south of Newfoundland.

Limits, icebergs are unlikely to travel south of 40N or east of 040W.

 Source

Region

1.21

During winter cold air from the east flows over both the Baltic Sea and the northeast
Atlantic Ocean.

Both
Surface water cools.
Density increases.
Sinks.
Replaced by deep water.
Convection is established.

Baltic
Temperature of Maximum Density is higher than freezing temperature.
At 2.9°C water is at maximum density.
At lower temperatures density decreases.
Surface layer is less dense than main body of water.
Convection ceases.
Surface water cools rapidly and freezes at –0.3°C.
Atlantic
Temperature of Maximum Density is lower than freezing temperature.
Water does not reach temperature of maximum density before reaching freezing
temperature.
Convection continues.
At -1.8°C water freezes.

1.22

a) Echoes from waves and ice floes may be similar.

Care must be taken to distinguish between them and avoid collision with ice floes.
Echoes from ice are more consistent than those from waves.
b) The presence of fast ice may alter the radar profile of land.
Care must be taken to distinguish between the ice edge and land when measuring bearings
and ranges for position fixing, and using Parallel Indexing to monitor the vessel’s cross
track error.
c) Foam patches and ice floes may be visually similar.
The lookout must be briefed of the need to distinguish between them and report ice,
particularly ahead.
1.23

Polar High Pressure

Polar Easterlies

Mid Latitude Low Pressure

Westerlies

Subtropical High Pressure

NE Trades

Equatorial Low Pressure

SE Trades

Subtropical High Pressure

Westerlies

Mid Latitude Low Pressure

Polar Easterlies

Polar High Pressure

1.24

January

Monsoon High Pressure

NE Monsoon

Equatorial Low Pressure

SE Trades

Subtropical High Pressure

Westerlies

Mid Latitude Low Pressure

Polar Easterlies

Polar High Pressure

July

Monsoon Low Pressure

SW Monsoon

Equatorial Low Pressure

SE Trades

Subtropical High Pressure

Westerlies

Mid Latitude Low Pressure

Polar Easterlies

Polar High Pressure

1.25

Polar High Pressure

Polar Easterlies

Mid Latitude Low Pressure

Westerlies

Subtropical High Pressure

NE Trades

Equatorial Low Pressure

SE Trades

Subtropical High Pressure

Westerlies

Mid Latitude Low Pressure

Polar Easterlies

Polar High Pressure