Facultad de Lenguas y Educación

Departamento de Educación.
Mención lengua extranjera
Second language learning

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

UNIDAD 2. El proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de las lenguas
extranjeras: conceptos básicos
1. Language acquisition and learning 3
1.1. Differences between acquisition and learning 3

2. Advantages of studying English at Infant Education 7

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3. How do children learn a second language? 8
4. Methodology at Infant Education 8

Bibliography 10

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 1. Language acquisition and learning

Age is considered a key factor when learning a second language due to what we know as the
Critical Period Hypothesis (or CPH), which establishes that after the cerebral lateralisation
process has taken place, our brain loses plasticity and acquiring a foreign language becomes
a harder process. In fact, some theoreticians defend that after this critical period there is no
acquisition at all but learning. That is why, according to them, it is very important to start
exposing children to a wide foreign language input as soon as possible.

1.1. Differences between ‘Acquisition’ and ‘Learning’

Second language learners already possess a native language (L1) which often interferes in the
process of learning a foreign language. Sometimes this interference will help and accelerate
the process. For instance: knowing and understanding the different linguistic units that exist
in all languages (word, clause, phrase, etc.) and different morphological categories (noun, verb,
adjective, etc.) in L1 can facilitate L2 acquisition, but at the same time, it can also lead to
errors.

Interference (from L1 to L2) errors can be of different classes:

1-Lexical errors: a lexical item is used incorrectly, affecting the meaning of a sentence, or
making it sound unnatural or inappropriate:
I live a problem (have) // My sister is embarrassed (pregnant).
2-Phonological errors: an incorrect sound is said, or the word is not pronounced properly
because the right sounds are not used:
Literature (Lee -teh-rah-tour) as opposed to /ˈlɪtərɪtʃə/
3-Grammatical errors: incorrect use of the normative rules for creating a sentence:
I am agree.
4-Pragmatic errors: mistakes resulting from the breakdown or misunderstanding of the social
and contextual components of a language:
I don’t mind/ I don’t care

It is important, though, to distinguish Interference errors, which occur only in L2 acquisition,

from developmental errors, which occur in both L1 and L2 acquisition.

Developmental errors include, for instance:

-Overgeneralisation: Like native children, L2 learners may overgeneralise new words: the
application of a grammatical rule in cases where it does not apply.
“I’ve got two foots” / “She goed to the park.”

-Simplification: Like native children, L2 learners simplify morphological structures:

“I not played yesterday”

Another similarity between L1 and L2 acquisition, apart from developmental errors, is the fact
that, like native children, L2 learning follows a U-shaped development. U-shaped learning gets
its name from the typical letter U-pattern shaped when developing cognitive skills such as
language. Initial ascending progress tends to be followed by a time when skills seem to
descend to a lower position, which will later on be succeeded by another period of high
performance.

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As for the differences between L1 and L2 acquisition, children present different stages on the
development of language when acquiring their mother tongue:

STAGES OF L1 ACQUISITION TYPICAL AGE

1- Babbling (Pre-Linguistic Period) 6 - 8 months
2- One-word production 9 - 18 months
3- Two-word production 18 – 24 months
4- Multi-word stage 24 – 30 months
5-Later multi-word stage 30 months onwards

1-Pre-linguistic Period: from the moment of birth, children can discriminate speech from other
sounds. They start discovering phonemes and producing sounds to convey basic meanings
(pain, hunger, etc.).

Cooing starts in response to pleasure. During the first few months of life, the child gradually
becomes capable of producing sequences of vowel-like sounds, particularly high vowels
similar to [i] and [u].

This will evolve later in the 'babbling stage' when they produce syllables like 'ba-ba-ba'. There
are recognisable intonation patterns to the consonant and vowel combinations being
produced, as well as variation in the combinations. Nasal sounds also become more common.

2-One-word production stage: The communication is carried out using single words. Which
function as a phrase or sentence. Children can name a person and things and say 'no'
meaningfully. They are able to understand and follow simple commands (i.e.: 'come here,'
‘stop it').

3-Two-word production stage: Children use minimum words to convey the meaning of a whole
sentence. They start acquiring rules of syntax.

By the time the child is two years old, a variety of combinations, similar to 'baby chair', 'mommy
eat', 'cat bad,' will usually have appeared. The adult interpretation of such combinations is, of
course, very much tied to the context of their utterance.

The child not only produces speech, but also receives feedback confirming that the utterance
worked as a contribution to the interaction.

4-Multi-word stage and 5-Later multi-word stage: There is a great development of morphology
(they learn the basic rules to create new words) and they also start using complex structures.
They incorporate some of the inflectional morphemes that indicate the grammatical function
of the nouns and verbs used.

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As we will see afterwards (p. 8), the stages followed when learning a second language are
different.

Additionally, one should consider the different factors influencing both L1 and L2 acquisition,
such as, for instance:

-The Environment
The learning environment of L1 acquisition is more homogeneous than the learning
environment of L2 acquisition.

-Self-consciousness
Children begin to talk naturally, unaffected by nervousness or anxiety.
Adult speakers are often self-conscious when talking in a foreign language.

-Motivation
Children seem to be inherently motivated to learn a language.
L2 learners differ tremendously as to the degree to which they are motivated to learn a second
language.

-Input
Adults, being aware of children's limits to understand language fully, adapt the way they
address children by modifying the voice pitch and simplifying the language structures. This
characteristically simplified speech style adopted by someone who spends a lot of time
interacting with a young child is called caregiver speech. This adapted language implies
simplified words (tummy, nana) or alternative forms, frequent use of questions (in order to
check out the child's understanding), exaggerated intonation (to create and emotional
response), extra loudness and a slower tempo with longer pauses.

-End Stage
Children reach full mastery of their native language, but many L2 learners do not reach full
native-like competence.

As can be seen, a closer examination of the ways in which age combines with other factors
shows that there are actually both favourable and unfavourable age-related components
influencing early and late second language learning. So, what do we mean when we talk about
the difference between ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’ of a language?

L1 acquisition is a subconscious process (as in L1), in which vocabulary learning and the
acquisition of new categories cooccur.

L2 learning is a conscious process (as in L2), where vocabulary learning often involves the
acquisition of a new word/form for an already known object/concept.

What is the Critical period Hypothesis-Cerebral lateralization process?

Though experts differ on the scope and reach of this notion, for C. E. Snow and M. Hoefnagel-
Höhle, the critical period hypothesis “holds that first language acquisition must occur before
cerebral lateralization is complete, at about the age of puberty. One prediction of this
hypothesis is that second language acquisition will be relatively fast, successful, and
qualitatively similar to first language only if it occurs before the age of puberty.” (Snow &
Hoefnagel-Höhle, 1978, p. 1114).

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The critical period hypothesis (or CPH) was first proposed by Lenneberg (1967), whose
evidence for its existence was based on the relearning of impaired L1 skills, rather than the
learning of a second language under normal circumstances.

According to Esim Gürsoy (2011), the CPH is based on:

-Neurolinguistic Arguments: It was believed that language acquisition process must be

completed before puberty. However, it has been shown that cerebral lateralization occurs at
+/- age 5. It is possible to learn a second language after puberty, though not as fast or
efficiently as the acquisition of the mother tongue. Besides, “research indicates that age
effects of all kinds depend largely on the actual opportunities for learning which are available
within overall contexts of L2 acquisition and particular learning situations, notably the extent
to which initial exposure is substantial and sustained” (Lightbown, 2000; cited in Abello-
Contesse, 2009).

-Cognitive and Affective Arguments: children do not have a culture bound view; they do not
have perspective filters like adults do (acculturation). Lack of cultural distance helps them
learn the language more quickly.

-Younger Children versus Older Children: Adult learners tend to score worse. Social,
psychological, educational other factors affect proficiency in addition to the learners’ age.

Krashen (1973) suggests that, lateralization of the brain is complete before puberty, and
therefore it is “not a barrier to accent-free second language learning by adults”.

According to Brown (1980), some cognitive and affective arguments to understand Critical
Period-Cerebral lateralization are:

1)Acculturation
Period of excitement and euphoria
Cultural Shock
Gradual recovery
Assimilation or adaptations

2) Anomie (uncertainty and dissatisfaction while learning another language).

3) Social Distance (difference between two cultures)

4) Perceived social distance (each person has a different way to perceive the environment)

Children that acquire a language at an early stage could be simultaneous and sequential
bilinguals:

-Simultaneous bilingual: Both languages are acquired simultaneously. For example, Spanish
mother and South African father.
-Sequential bilingual: The second language was acquired after the first one. For example, our
students.

Depending on the context, we find:

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Compound bilinguals: Individuals who learn two languages in the same environment so that
they acquire one notion with two verbal expressions.

Coordinate bilingual: Individuals who acquire the two languages in different contexts (e.g.,
home and school), so the words of the two languages belong to separate and independent
systems.

Sub-coordinate bilingual: One language dominates. Our students are Sequential and sub-
coordinate bilingual. When they come into contact with English, they have already received
their mother tongue (Spanish) and the fundaments of this language are in their brains.
Subsequently, they have interferences with their mother tongue.

2. Advantages of studying English at Infant Education.

It seems obvious that learning a second language at Infant Education has the following
advantages:
-Students are at a motivational age and they have a better cognitive capacity. They are
learning everything.
-Students will have a natural pronunciation because they are in an oral phase, learning how
to pronounce their L1. Moreover, as they don´t know how to read and write, they do not have
reading / speaking interferences.
-Students can have a wider real input because teachers don not have to focus on grammar
and they can enjoy English through videos, songs, storytelling, etc.
-Students do not feel stress because they do not have to pass a test and do not feel
embarrassed because of their pronunciation (affective filter).

What is the affective filter?

The affective filter (proposed by linguist Stephen Krashen) is an impediment to learning
caused by negative emotional responses to one's environment. Certain emotions, such as
anxiety, self-doubt interfere with the process of learning. These negative emotions reduce
the amount of input the listener is able to understand.

Krashen's affective filter hypothesis is embedded in his “Monitor Model”: a group of five
main hypotheses which try to account for the learning process of a second language:
1- The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis: According to Krashen, there are two ways of
developing language ability. Acquisition involves the subconscious acceptance of
knowledge and is the process involved in the development of native languages.
Learning is the conscious acceptance of knowledge ‘about’ a language.
2- The Monitor hypothesis: The student often corrects him/herself when uttering a
sentence, as the brain checks (or ‘monitors’9 whether the linguistic rules already
internalised are being adequately applied. Monitoring can contribute to the accuracy of
an utterance, but it may affect fluency.
3- The Natural Order hypothesis: According to Krashen, learners acquire new forms of
language in a predictable order. For any given language, certain grammatical structures
are acquired early while others are acquired later in the process. This natural order of

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 acquisition is independent from teaching and it closely resembles the order of
acquisition followed when internalizing our mother tongue.
4- The Input hypothesis: Language acquisition occurs only when learners receive
messages that they can understand, namely: when they receive comprehensible input.
For learning to be effective, this comprehensible input should be one step beyond the
learner’s current language ability, to allow learners to progress.
5- The Affective Filter hypothesis: The student’s personality influences the process of
language acquisition. Learners with high self-esteem and high levels of self-confidence
acquire L2 faster. Similarly, for students more insecure or nervous, there exists an
emotional barrier or “mental block” that can prevent input from being properly
internalised. The lower the filter is, the more acquisition can take place, and this can
only be achieved in low-anxiety, relaxed, non-defensive environments. This filter does
not impact acquisition directly but rather prevents input from reaching the language
acquisition part of the brain.

3. How do children learn a second language?

Children move through a number of stages when learning English as a new language. Some
go through these stages more quickly than others, and children will sometimes have the
characteristics of more than one stage at the same time as they transition between stages.

Understanding a child’s stage of learning is important for planning appropriate activities. Early
childhood professionals play a role in helping children progress to higher stages; however,
each child’s English development will follow its own timetable. Planning and programming
should be based around each child’s abilities and developmental level. The association
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) identifies five developmental
stages for learning a new language, though only the first three take place in Primary Education:
Beginning Stage. Some children initially use their home language in educational settings
because it is the only language they know. At some point, most young children give up using
their home language quickly, realizing that it is not an effective means of communication in
that context. If a few children in a setting share the same home language, they may continue
to use it amongst themselves.

The silent period: young children may not use any language at all, or very little, for a few weeks
or even months. They are listening and accumulating knowledge of English but are sometimes
hesitant to speak much. Children often use gestures to communicate with adults and other
children. Sometimes they may rehearse phrases in English quietly to themselves.

Of course, we must respect this time and not force them to speak if they are not ready yet,
since we could cause a lot of stress to them and it can be very demotivating. Students need
some time to listen to others’ talk, to assimilate vocabulary and sentence patterns and pay
attention to their classmates’ contributions before they feel ready to express themselves in a
foreign language.

Emerging Stage. Young children at the emerging stage typically use one- or two-word
responses to questions like “What’s that?” or “Do you want a turn?” Their English use is also
not very original. These children use a lot of formulaic expressions (words or phrases they
hear others say); e.g., “what’s happening?”, “wanna play with me?”, “I dunno,” “me first,” “it’s
my turn,” “no fair!”, “so what?”, “lookit this!” Formulaic sentences are important because they
help open the door to social interaction with early childhood professionals and other children.

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Whit more social interaction comes more English learning.

Developing Stage. Children gradually move from memorised sentences to original, productive
and spontaneous English conversation. Yet, their use of English still shows errors in
pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, many of which will not be corrected for a long time.

Expanding Stage.

Bridging Stage.

4. Methodology at Infant Education

At infant education, we need to use a natural approach because our students have the
necessary brain plasticity to learn a second language as the first one. They need to be expose
to a wide oral input and we don´t have to rush them into speaking.

During the silent period, our students will internalise the structure, the vocabulary and the
pronunciation of the English language and they will talk when they are ready to do it. They are
at a reception phase and the production will be produced only through repetition (songs,
rhymes, etc.).

Nevertheless, we can check their understanding asking them to draw a story we are telling,
answering in a physical way to our petitions, pointing to the image of the word we pronounce,
etc.
Where is the apple? Please, touch the apple.

In general, you should keep in mind 7 key ideas:

1. Create short activities and change activities every five or ten minutes.
2. Contextualise activities, so students can relate English with their daily life.
3. Create a nice atmosphere, so students feel confident and happy in class, relating English to
activities they love (cooking cupcakes, watching Peppa pig, playing, among others)
4. Use realia (movies, television, among others), so they get used to a wide variety of accents.
5. Establish routines (Date, days, months, parts of the body, hello /bye-bye songs) and use
repetitive structures (Like orders, request, among others). It helps your students to follow the
class easily because they can anticipate what you´re asking or what they have to do.
6. When they are ready to talk, use communicative activities, focusing on language
communication not accuracy.
7. TPR activities, so they can answer you in a physical way.

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Bibliography
Abello-Contesse, C. (2009). Age and the critical period hypothesis. ELT Journal, 63(2), 170–
172.

Cameron, L. (2005). Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge Language Teaching

Library.

Cooper, J. (2010). The early years communication handbook: A practical guide to creating a
communication friendly setting. Practical Pre-school Books.

Harmer, J. (1991). The practice of English language teaching: Longman handbook for Language
Teachers. Pearson.

Howe, D., Payne, K., Rohe, B., Spalding, G., Stei, L., & Whitbeck, D. (1991). Teaching young
children using themes. Good Year Books.

Lewis, G. (1999). Games for children: Oxford Resource Book for Teachers. Oxford University
Press.

Morgan, J.; & Rinvolucri, M. (2000). Once upon a time: Using stories in the language classroom:
Cambridge Handbooks for Language Teachers. Oxford University Press.

Nunan, D. (1988). The learner centred curriculum. Cambridge University Press.

Pinter, A. M. (2009). Teaching Young Language Learners. Oxford University Press.

Read, C. (2007). 500 activities for the primary classroom. Macmillan.

Snow, C. E., & Hoefnagel-Höhle, M. (1978). The Critical Period for Language Acquisition:
Evidence from Second Language Learning. Child Development, 49(4), 1114-1118.

Wright, A. (1997). Creating stories with children: Oxford Resource Books for Teachers. Oxford
University Press.

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