hominid evolution
SUBMITTED BY: -
AKANSHA CHAUHAN
SUBMITTED TO: -
Dr. YASMIN BANO
MOLECULAR & HUMAN GENETICS
JIWAJI UNIVERSITY
MOLECULAR & HUMAN
GENETICS
CENTRE FOR GENOMICS
JIWAJI UNIVERSITY
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Acknowledgment
I wish to thank Dr Yasmin Bano, who
guided me in completing this assignment
successfully. I take this opportunity to
express my deep gratitude for her
invaluable guidance, ongoing
encouragement, and enormous
motivation, which has sustained my
efforts at all the stages of assignment
development. I extend my deep gratitude
and sincere thanks to the Head of the
Department, Prof. P.K. Tiwari for his
encouragement for this assignment. I
sincerely appreciate his generosity by
taking me into his fold for which I shall
remain indebted to him.
I can’t forget to thank Dr. Gunjana, Mr.
Kumar Narayan, Mrs. Nivedita Sharma,
and Mrs. Anjali Tomar who helped me
carry out this project successfully, and
for their valuable advice and support
which I have always received.
AKANSHA CHAUHAN
3rd Semester
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CONTENTS
o Introduction
o Timeline of Human
Evolution
o Stages of Human Evolution
o Characteristics
o Conclusion
o References
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INTRODUCTION
Hominid refers to the members of the human family Hominidae
which consists of all the species from where the human line splits
from the apes towards present-day humans. Evolution means the
slow process of change from a simple to a more complex structure.
Evolution assumes that all living things are interrelated. Humans are
supposed to have developed from some simpler forms. Hominid
Evolution is the process by which human beings developed on Earth
from now-extinct primates.
The evolution of life began in the oceans. About four hundred million
years ago the first land-based creatures emerged. Some of these
gradually evolved into the large reptiles who were later displaced by
mammals. Mammals are warm-blooded creatures having greater
capacity to learn from experience than other animals and this
capacity has reached its highest development in the human species.
Our closest relatives are chimpanzee, gorilla and orangutan.
Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people
originated from apelike ancestors. Scientific evidence shows that the
physical and behavioral traits shared by all people originated from
apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six
million years. Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20
different species of early humans. Scientists do not all agree,
however, about how these species are related or which ones simply
died out. Many early human species -- certainly the majority of them
– left no living descendants.
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TIMELINE OF
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Humans began to evolve about seven million years ago, and
progressed through four stages of evolution. Research shows that
the first modern humans appeared 200,000 years ago. Humans and
chimpanzees shared a common lineage up until approximately 7-13
million years ago. Scientists use fossils and relics to date different
ancestors’ history and create a timeline of human evolution.
Whenever new information comes to light, and with the further
progression of science, timelines may change to better explain and
accommodate all findings. This is why most estimates have a broad
window, ranging from a couple thousand years to a few million
years.
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1. SAHELANTHROPUS TCHADENSIS
This species lived about 7 million years ago.
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2. ORRORIN TUGENENSIS
This species lived about 6.2-5.8 million years ago.
3. ARDIPITHECUS
This species lived about 4.4 Million Years Ago.
Ardipithecus ramidus, a very early hominin genus, becomes one of the
earliest bipedal species.
AUSTRALOPITHECUS
This genus is one the most popularly known genus in the evolution of
humans. They existed from about 4.2 – 3.9 million years ago, up to
approximately 2.5 million years ago. There are approximately 7
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accepted species in this genus, the most popular of which
is Australopithecus afarensis. This species lived for about 900,000
years, and the remains of over 300 individuals of this species have
been found.
Australopithecus afarensis
Australopithecus afarensis is an extinct species
of australopithecine which lived from about 3.9–2.9 million years
ago in the Pliocene of East Africa. The first fossils were discovered in
the 1930s, but major fossil finds would not take place until the
1970s.
4. PARANTHROPUS
This genus is also known as the robust australopithecine, and there
is ongoing debate if the species should belong to
the Australopithecus genus or should exist in a separate genus
of Paranthropus. Paranthropus boisei is
a species of australopithecine from the Early Pleistocene of East
Africa about 2.3 to 1.34 or 1 million years ago.
Paranthropus boisei
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5. HOMO
Finally, we come to the genus to which we belong. This genus came
about 2.4 million years ago, and Homo sapiens are currently the only
living members. The first species in this genus, Homo habilis, existed
about 2.4 – 1.4 million years ago.
Another important species of this genus is Homo erectus. They are
the oldest species with features and proportions that are very similar
to modern humans. Homo erectus was also the first species to
expand their demography outside Africa, although it is unclear as to
whether they reached Europe.
Existing about 700,000 to 200,000 years ago, Homo heidelbergensis was
the first species to live in colder climates. They also lived at a time where
there was the definitive use of fire. They were the first species who
regularly hunted larger animals and built simple shelters of wood and
rocks. They had a comparatively flatter face, and possessed very prominent
brow ridges.
Homo heidelbergensis
Homo neanderthalensis are the closest species to us as modern
humans. They lived about 400,000 to 40,000 years ago and closely
resembled us in appearance. All the H. neanderthalensis fossils have
been discovered in Europe.
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Homo neanderthalensis
There is another species in this genus, known as the Denisovans.
They still haven’t been classified properly, but they seem to have
existed around the time of H. neanderthalensis. There is also
evidence that suggests there was interbreeding within these groups,
which led to variations.
According to current estimates, Homo sapiens arose about 300,000
years ago. The best way to establish a rough idea of their
appearance would be to simply look in the mirror.
A number of these species existed at the same time, because the
appearance of a new species did not mean the immediate extinction
of the previous ones. As we have seen in the case of the Denisovans,
Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, there was also interbreeding
between them. According to some scientists, this is the cause behind
the variations between the different races currently existing on
Earth. That being said, there are still plenty of unanswered
questions about our ancestors, as well as discrepancies in the
timeline. Time estimates are constantly changing however, hopefully
we can get more concrete answers to the fascinating questions of
our origin!
STAGES OF HUMAN
EVOLUTION
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Evolution involves the gradual changes from simple to more complex
forms. Humans are believed to have developed from simpler forms.
The evolution is hypothesized to have begun in the oceans billions of
years ago. Darwin gave the theory of evolution. In his book -The
Origin of Species, Darwin has stated that evolution has come
through a series of natural selection. The theory emphasized the
following points:
• Natural Selection,
• variation
• Struggle to Exist,
• Survival of the Fittest
Evolution is the outcome of the interaction between the following
five processes:
• Mutation
• Genetic Recombination,
• Chromosomal Abnormalities
• Reproductive isolation,
• Natural Selection
The stages of human evolution:
1. SAHELANTHROPUS TCHADENSIS
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This species lived about 7 million years ago.
They had characteristics of both chimpanzees and humans.
From reconstructions of their heads, it can be seen that they
look very ape-like.
Also, evidence suggests that they walked upright on 2 feet.
They are majorly accepted as the oldest species of hominids.
Sahelanthropus tchadensis had a small brain, closer in size to
that of the chimpanzee.
2. DRYOPITHECUS
• These are deemed to be the ancestors of both man and
apes.
• They lived in China, Africa, Europe, and India.
• The genus Dryopithecus refers to the oak wood apes.
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• When Dryopithecus was alive, the tropical lowlands which it
inhabited were densely forwarded, so the members could
have predominantly been herbivores.
3. ORRORIN TUGENENSIS
• This species lived about 6.2-5.8 million years ago.
• It displays certain morphological similarities to Homo sapiens,
like the femur, which points to bipedalism, and thickened
enamel on the teeth.
• The fossils of Orrorin tugenensis suggest that it survived in the
dry evergreen forests.
• This goes against the most popular assumption that humans
evolved in the savannas.
4. RAMAPITHECUS
• Their first remains were discovered from the Shivalik range in
Punjab and later in Africa and Saudi Arabia.
• They lived in open grasslands.
Two pieces of evidence confirm their Hominid status:
• Thickened tooth enamel, robust jaws, and shorter canines.
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• Usage of hands for food and defense, and extrapolations of
upright posture.
5. ARDIPITHECUS
• Ardipithecus is the first species that definitely exhibited
bipedalism.
• It showed some distinctive features that are also found in
modern humans.
• Apart from walking upright on 2 legs, it also had a big,
grasping toe.
• This species had a small brain, closer to that of chimpanzees,
and its canines were reduced in size. Its reconstructed pelvis
suggests that it could walk on 2 legs, as well as climb trees.
6. AUSTRALOPITHECUS
• This genus is one the most popularly known genus in the
evolution of humans.
• They existed from about 4.2 – 3.9 million years ago, up to
approximately 2.5 million years ago.
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• There are approximately 7 accepted species in this genus, the
most popular of which is Australopithecus afarensis.
• This species lived for about 900,000 years, and the remains of
over 300 individuals of this species have been found.
• The brain size of this species was about one-third that of
humans. They had flat noses and protruding lower jaws.
• Their teeth were small, like those of modern humans.
• They had long, strong arms suitable for swinging from
trees, but they regularly walked on 2 feet.
• Their ability to be arboreal and tree-swinging helped them to
survive climate changes.
• The fossil of this genus was first discovered in 1924 in South
Africa.
• They lived on the ground, used stones as weapons and walked
erect.
• They were 4 feet tall and weighed 60-80 pounds.
7. PARANTHROPUS
• This genus is also known as the robust australopithecine.
• These species had more features similar to those of modern
humans, as compared to their immediate ancestors.
• Mainly, they had stronger jaws and employed the use of
muscles for chewing.
• They had flared cheekbones and bigger brains.
• They also had quite a thick layer of enamel on their teeth.
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8. ADVANCED AUSTRALOPITHECUS
• The young ones of this species grew faster than modern
humans, and therefore had shorter periods of care and
guidance by their parents.
• Another species of this genus was Au. africanus. They were
similar to Au. afarensis, but they had bigger brains in a more
rounded cranium.
• They also had smaller teeth.
• As this genus evolved, they began exhibiting more features
similar to homo sapiens, such as shorter teeth, molars and pre-
molars, a broad lower chest, and other features of our skeletal
system.
• One species, Au. sediba, exhibited a peculiar form of walking.
It apparently turned its foot inward with each stride.
• This suggests that upright walking evolved in more than one
pathway.
9. HOMO ERECTUS
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• The first fossil of Homo Erectus was found in Java in 1891.
These were named as Pithecanthropus Erectus.
• These were considered as the missing link between the man
and apes.
• Another discovery made in China was the Peking man. This
specimen had large cranial capacities and is believed to have
lived in communities.
• Homo erectus used tools comprising quartz. Tools made of
bones and wood were also discovered.
• There is evidence of collective hunting’s also the evidence of
use of fire.
• The Homo Erectus is believed to dwell in caves.
10. HOMO SAPIENS NEANDERTHALENSIS
• The Homo Erectus evolved into Homo Sapiens.
• During evolution, two sub-species of Homo Sapiens were
identified- Homo sapiens Neanderthal and Homo sapiens
sapiens.
• The cranial capacity of Neanderthal grew from 1200 to 1600
cc.
• Some small hand axes had also been discovered.
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• This species of hominids could hunt big names such as
mammoths.
11. HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS
• The remains of Homo Sapiens were first discovered in Europe
and were named Cro-Magnon.
• In these, the jaws are quite reduced, the modern man’s chin
appeared, and the skull was rounded.
• Their cranial capacity was about 1350 cc.
• They gathered food through hunting. Art first appeared during
this time.
This is how evolution took place.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
HOMO SAPIENS
• Four unique character define the genus homo: -
• Upright bipedal stance – standing upright and two footed,
rather than four footed.
• Opposable thumb: A thumb that can move across other four
digits
• Enlarged cranium, Complex speech communication
• Other distinguishing characters are:
• Manufacture and use of complex tools
• Reduced jawbones and jaw muscles
• Shorter digestive tract
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CONCLUSION
• As we can see that Evolution is the lengthy process of change
by which people originated from ape-like ancestors. Scientific
evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared
by all people originated from apelike ancestors and evolved
over a period of approximately six million years ago.
• Furthermore, I tried to gone through the gist’s of stages of
Human Evolution specifically looked for its characters and
features.
• Evolutionary change is more random than progressive.
• Evidence for evolution is overwhelming in the form of
geological strata and fossil lifeforms.
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REFERENCES
• 2013/01/04/, evolution-thehumanstory
• Russell Howard Tuttle, 12Jan 2021. Human-Evolution
• Rogers Ackermann, Rebecca; Mackay, Alex; Arnold, Michael L.
October 2015, “The Hybrid Origin of "Modern"
Humans". Evolutionary Biology.
• Sockol, Michael D.; Reichen, David A.; Pontzer, Herman July 24,
2007. "Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human
bipedalism"
• Brown, Graham; Fairfax, Stephanie; Sarao, Nidhi. "Tree of Life Web
Project: Human Evolution"humanorigin.si.edu
• Begun, David R. October 2010. "Miocene Hominids and the Origins
of the African Apes and Humans". Annual Review of
Anthropologyresearchgate.com
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